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TWE EDDALE.
SS
THE JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY
OF
BENGAL.
EDITED BY
THE ACTING SECRETARIES.
VOL. Vill.
JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1839.
NEW SERIES.
“Tt will flourish, if naturalists, chemists, antiquaries, philologers, and men of science, in different
parts of Asza will commit their observations to writing, and send them to the Asiatic Society in
Calcutta ; it val See if such communications shall be long intermitted; and will die away, if
CALCUTTA:
Bishop's College Press.
1840.
‘ var
ee eae
5 Soe
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oy om
:
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ae
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A
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Contents,
No. 80.—JANUARY.
_6
EF TI
Page.
Prefatory Notice, weee soce aelete siecle cee cose s\eie'n i
I.—A Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language. By Lieut. Leach, .... !
II.—Sisupala Badha, or death of Sisupala by Magha. Translated, with Anno-
tations, by J.C. ©. Sutherland, Esq. .. = na0- weno eve 16
I1I.—On the Distribution of European Birds. By W. Jameson, Esq., onl
Medical Service, .... Sone si vie Breil alexa <mael
IV.—On a new Genus of the Pissiroabrall Tribe. By B. H. i diaitale Esq., Ou
mandu (with plate), .. ons Soo. arem)> sisiale
V.—Two new species of Meruline Birds. By B. H. Hodgson, Bea. “ (Ge areal
(weth plate), sivicie Sepie cece es rin ates 37
VI.—On the Egyptian system of Actibcjal Hatching. By Don Sinbaldp Demae
(with plate), atelete Shoe eietele iejera leila acre epeléie oO
_ VII.—Dr. Burke’s Report on the Value of Life among the Officers and Men in
H. Majesty’s troops in India, eniie cece sees Bee inom 48
VIII.—Observations on the Burmese and Munipoor Varnish Tree. By N.
Wallich, Esq. M.D. (with plate), .... ape S640 aa oe ee 70)
IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, .... siete onic eae insert ee
X.—Meteorological Register, .... S00 iota eels Ses piebope 00
No. 86.—FEBRUARY.
I.—Report on the Settlement of the ceded District of Azimgurh, commonly
called Chuklah Azimgurh. By J. Thomason, Esq. SEG a7
Il.—Mr. Hodgson on Cuculus. .... wae é Jee 130 7
II1.—Report on the Coal and Iron Mines of Titcheer and Whoo Ge, ice By
Mr. M. Kittoe, ore Sees reise eee Sue alate esos Lol
IV-—Objects of Research in Affghanistan. By Professor Lassen, .. . eeete) 145
V.—On the detection of Arsenical Poisons, &c. &e. By W. B. O’Shaughnessy,
Esq. M.D. cone : 990 eerere cee Seite eisiele > 147
IV.—Proceedings of the fini Soniety, sees ceee wees eees 130
VII.—Meteorological Register, .... cece calely eee oeee eee. | BOS
No. 87.—MARCH.
I.—Notice of an Inscription on a Slab discovered in February, 1838, by Capt.
T. S. Burt, Bengal Engineers, in Bundelkhund, near Chhatarpur, soohy WE)
II.—Account of a J ourney to Beylah, and Memoir on the Province of Lus. By
Lieut. Carloss, Indian Navy, .. «- aeicle alelere Saes eit Ke!
III.—On three new species of Musk (Moschus) inhabiting the Himalayan dis-
tricts. By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. .... Sore ae ns price eae
IV.—On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch., a species which is very common
in the Estuaries of the Ganges. By J. M’ Clelland: Assistant Surgeon, (with
tar aires eiiatele sen oisilm ahs feiolcl a Gein ohl, | piye ein, isis: wees SOP
yar
iv Contents.
Asistant Surgeon, formerly Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society.
Page.
V.—Journal of the Mission which visited Bootan, in 1837-38, under Captain R.
Boileau Pemberton. By W. Griffith, Esq., Madras Medical Establishment,
(with map,) ws... «eve seus ister eoee Seb eeu 208
V1I.—Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By Dr. Wm. Jenapaoes -. 241
VII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, cece sees sees cree 240
VIII.—Meteorological Register, .. braids cece seee sees sees 200
No. 88.—APRIL.
I.—Journal of the Mission which visited Bootan, in 1837-38, under Captain
R. Boileau Pemberton. By W. Griffith, ae Madras Medical Establish-
ment. (concluded) .. “fe ar ae . Bt saisee ok
{I.—Account of Tamba Patra Plates dug if at Baroda: in Gaigeane with
Facsimile and Translation. .. d Ce ee se deguelh taeue
III,—Collection of Facts which may he useful for the doniproheveaby of Alex-
ander the Great’s exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus (with map.) 304
IV.—Remarks upon the Rain and Drought of the last Eight Seasons in India.
By the Rev. R. Everest, Landour. .. «ave ,olo
V.—Statistical Record of the duration of Agence in 13, 019 fatal cases in Hin-
doos.—Extraordinary mortality among Lying-in Women—Compiled by Dr.
Duncan Stewart, Superintendent General of Vaccination. .. thy Jeane ORG
VI.—Summary description of four new species of Otter. By B. H. Hodéean! Esq.
Resident at Catamandu, Nepal. : sees! OlO
VII.—On the Geographic Distribution of the Mulpatige, Maleduiles ‘aah Stri-
gid ; being the first of a series of memoirs intended to illustrate the Geogra-
phic Distribution of the Ornithological Kingdom. By Wm. Jameson, Esq.,
Assistant Surgeon Bengal Medical Service, &c. ‘ icrge a
VITI.—On the use of Wells, &c. in Foundations; as practiced he die natives
of the Northern Doab. By Capt. ns sctitiie of the Doab
Canal. a ie : oe ever 327
IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatte Society. ve Ae oe coos J4l
X.—Meteorological Register, 40 se Ar “is on > .oees;, OF0
No. 89.—MAY.
I.—Notice of Inscriptions in Behar, communicated by Mr. Ravenshaw. veoe 347
II.—The ‘ Mahimnastava,’’ or a Hymn to Shiva; with an English transla-
tion. By the Rev. Krishna Mohana Banerji..... aeicie cece cose SOO
III.—Account of a Journey from Calcutta via Cuttack and Pooree to Sum-
bulptir, and from thence to Medniptr through the Forests of Orissa. By
Lieut. M. Kittoe. (continued) .... esas eoee eee esos S00
I1V.—Proposed publication of Plates of Hindu Architectural Remains. ieee oot
V.—Papers relative to the New Coal Field of Tenasserim. Gets Bese SoCo
VI.—Memoir on the Regeneration and. actual state of Medicine in Egypt—
Translated from the Italian of J. E. Mino, Doctor in Philosophy, Medi-
cine, and Surgery. Leghorn, 1838. .... cece wees 393
VII.—Note on the dissection of the Arctonix Collars or Sand Hod: By
George Evans, Esq. late Curator to the Asiatic Society. eoee oeee 408
VIII.—On the Cultivation of Roses and the Manufacture of Rose-Water and
Uttur at Ghazeepore. .... SAS haber occ PP beta nota se!
. 1X.—Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. py Dr. M’Clelland. 415
» X.—Observations on the ‘‘ Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society, by Dr.
Wm. Jameson,”’ published in the Journal for March, 1839. By J. T. Pearson, é
4]
Contents. Vv
Page.
XI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society for May, .... sees cece wees 429
XII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society for June, .. cece secs eoee 432
XIII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society for July, .. < Seis cee eoee 433
XIV.—Meteorological Register for ey eave wees eleisje seee coee 442
XV.—Ditto ditto for June, alae le serie Biersie alelaie wees 644
XVI.—Ditto ditto for July, sabe miele Sains piaele ae coos 444
No. 90.—JUNE.
1.—Extracts from the Narrative of an expedition into the Naga territory of As-
sam. By E. R. Grange, Esq. Sub-Assistant to the Commissioner, Assam,.. 449
II.—Report by Lieut. John Glasfurd, Executive Engineer, Kumaon division,
on the progress made up to the Ist May, 1839, in opening the experimental
Copper Mine in Kumaon, Ss erelera S5te eisvale apes aliens NEAL
III.—Account of a Journey from Calcutta via Cuttack and Pooree to Sumbul-
pur, and from thence to Medniptr through the Forests of Orissa. By
Lieut. M. Kittoe. (continued ) aieels Slater iets siete coon 474
IV.—Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper, found at re in the Saugor
Territory, 3 ar at sone. 481
V.—Mr. Middleton on ne Meteors of cane 10th, "1839. oe sees 49D
VI.—Note to the Editors on the Native mode of preparing the AO shuned Oils of
Jasmine and Bela. By Dr. Jackson, Ghazeepore. .. ie cece. 496
- VII.—Report on the Manufacture of Tea, and on the extent nes produce of the
Tea Plantations in Assam. By C. A. Bruce, Esq., Superintendent of Tea
Culture. 50 : es Hs Ae ge cous 497
VIII.—Proceedings of tie Asatte Societe sh aE He 25 esos 026
No. 91.—JULY.
I.—Specimen of the Burmese Drama, translated by J. Smith, Esq., communi-
cated by C. A. Blundell, Esq., Commissioner, &c., Moulmein..... shieiod
I1.—On the Bora Chung, or the Ground Fish of Bootan. By J. T. Pearson,
Esq. atavers Ae Betois Seles Bialele ‘Siete Vi OOL
Ifl.—Extracts from official srenoraa with demmuptins Hetails regarding the New
Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad—erected by Colonel D. M‘Leod, Chief
Engineer of Bengal. Pace cece case cece cece wees OZ
IV.—Researches on the Gale and Hurricane in the Bay of Bengal on the 3rd,
4th, and 5th of June, 1839; being a First Memoir with reference to the
Theory of the Law of Storms in India. By Henry Piddington, Esq. .... 909
V.—Note on the ‘‘ Trochilus and Crocodile’’ of Herodotus. By W. C. Pn
Esq. stasis < < sk 4 090)
VI.—Documents inte is the aipliea ion of Camel Draught A Causes:
communicated by C. B. Greenlaw, Esq., Secretary to the Bengal Steam
Committee. te pia aalee esee eee merle ce is)!
VIl.—Acconnt of a Journey from Calcutta via Gite and Pooree to Sambal
pur, and from thence to Medniptir through the Forests of Orissa. By
Lieut. M. Kittoe. (continued ) soins Brees Sees niciere Meets VOUG
VIII.—Meteorological Register, .. cscs nese cece cose eoee 621
No. 92.—AUGUST.
I.—Note on the Mechis, together with a small Vocabulary of the Language. |
By A. Campbell, Esq. Assistant to the Resident at aoe in He aie of
Darjeeling.) .s... ies os oe oe Blears) O20
Vi Contents.
Page.
II.—Researches on the Gale and Hurricane in the Bay of Bengal on the 3rd,
4th, and 5th of June, 1839; with reference to the Theory of the Law of
Storms in India. By Henry Piddington, Esq. once
IlI.—Extracts from Mr. M‘Clelland’s paper on Indian Binatinidins As. Res.
Vol. XIX. Part II. oF ae - = eee
IV.—Account of a Journey from Calcutta via Cattsck and Pooree to Sumbul-
pur, and from thence to Medniptir through the Forests of Orissa. By
Lieut. M. Kittoe. (continued) 585 bs ai siels omits saree
V.—Note on a pillar found in the Ganges near Pate and of another at Kurra,
near Allahabad. By Lieut. M. Kittoe. a Seni
-VI.—Note by Messrs. Jessop & Co. of Calcutta, on the srpetiiie of the Iron Ore
of the district of Burdwan. ee eves
VII.—Note on the habits of the Coel, and on the Sicoeem of lsiualers By
Major Davidson. oe Behe
VIII.—Note on the Scapes of Kinnbivombdea and Basal ae of Lapidodenira
By Lieut. N. Vicary. : ve oe . . cece
IX.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Bucci: st =- “ owe
X.—Meteorological Register, .. ee ee oe ele eeee
No. 93.—SEPTEMBER.
I.—Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab removed from above the Kothoutiya gate of
the Fort Rohtas. By the Editors. a ah ts ieee
II.—On Camel Litters for the Wounded. By H. Piddington, Esq. os sece
III.—Note by Dr. Kean of Moorshedabad, on Dr. Stewart’s Table of Mortality
among Hindu Females. .. aa cece
IV.—On fifteen varieties of Fossil Shells ines in avictia! Srieas and “Nerbudda
territories. By George G. Spilsbury, Esq. Surgeon, &c. .. 5 piste
V.—Note on the River Goomtee, with a section of its bed. By V. Tribeca Esq.
Jounpore. .. oe 5 ws oe oe owe’
VI.—Memoranda relative to ex thinieits on the sisi athntcon of tT teacawh
Signals by induced Electricity. By W. B. O’Shaughnessy, Esq. M.D. As-
sistant Surgeon ; Professor of Chemistry, Medical College, Calcutta ; and
Officiating Joint-Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. we eee
VII.—Extract from a Memoir on the Preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gun-
jah, (Cannabis Indica) their effects on the Animal system in Health, and
their utility in the Treatment of Tetanus and other Convulsive Diseases. By
W. B. O’Shaughnessy, Esq. M.D. Professor in the Medical College of Cal-
cutta, &e. &e. *.. ie eis
VIII.— Memoir on the Climate, Soil, eyuce wa Hegende of Atehaniaiaad
and the Neighbouring Countries. By Lieut. Irwin. at a wets
1X.—Meteorological Register, Se 6 - aie an as cece
No. 94.—OCTOBER.
I.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of Afghanistan and
the Neighbouring Countries. By Lieut. Irwin, (continued) .... alee
II.—March between Mhow and Saugor, 1839. see eatate 0 balsa releiera
If].—On an Aerolite presented to the Society. wees ace eoee
IV.—Extracts from the Mohit (the Ocean, ) a Turkish work on Navigation in the
Indian Seas. Translated and communicated by Joseph Von Hammer,
Baron Purgestall, Aulic Counsellor, and Professor of Oriental Languages at.
Vienna, &c. &c. Sisters aretaie Been aside Pyonce one e Pareles
631
690
671
681
683
684°
689
687
692
693
702
704
708
712
714
732
745
777
779
805
822
823
Contents. Vil
Page.
V.—Description of an Astronomical Instrument presented by Rajah Ram Sing,
of Khota, to the Government of India. By J. J. Middleton, Esq. of the
Hindoo College, Calcutta. sale seee woes seine See) coll
VI.—Extract from a Memoir on the nites ies of the Indian Hemp, or Gun-
jah, (Cannabis Indica) their effects on the Animal system in Health, and
their utility in the Treatment of Tetanus and other Convulsive Diseases.
By W. B. O’Shaughnessy, Esq. M.D. Professor in the Medical College
of Calcutta, &c. &c. (concluded) ....- soos cece Soee suse GOO
VII.—Memorandum on the Explosion of Gunpowder under Water by the
Galvanic Battery; with a notice of the successful destruction of the ‘‘ Equi-
table’ at Fultah Reach. By W. B. O’ ug atk aE M.D. Assistant
Surgeon, &c. &c. .... Hor arly SAE wedi, COL
VIII.—Proceedings of the eee pees S60 esse aia e A Oe)
Notices, .... aiviets ate brapete Silos dieiee Aone dee GOO
1X.—Meteorological Register, .... aie ealars cece wcee eae) (SOF
No. 99.—NOVEMBER.
I.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of Afghanistan and
the Neighbouring Countries. By Lieut. Irwin, (continued) .... Sarefai SOO
II.—Journal of a trip through Kunawur, Hungrung, and Spiti, undertaken in
the year 1838, under the patronage of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, for the
purpose of determining the geological formation of those districts.—By
Lieut. Thomas Hutton, 37th Regt. N.I., Assistant Surveyor to the Agra
Division. aisle iit loreray tN slate : Sacre SEP Slit staan cole
III.—Notes on various Fossil Sites on the Nurindde. ; illustrated by specimens
and drawings. aa ole ole : mise ctelste ece eee cau
1V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Suckers sen nelle
V.—Meteorological Register, ....
sles cece Aiclets Oo
eeo8 eees @een eevee e@eee 971
No. 96.—DECEMBER.
I.—Third Report on Tenasserim—the surrounding Nations,—Inhabitants, Na-
tives and Foreigners—Character, Morals and Religion.—By John William
Helfer, M.D. Levers A Mates ies sais S505 Nose | 083
11.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of Afghanistan and
the Neighbouring Countries. By Lieut. Irwin, (continued) .... wees 1005
{11.—Journal of a Mission from the Supreme Government of India to the Court
of Siam, ee eeeo e2eeoo eeee e@eae @eo e@eaeo @oaee@ 1016
IV.—Remarks on the Geology, &c. of the country extending between Bhar and
Simla. eeo00 e200 @es0 eee08 eo0ee e008 e@oce08 @eec0 1037
V.—Note on the process of washing for the gold dust and diamonds at Heera
Khoond. By J. R. Ouseley, Esq. .... eoee cece aeive eeee 1057
V1.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society, cievaiel| > i sila cscs ever 1009
VII.—Meteorological Register, .... cece esee 6op sees eooe 1069
é
} Pu ,
FLL bert eee
PREFATORY NOTICE.
The acting Secretaries have this day the honour to
submit to the Asiatic Society, and to the Subscribers
to the Journal so long connected with that Institution,
the first number of a new series.
On the sudden departure of the late inestimable
Secretary, Mr. James Prinsep, much difficulty arose
as to the continuation of the Journal, he so long and
so admirably managed. While no member of our
Society could lay claim to Mr. Prinsep’s universality of
attainments, or presume to enter, without self-distrust,
on even a portion of his pursuits, almost all were
already over-burthened by official or professional du-
ties. Some were deterred, moreover, by the consi-
derable pecuniary risk which the management of the
Journal involved. Under such circumstances it was
arranged that the Rev. Professor Ma.an, of Bishop’s
College, in association with Dr. O‘SHAUGHNEssy,
should continue the Journal at the risk of the latter.
But this plan was defeated in imine by the illness of
Mr. Malan, and the necessity of his proceeding to the
Cape.
Mr. J. C. C. SurHERLAND having been appointed to
act as Joint-Secretary with Dr. O‘Shaughnessy, during
Mr. Malan’s absence, has consented, however, to under-
i
take the management of the part of the Journal de-
voted to Oriental literature and antiquities. On his col-
league will devolve the supervision and arrangement
of matters relative to Natural History and General
Science. The Editors propose no alteration in the
plan of the work. It will be their constant aim to
imitate Mr. Prinsep in the discharge of their editorial
duties. It will be their indescribable pride, should
they succeed in sustaining the high rank to which he
elevated his Journal among the most distinguished
periodicals of the day.
But the Editors have no desire to’ conceal their
apprehensions of the possible failure of' this attempt.
Both may without affectation describe themselves as
men having a full share of responsible occupation.
The hours of a scanty leisure are all they can assign _
to this new care, nor have they in themselves the in-
exhaustible resources which enabled Mr. Prinsep to
fill up so perfectly, whatever deficiency any depart-
ment of the Journal might experience. Thus circum-
stanced, they would fain call on the Members of the
Asiatic Society, for the good name of that respected
body, as well as for the public utility, to exert them-
selves to support, nay to preserve, this Journal. Such
exertion will be the best token of respect and gratitude
to Mr. Prinsep—a feeling in itself enough to induce all
to contribute their contingents, however trifling, in
furtherance of the pursuits, which under the constant
patronage of the Asiatic Society, he cultivated with
such extraordinary success.
The Editors have pleasure in stating, that in the
important departments of Oriental Geography, Modern
lil
Dialects, Statistics, and Natural History, they are
already amply supplied with most valuable materials.
To Colonel Stacy and his gallant companions with the
Army of the Indus, they look with confidence for
numerous contributions in the History and Numis-
matology of the interesting countries on the route of
the Candahar expedition. In fine, the Editors enter-
tain sanguine hopes of, still preserving the “ Journal”
for the Society, and the Public, provided the old con-
tributors participate in some degree in their anxiety to
accomplish this object. Asa claim on the co-operation
of those who have hitherto been so instrumental in
maintaining the character of this Periodical, the res-
ponsible Editor assures the Subscribers that any pecu-
niary returns which may exceed the expenses, will be
devoted to increasing its bulk, improving its quality,
and adding to the number of its illustrations. The
Work is thus the property and benefit of a “ Joint Stock
Company,” of which the Editors are but the honorary,
though anxious servants.
*, Contributors are deemed entitled to 50 copies of their papers,
which will be forwarded, bearing postage, by letter or banghy dak
wherever they direct. Copies of the Journal are dispatched by each
Overland Mail to the leading Periodicals in Europe and America.
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCTETY.
No. 85.—JANUARY, 1839.
Art. 1—A Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language. By
Lisot. R. Leacu, Bombay Engineers, Assistant on a Mission.
To the Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
Political Dept.
Sir,—I am directed by the Honorable the President in Council to
forward to you the accompanying Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghan
Language, compiled by Lieutenant Leach, for such notice as the So-
ciety may deem it to merit.
2. Iam further directed to request that the Grammar in question
may be returned when no longer required.
I have the honor to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
H. T. PRINSEP,
Secy. to the Govt. of India.
Fort William, 20th Feb. 1889.
This language is called Afghanee or Avghanee by Persians and
other foreigners, and Pashtoo, Pukhtoo, and Pastoo, severally, by the
Afghans of Candhar, Peshawar, Teerai, and by the Afreedees, Khy-
beerees, &c. Ke.
The language is decidedly of Sanscrit complexion, from the fre-
quent occurrence of the @ 7h and @ kgh ; indeed these two letters
with the Devnagary ‘S compose the peculiarity of the language.
B
2 Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghdnee Language. [Jan.
The difference between the Peshawar and Candhar dialect is, that
in the former the Persian @ is used, when in the latter the Sanscrit
W occurs.
The Candharee is reckoned the purest dialect ; and when correctly
spoken, resembles in the plaintiveness of its tones the peculiar dialect |
of Ireland.
The Alphabet is as follows.
Afghanee. Devna- English.
gary.
j 3 a
— q b
ee eee p
‘all a t
cy th
tis z. t
goa ST j
Ge eee a | ch
c h
é kh
E
3 @
3
te g
J <
2, S
y)
3
Ue qq.
U*. q
Ure oF I
Lye ee
ue ef
b
aoe gers aa aka
Pronunciation,
as the second a in parable,
as the English,
Ditto, ditto,
as the Continental 4
as ¢h in things,
as the English @,
as the English 7,
as the English,
as the aspirated h,
as ch in the Scotch loch,
the Afghan z used for coupling,
the Continental d,
as th in those
the harsh English d,
the English 7,
the peculiar Maratha d,
the English z,
the French 7 in jour,
the English s,
the English sh,
unknown in English,
the Arabic dwad,
the Arabic dzwad,
the Arabic ¢,
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language. 3
The Alphabet ( Continued.)
Afghanee. Devna- English. Pronunciation.
Gary.
b Z .» the Arabic 2,
& 7X... the Arabic mark for guttural vowels,
é ; gh . the Persian guttural,
es Ui f . the English 7,
3 . K__... the harsh English 4,
wl @ ... xk... the English £,
rex4 Hos. |... the English’g,
a a a . the English J,
° a - M ... the English m,
w up < ir Al . the English x,
3 ic me Ww . the English », or v,
3 ane h_,.. the English A,
me c= Fucus y ... the English y,
i 7 Ree keh ... the Sanscrit.
The same story is told of the Afghan language, that the Mah-
rattas tell of the Canarese, viz., That_a certain king sent his vizier
to collect all the vocabularies and dialects of the earth; on the
vizier’s return he proceeded to quote specimens before his royal
Master: when he came to speak of the Afghanee dialect, he stopped,
and producing a tin pot containing a stone, began to -rattle it.
The king in surprise asked the meaning of this proceeding. The
vizier said that he had failed to get a knowledge of the Afghanee
language, and could only describe it by rattling a stone in a tin pot.
It is also said, that Mahammad, the Arabian prophet, gave it as his
opinion that the Afghanee was to be the language of the infernal
regions, as Arabic was to be that of heaven.
In the comparison of languages, in which Arabic is called science,
(ilm) ; Turkish accomplishment, (hunar); Persian sugar; Hindus-
tanee salt ; the Afghan is complimented with the appellation of the
‘“braying of an ass.”
4 Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language. [Jawn.
An Afghan is immediately discovered by another by the correct-
ness with which he distinguishes between a masculine and feminine
noun. ;
we,
Declension of a Noun Masculine.
Singular. Plural.
Nominative ds, a horse asan, horses
Genitive da ds, of a horse da asano, of horses
Accusative &
Dative ....
‘Ablative la ds, from a horse la asanoo, from horses
as ta, a horse asanoo ta, horses
Decilension of a Noun Feminine, ending in a Vowel.
Singular. Plural.
Nominative aspa, a mare aspe, mares
Genitive da aspa, ofa mare da aspo, of mares
Accusative &
Dative... aspeta, a Mare aspota, mares
Ablative la aspe, from a mare la aspo, from mares
Examples of forming the Feminine from the Masculine Noun.
Masculine. Feminine.
spe, dog spai, a bitch
Khar, a donkey khara, a she-ass
buz, a he-goat buza, a she-goat
gid, a fat-tailed ram gida, a female sheep
orara, nephew orera, niece
tara, uncle tarala, aunt
Declension of a Compound Noun.
Singular. Plural.
Nominative gha sadai, a good man gha sadee, good men
Genitive dagha sade, ofa good man daghasadee, of good men
Acc. & Dat. gha sade ta, a good man gha sadota, good men
Ablative la ghasade,fromagood man la ghasadee, from good men
Declension of the 1st Personal Pronoun.
Nom. Za, I muj, we
Gen. zma, mine. zmuj, ours
Ace. & Dat. mala, me. mujla, us
Abl. lama, from me. la muj, from us
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language. 5
Declension of the 2nd Personal Pronoun.
Sengular. Plural.
Nom. ta, thou taso, ye
Gen. : sta, thy istaso, yours
Acc. & Dat. tala, thee tasola, you
Abl. la ta, from thee la taso, from you
Declension of the 3d Personal Pronoun—proximaie.
Nom. dagha, this dagho, these
Gen. dade, these da deev, of these
Ace. & Dat. dela, this deevla, these
Abl. . lade, from this la deev, from these
Declension of the 3rd Personal Pronoun—remote.
Nom. hagha, that hagho, _ those
Gen. dahagha, of that da hagho, of those
Acc. & Dat. hagha ta, that hagho ta, those
Abl. la hagha, from that la hagho, from those
Declension of the Reflective Pronoun.
Nom. Pakhpul, I myself
Gen. Akhpul, my own
Acc. & Dat. sth) ‘sen’, Wanting
Abl. sap Mies le Nd itto
Declension of the Interrogative Pronoun—animate.
Singular.
Nom. sok, who
Gen. da cha, whose
Acc. & Dat. cha ta, who
Abl. la cha, from whom
Declension of the Interrogative Pronoun—inanimate.
Nom. sa, what
Gen. asa, of what
Ace. & Dat. sala, why
Abl. lasa, from what
OOwsw SMP wy
Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language.
you
dwa
dare
salor
pinz
shpaj
avo
atha
nah
las
you visht
do visht
dre visht
salerisht
pinzvisht
shpaj visht
ovisht
athvisht —
novisht
dergh
you salweght
doo salweght
dre salweght
salor salweght
pinz salweght
shpaj salweght
0,0 salweght
ath salweght
nah salweght
pinzast
you shpeta -
doo shpeta
dre shpeta
salor shpeta
pinz shpeta
shpaj shpeta
0,0 shpeta
ath shpeta
nah shpeta
avya
Cardinal Numbers.
1]
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
you las
dwa las
dyar las
swar las
pinz las
shpadas
olas
athlas
nolas
shil
you dergh
do dergh
dre dergh
salor dergh
pinz dergh
shpaj dergh
0,0 dergh
ath dergh
nah dergh
salweght
you pinzost
doo pinzost
dre pinzost
salor pinzost
pinz pinzost
shpaj pinzost
0,0 pinzost
ath pinzost
nah pinzost
shpeta
you avya
doo avya
dre avya
salor avya
pinz avya
shpaj avya
0,0 avya
ath avya
nah avya
atya
‘(Jan.
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language.
81 you atya 91 you nawee
82 doo atya 92 doo nawee
83 dre atya 93 dre nawee
84 salor atya 94 salor nawee
85 pinz atya 95 pinz nawee
86 shpaj atya 96 shpaj nawee
87 oowa atya 97 oova nawee
88 ath atya 98 ath nawee
89 nah atya 99 nah nawee
90 nawee 100 sil
1000zil 1,00,000 lakh
kror 1,00,00,000
Ordinal Numbers.
Ist yawam 6th shpajam
2nd doowam 7th owam
ord dreyam Sth atham
Ath salaram 9th naham
5th pinzam 10th lasam, &e.
Conjugation of the Auxiliary Verb (masculine. )
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
Ist Person, zaiyam, I am muj yoo, we are
2nd taiye, thou art taseyast, you are
ord hagha, dai, he is haghadee, they are
Perfect Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
Ist Person, zawum, I was muj Woo, we were
2nd_ do ta we, thou wast tasi wast, you were
3rd do hagha woo, he was hagha woo, they were
Imperfect Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
ist Person, za kedam, I was being muj kedoo,
2nd do takede tasi kedast,
ord do haga keda hagha keda,
Pluperfect Past Tense—Hanp BEEN.
Ist Person za sawai wam mu] siwee woo
2nd do ta suwal wee tasi siwee wast
3rd do hagha sawai woo hagha siwee woo
~~
8 Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language. [Jan.
Future Tense—~SHALL BE.
Ist Person, zakeajam muj keajam
2nd do ta keaja - . tasi keajai
3rd_—s do hagha keajee hagho keajee
Imperative Mood.
ta sa, be thou tasi sai, be you.
| Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.—May BE.
Ist Person, zawam muj woo
2nd do ta we tasi wast
3rd do hagha see hagho soo
The Relative Conjugation Ir ts expressed by Ka.
Perfect Past Tense.
Ist Person, za wai muj wai
2nd ta wal tasi wai
3rd hagha wai hagho wai
Infinitive Mood Kepa, “ BEING,” or “ TO BE.”
Past Participle, Sawai woo, “ BEEN.”
Conjugation of the Verb Watryit, “to speak.”
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
Ist Person, za waiyam muj, waiyoo
2nd do ta wai tasi waiya’st
3rd = do hagha wai hagho wai
The feminine gender only changes the Ist Person Singular, as a
woman says, 2a waiyama.
Perfect Past Tense.
Ist Person, ma’ waiyil muj waiyil
2nd do ta’ waiyil ta’si waiyil
3rd_ do hagha’ waiyil hagho waiyal
Imperfect Past Tense.
Ist Person, ma’ waiyil muj waiyil
2nd do ta’ waiyil ta’si waiyil
3rd do hagha’ waiyil hagho waiyil
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo or Afghanee Language.
Pluperfect Past Tense.
Ist Person, ma waiyalaiwo
Qnd do. ta wo waiyil
3rd do. haghd waiyalaiwo
Singular.
Ist Person, za bawowaiyam
2nd ditto ta bawowaiye
ord ditto ~hagha bawowai
muj waiyaleewoo
tasi waiyaleewoo
hagho waiyalai woo
Future Tense.
Plural.
muj bawowayoo
tasi bawowaiyast
hagho bawowai
Imperative Mood.
ta wawaya
tasi wowayast
Subjunctive Mood.
lst za wowayam
2nd ta wowaye
3rd hagha wowayee
Present Tense.
muj wowayoo
tasi wowayast
hagho wowayee
Perfect Past Tense.
lst ma waiyalaiwoo
2nd ta waiyalaiwoo
3rd = hagha waiyalaiwoo
muj waiyaleewoo
tasi waiyaleewoo
hagho waiyaleewoo
Adverbs, Post- and Pre- positions, Conjunctions, Se. &c.
porta, above
kghata, below
danana, in
dabandee, out
dilta, here
halta, there
de khawa, on this side
hagha khawa, on that side
doudande, before
douroosta, behind
jirr, quickly
ro ro, slowly
man rwaz, to-day
paroon, yesterday
sabha rwaz, to-morrow
ba, till
saranga, how
bul jalé, again
os, NOW
biya, afterwards
makh 4 mukA, in front
bas, enough
ham, also
ho, yes
nah, no
makava, don’t
ka, if
para, sake of
wodya, gratis
az, than
0, holla
sarra, with
10 Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language.
mudam, always
kala, when
cherta, where
rwaz, day,
shpa, night,
halak, boy,
z0e, son,
jilai, girl,
loor, daughter,
peghla, maid,
plar, father,
mor, mother,
uror, brother,
khor, sister,
oba, water,
or, fire,
dode, bread, —
ghahar, city,
kalai, hamlet,
kijde, tent woollen
kor, house
khoona, room
ghole, a yard
wanai, tree
bootai, bush
tirkh, brushwood
mar, snake
ta 00z, peacock
[Jan.
wo, and
ya, or
bela, without
wale, but
Vocabulary of Nouns.
as, horse,
aspa, mare,
osai, deer,
khar, ass,
ghatar, mule,
behan, colt,
yaboo, poney,
chirg, fowl,
chirga, hen,
kaftara, pigeon,
‘gidada, fox,
chaghal, jackal,
koj, hyena,
spai, dog,
pishee, cat,
mujak, mouse,
zirka, Greek partridge
huja, leak
gazir, carrot
malkhaze, thyme
anar, pomegranate _
hindwana, water melon
mana, apple
meda, man
ghaza, woman
mandina, female
nareena, male
vaj, bear
bizo, monkey
sarkaza, hog
bza, she-goat
waz gadai, he-goat
murghumai, kid
mej ewe
maj, ram
warg maj, fighting ram
dusherla, middling ram
psherlai, ram
wuchkulai, ram
urai, lamb
ghwa, cow
ghwayai, bull
sukiwanda calf
chughuka, sparrow
oogh, camel
ghanum, wheat
wurijjee, rice
urbushee, barley
nakhud, pulse
phascolus, maximus
pyaz, onion
tanzire, partridge
kurak, quail
thalla, sole of foot
warghawe, palm of hand
punda, heel
padkai, ancle
pandai, calf —
zangoon, knee
khwale, perspiration
pgha, leg
waroon, thigh
nas, belly
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language.
malga, salt
tel, oil
ghodee, ghee
shakar, sugar
marach, pepper
largai, wood
kuchee, butter
hagge, an egg
shide, milk
maste, curds
shalumbe, butter-milk
lastai, pestle
khat, bedstead
tiltak, coverlid
balight, pillow
nihale, bed
ospana, iron
surp, lead
mio, copper
kal, year
zyad, brass
myasht, month
sirazar, gold
speen zar, silver
tirkha, bitter
garm, hot
sod, cold
klak, hard
narm, soft ~
ae
garan, dear
arzan, cheap
spuk, light
duroond, heavy
wach, dry
noombd, wet
zulf, lock of hair
tsoonee, woman’s hair
bret, mustacheos
jeera, beard
arkh, armpit
kunatai, bullock
tatar, beast
las, hand
oja, shoulder
sha, back
ghada, neck
shund, lip
ghagh, tooth
zinne, chin
barkhoo, cheek
paza, nose
sajme, nostril
stirgha, eye
banoo, eye-lash
waridza, eye-brow
tandai, forehead
ghwaj, ear
partookh, trousers
partoogagh, breeches string
ozgar, idle
pagde, turban
khaj, sweet
turwa, sour
mukh, ‘nail
spajme, moon
store, star
wah, woo, wind
garz, dust
zona, light
tyara, darkness
angoor, grapes
oma, raw
pakha, cooked
shkar, horn
swa, hoof
changul, divided hoof
wadai, wool
pumba, cotton
. jibba, language
gAwajai, hunger
tajai, thirst
kough, shoes
1]
12 Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language.
tirkhe, armpit
kund, widow
oghke, a tear
meda, husband
ghaza, wife
daroo, gunpowder
purod, grass
ghalla, grain
speen, white
soor, red
tor, black
abee, blue
zyad, yellow
sheen, green
mahee, fish
ghwashe, meat
Imar, sun
rikeboona, stirrups
muloona, bridle
ghar, hill
seen, river
khight, brick
nikka, grandfather
wurr nikka, great grandfather
masai, grandson
(Jan.
chaplai, slippers
doond, blind
gung, dumb
koon, deaf
god, lame with both legs
rast, straight
koj, crooked
tsappa, upset
lewanai, mad
khapa, angry
ranzoor, ill
starai, tired
dard, pain
ldér, road
safar, journey
noom, name
zeen, saddle
kad wasai, great grandson
kosai, great great grandson
zoom, son-in-law
warindara, sister-in-law
orara, nephew
orera, niece
tra and aka, uncle
troree, aunt
Vocabulary of Verbs.
ratalal, to come
tlal, to go
ravdal, to bring
odal, to carry away
patakedal, to place
odaradil, to rise
porta kawil, to raise
kghenastan, to sit
akhistan, to take
wenissa, to seize
khudal, to eat
chghil, to drink
zbeghil, to suck
chichil, to bite
ghwkhan, to chew the cud
talal, to weigh
ve pemawal, to measure
pakhawal, to cook
khlas wal,
waz wal, Ls open
paranatal,
tadal, to blind
parkawal, to cut
seere kawal, to tear
matawal, to break
zghastal, to run
lwastan, to read
girzedal, to stroll
skawul, to pull
pakawal, to wipe
1839.] Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language. 13
jo owal, to chew
khandil, to laugh
jadil, to weep
wahal, to beat
jagh
kawal
skandal, to pinch
gandal, to sew
beredal, to fear
tukhedal, to cough
telawul, to push
ghakha wal, to press mityaze faints Sue
lad eghwurzawul, to spit kawal, § |
ghwul kawal, to ease one’sself dakawul, to fill [ment
leedal and katal, to see jaghawul, to play on an instru-
tishawul, to employ lirekawal, putting away
bazee kawal, to play mzaka kandan, to dig
waiyil, to speak paghal, to sow
wuruk kawal, to lose waswa, to burn
mudal, to die
purewatal, to fall
zejal, to bring forth
purawal, to borrow
por warkawal, to lend
put wal, to conceal
ghakhauwal, to bury
zij dedal, to tremble
khals wal, to loosen
garawul, to scratch
togawul, to pour
pookawul, to blow
. to call
ca 7, RE
Sentences and Dialogues. —
The Afghan Salutation—‘ Roau Bop.”
Jod e gha taze gha khushal e gha § Are you well ? quite fresh ? quite
raghale ? happy ? welcome ?
Answer. Jha wose pa khair wose f Ao Stee be well. May all be
makhwar reje. , right with you. May you ne-
ver be badly off.
Sta noom sa de ? What is your name?
Ta soke ? Who are you?
Kum yanye? Who is there ? ‘
Tasi chare zai Where are you going ?
Tasi la kum zae raghaliyast Whence come you?
Dwa myésht me sooeedee chi la@ It is two months since I came
Candhara raghale yam from Candahar.
Da lar da Shikarpoor de? | Is this the road to Shikarpoor ?
Za khabar neyam pakhpula mu- \ I don’t know, I am myself a tra-
sapar yam
Lar waghaiya
Tsa khabré la Badshah Avaradi-
leeyast ?
veller.
Shew the road.
Have you heard any news of the
king ?
14 Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghénee Language. [ JAN.
Wai ee chi Shikarpoor ta wara| They say he has arrived at Shi-
seda. karpoor.
Da Hinduwdno pa kaghaz kghe
da Hardt da babata tsa apne
lawoo?
| What was the news from Herat
f in the Hindoo’s letter ?
Kshilawoo da kajar tag oda Kam- — 2 ree os he: = ersians
ran chapdw pa Farrah bande Seeeee es, BA at Kamran
oda MahammiadSiddeck"Klen had made a descent on Farrah,
Aaa hie dial and taken away Mahammed
: Sideek Khan prisoner.
So rwaze soo,ee dee chi Kasid la) How many days is it since a Cos-
Loodiane raghale de ? sid arrived from Loodiana ?
Kaza durwagh zam na gham pinz
rwaze soo i dee \ If I remember right it is five days.
Wale jar ra naghale? Why have you not come quickly ?
Ma psheen spareshan SI will go out riding by afternoon
\L prayers.
Za be khartsa yum muwajam me|I have no money, will you give
raka? me my pay ?
Madar woka chi da hinde mudda Mat till the bill of exchange be
poorda see
Dode zma da_ para ae chi | aii ets dinner for me, as I am
wujee yum chi wakfuram s hungry and have an appetite.
Tsa bara sta zoe zma deedan lara | What’s the reason your son does
ranaghai ? not come to see me ?
Sa lara da kar na kave? Why don’t you do that ?
Tasta sawe ? What is become of you ?
kameesa pa tso mazdooree ba will you take for making six
jod ke P shirts ?
Da ghar moom laree ka na laree Has this mountain a name or not?
Ka za spansee darkam dé int I give you ready money, what
Sardardn da Candahar chi dee pa )The Sardars of Candahar when
wakht da mukadame chi da they want to get money from
cha tsakha tsa ghwadee akApul any one in time of need, are in
da ourate psol wa hagha sadee the habit of pawning their wives
ta giroje kghee dee jewels
AkhApul maindina biya wo poo- ) They instruct their wives to get
hawee chi bya pa fand tara da- the jewels out of pawn by a
khpul psol bidta zeenee ravda § contrivance of their own.
Pa Candahar ki jha 4s tsa keenruet {| What is the price of a good horse
laree P- in Candahar ?
Gha 4s pa salor souwa pa ldésrazee A good horse can be got for 400 Rs.
Derawat tso zara rupo, ee mdlyd \ What is the revenue of Derawat
laree in thousands ?
Dergh zara rupo,ee malya laree It is a revenue of 30,000 Rs.
1839.] Grammar of the Pushtoo, or Afghanee Language. LS
Shah Shuja chi raghalai woo ae When Shah Shuja appeared, all
daran tola raza woo chi ghar theSardars were content to give
warkee baghair la you Sardér} up the city except Kohn Dil
Kohn Dil Khanchi waigil chi| Khan, who said, my head with
zma sar daio da Kala Kungre} these parapets.
Tasi arvedalai dai chida Maham-} Have you heard the uncle. of
mad Shah aké Shikarpoor lare > Mahammad Shdéh has arrived
raghalai dai? in Shikarpoor ?
ra) a
Specimen of Afghan verse from Abdul Rahman.
Har matloob chighwaje ta, gp When the musician turns the
da rabab serew of the Rebeck
Pada tauk jhee zma zada semen “oe each turn that is made my
kabab heart is burnt.
Chi saiye panagima pa peiiadinas When I pay attention to the tune
um and the tone
Dewana sham grewantsiree most | I get mad, and tear my clothes
okhrab frantic and lost.
Hame tar hame guftar hose as ar- \ The strings and burthen of the
ka song so distress me
Chi hetsok na takat lareenatab That none could bearit orendure it.
Let there be music first, then the
theme of absence,
Third, let a poet recite his good
Youve saz, bulawdze da belto ;
Dream shaar paraghaz ka intikhah
5 verses,
. ee i Sa Fourth, let a cupbearer be near
Che mak/ na mahtab li dilaivee Who has never been looked on by
na aftab : sun or moon—
Da talor wada fitne dee pa tslor? These four are four traitors in
kunja four corners—
O pinzame surdeedai da mai nab) And the fifth bea bottle of the
spajame wakt da noubahar o da best wine, and the sixth the time
zawanee of the new spring and youth,
Ou owam shughal da bayazoda) And the seventh reading of al-
kitab § bums and books.
Chida hoomree 4fatoona sara tol t If all these wonders be collected
shee | together
Turo tsok saranga zeenee kande) Who can deliver himself from
ijtanab them ;
Chida hasee dilbardn par as ar-) He who is not affected by any of
naka these rarities
_ Yaba devee yd deewaz dai yédaw 1 Must be either more than human,
ab a wall or a beast.
a
16 Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Afghanee Language. (Jan.
Da tsargand bashee parhez da par-\ Here the abstinence of abstainers
hez ga f will be discovered
Kakadar shee pa spahade pa shrab biti ay he he aoe
Za Rahman lareeyé zohda pana) May God defend Rahman from
ghwadam hypocrisy ;
Dareeyd zohad 4z4b de hamitab § Hypocrisy is trouble and reproach.
(True Copy)
H. Torrens, (Signed) R. Lracu.
Depy. Secy. to the Govt. of India.
With the Govr. Gent.
Argt. II.—Sisupa’ta Bap’ua, or death of Sisupa'ta by Ma’Gua.
Translated, with Annotations, by J. C. C. SuTHERLAND, Esq.
——<—$<$<—$_ 0 ————
Book 1.—The conference between KrisHna and Na’rapa.
Salutation to the fortunate GANEsa !
faaafa Rafrafeqaasaatfearareaee aegis |
qeeee MATA gcMqangysata ete: XII
1. Hari, husband of Sri, dwelling in the fortunate abode of
VasupeEva, to reform the world, though himself the abode of worlds,
saw descending from the sky, the sage, who sprang from a portion of
the being, that was conceived in the golden mundane egg.
fearqatenifaancifearnc fancy: fara: |
~ c ‘ 6.45
LA hss Binh te AUN E UC disap chun SICH
beds” °
qaeaaearaaitcacag: aaa frecranaa aaa: RII
2. Is this the Sun itself parted into two orbs? Is it fire shining
with light divested of smoke? The motion of the luminary whose
-eharioteer has no legs is curvilinear. The ascent of flame is a well
known property of fire. What is this, which descends diffusing light
around ? Thus was the sage contemplated by wonder by the people.
1839.] . Conference between Krishna and Narada. 17
qafeanifaeaaraifcagcraa woo fataartaareagea
frafararradqariatrmaredarcecraai raz: ait
3. The sagacious hero gradually recognized him. First, he remarked
a mass of light; then, perceived an organic shape ; next, discerned the
human form ; and, lastly, knew him to be Na’rapa.
AMAR AZ CA TA AAT ATL YS HACIA TTS
ququidaaaisegaaarene raafaedaeraT ie!
4. Who, gray like a heap of levigated camphor, clearly resem-
bled for a moment (whilst close under vast fresh clouds,) SamBuu
whitened with ashes, and clad in the skin of a mighty elephant
thrown over [his shoulder ].
eMAAAT TAA ATS ACTS TOTO aT: |
farafayrafeaeretrereeretegaadaahireg yi
5. Who, shining like the Moon in the sultry season, and wearing
braided locks, yellow as cream, and splendid like the filaments of the
lotus, resembled the king of mountains covered with multitudes of
twining plants that thrive in the region of snow.
fragaishqaasgarsfiamaamnisaasara ie
. qquqarafaarceacifasraan fefraeTeas leit
6. Who, brilliantly white, girt with a yellow cord made of hya-
cinthoid alectris, and clad in the skin of a black antelope, shining like
antimony, mocked the person of the hero, conspicuous by his black
apparel, fastened to a golden cord,
A At
faeyqusnyesfcaadhecenaray ceateaaed (a
2 oN @ . =. e A
| Rad hermayqeraagarateat {ate 191
7. Who, white as snow, and wearing for a scarf a string made of
the fibres of climbing plants, gathered from the golden soil, and long
like the down on the body of the king of birds, resembled a cloud
_ streaked with flashes of lightning, in the season in which clouds be-
come unfrequent.
D
18 Conference between Krishna and Narada. [ Jan.
3
frerfaaissrarqenrr eure eae faa geryat |
5 q ~ e
THA ACA TANT RAAA eZ AIeFATSA IE
8. Who, seemed the king of elephants that bears InpRa, ornament-
ed with trappings made of the beautiful skin of a spotted deer, covered
with hair, delicate, glossy, and naturally variegated, decorating a body
white like the slips of the stalk of a lotus.
THAT ATT TTA TUT A SIT AS TAM AAT
qemare cay ftargarranrara eee SATA TAT 1
9. Who held a rosary of clear crystal beads, but seemingly half
filled with coral beads, in front being divided by the rays, emitted
from the nail of his thumb, reddened by the strings of his lute con-
tinually struck by him.
A AN
Caf scars Foes aes g AACS SAT:
eqLMAg AAR Ta VSATAA TATA SAT SAS Nl
10. Who looked again and again at his lute surnamed “ the large,”
wherein the rising and descending melodies of various octaves be-
came distinct, by musical notes, which consist of different sets of
measured sonorous lengths, and which were separately sounded by
the impulse of the breeze.
eR CIT CE Gi RiGnicClCrCRICICICCUISG?
WHA SOU ASAT AS VLA SIATTTA TAT: UII
1]. That Treasure of Knowledge, which is possessed by such as
have subdued their passions, dismissing the inhabitants of the sky,
who followed him with humble salutations, alighted at the house of
him who is armed with a discus, and has stript demons of their
conquests, an abode elegant like the palace of InpRa.
MATA HATA TE CoAT HY FTAA |
farteaferatfraatag esas ATMS TASS ETT: NURI
12. The devout saint, an image of the descending Sun, was not yet —
standing before the immortal hero, when he hastily rose from his
lofty throne, like a thunder-cloud from a mountain.
1839.] Conference between Krishna and Narada. ieee:
A ON PN
PARAS eA AATAATAOYARA MTA ATTY: |
ies ode ~
eqUTiarara a fae aA AAA TAT ACAI ATS 1X Shi
13. The son of Duarri alighted before the son of. Devaxt1, and
as the feet of the saint touched the surface of the earth, it was hardly
upheld by multitudes of serpents underneath, who bowed, in despite
of their exertions to raise their dilated necks.
AACA ERAS TTU ATTA AT YAAEATT HT
TAPIA MIealras wa heraAT TATA AA HAT: 1% Bit
14. The primeval being shewed due honour to that venerable
person with an arghya and other ceremonies; for wise persons enter
not, with complacency, the houses of them who do not perform the
sacred rites of civility.
AATASATTS TITAS [PAA AAC ACTH ATSAAT LTT |
PARAS a HT AA fer SATA AMAT AS ATT TAMT XY
15. Ere the people observed them, as they stood rivalling moun-
tains of snow and of antimony, the primeval sage had made the saint
sit down in front of him on a seat presented with his own hands.
ACA TATA AAT TT Tas Hea HAHTATSr |
Praterige aay ea ACT ACS egAa ACTA 11 Ui
16. Sitting on a lofty throne before the foe of Kansa (who shone
like a vast sapphire) the sage exhibited the beauties of the Moon
resting on the orient mountain opposite to the dusk at eve.
Fraraaearaafawee aaa TAA:
aeiqaresaaa eqs Tara eae aa: Yo
17. The being who is dear to pious votaries, pleased the saint by
special honour shewn to him as he sat down ; for the wise delight in
repeatedly conciliating venerable guests by respectful treatment.
HUTA ATTA AALS rsa ATTA aURAS TAT:
adtafedefa haat S CAAT: LEI
18. Harr bowed his head as he received the fluid poured into his
hands by the sage from a gourd, which contained water collected from
every holy stream, and most efficacious to remove all taint of sin.
20 Conference between Krishna and Narada. (Jaw.
THT PATA ACY AIA TAT VATA TT eas TA
faraseqs mare agra yeaa aeaast MK
19. The golden throne on which the hero, whose body was
black like a fresh cloud, sat down at the bidding of the saint, surpassed
the beauty of the cliff of Swmerw, embellished as it is by the fruit
of the Eugenia. ;
AA TATMMACATIATIFAT: HSTCATC UTA SHAT Als:
fagqdarsasiataze: frarfircrfeenarerathrra: Roi
20. Resplendent like the orb of the Moon, and clad in apparel that
equalled the lustre of tried gold, he resembled the ocean embraced by
the flames of submarine fire.
O
ANNOTATIONS—Book [.
V.1. BrauMa was born in an egg bright as gold (Menu, c.i. v. 9.) and from his hip
sprang Narapa. Krisuwna being an incarnation of VisHnv bearsthe titles of that
deity; the name Hart, and the attribute of pervading and containing the universe are
therefore given to him, at the same time that he is mentioned as the son of VasuDEva.
His wife RukMIN1 is in like manner considered as an incarnation of Sri or LuKsHMI.
In the original, Sri is the first word of the couplet, purposely introduced there as an
auspicious beginning of the Poem.
V.2. The first part of this triplet is an interpolation. The Scholiast leaves it unno-
ticed, Aruna is the dawn, or the Charioteer of the Sun, and is figured without lower
extremities. .
V. 3. The sagacity of Krisuna is here meant to be contrasted with the stupid
wonder of the people.
V.4. On certain festive days Siva dances before his wife Panay,
V. 5. The mineral anjana that used for collyrium is here meant.
V. 6. Batarama, brother of Krisuna, derives several of his titles from the black
apparel constantly worn by him.
V.7. Visunvu’s bird named Garuda, is surnamed King of Birds. The down on his
body is figured as much larger than that which is observed in his kindred of royal
vultures.
The King of Vultures, ifthe bird usually so named were meant by Sir William Jones,
(As. Res. vol. vi. p. 128), has been described as a native of America and the West In-
dies. The Pandits of Behar suppose the gigantic crane to be the Garuda. |
V.8. The spotted Axis is the species of deer alluded to in this place. Azravata,
surnamed King of Elephants, bears Inpra, the sovereign of demi-gods. He is figured
white like the royal elephants of Ava.
V. 9. Narapa being an ascetic is painted as here described, with a rosary in one
hand, and his Indian lute in the other, his hair braided like an anchorite, his com-
plexion fair, and his body covered with ashes, a sacerdotal string by way of scarf, a
yellow cord round his waist, and the skin of an antelope on his shoulders.
V. 10. Narapa’s lute, surnamed Mahati or “ the large,’? Saraswami’s is called
‘“* Kachhapi’”’ (testudo), as Viswayasa’s Vrihati or ‘the best,’ and TomBuru’s
“ Kalavati.’’
1839. ] Conference between Krishna and Narada. 21
The dissertation of Sir W. Jones, on the musical. notes of the Hindoos, may be
consulted (A. R. vol. iii. p. 45). Murchana is here rendered according to the passage
quoted by the Scholiast from a musical treatise. ‘‘'The ascent and descent of the
seven notes in due order are called Murchha.’’ There are seven in each octave,
and consequently twenty-one in the three octaves.
V. 11. The knowledge of God is attained by completely subduing worldly appetites.
The discus is KrisHna’ s weapon of offence.
V. 13. Duarrti isa titleof Branma. Drvaxki was mother of Krisuna. In the
infernal regions vast serpents, analogous in figure to the common Naga, are supposed
by Hindu mythology to uphold the world on their dilated necks.
Their sensation of Narapa’s weight as he alighted, is termed by the Scholiast a
beautiful exaggeration.
V. 14. Water with rice and grass presented to a guest in an oval vessel is named
Arghya. Tt is one of the most auspicious ceremonies at the solemn reception of a
guest.
V. 15. Primeval sage, like primeval being in the preceding verse, is a title of
VisHNv, applied like all other titles and attributes of that deity, to Krisuna.
' V.16. Kawnsa wasslain by Krisuna. The Scholiast cites a passage from AGasTYA
where sapphires (if this gem be really meant by the Sanscrit terms Maha Nila and
Indra Nila) are described as produced in mines in the island of Sinhala or Silan.
The earth is supposed by Hindu poets and mythologists to be terminated by
mountains. The Sun rises from behind the eastern range, and sets behind the western.
V. 18. Narapa, lke otherascetics, bearsa gourd by way of water-pot; making con-
tinual pilgrimages he had attached water from every holy river or lake.
V. 19. In conformity with the opinion of the Scholiast, Jwmbw is here taken for the
fruit of the Hugenza, which when ripe is of a very dark colour; but Jumbu is also the
name of a river which flows from the mountain Sumeru.
V. 20. The notion of submarine fire may be founded on volcanic phenomena ob-
served in ancient times.
Art. III.—On the Geographic Distribution of Birds, but more par-
ticularly of the European Species; with a critical examination
of Mr. Swainson’s account.’ By Wm. Jameson, Esq., Bengal
Medical Service.
The advantages to be derived from a study of the geographic distribu-
tion of the organic and inorganic kingdoms, as presented to our view
at the present day, are of the greatest importance, seeing that until
this subject has been properly examined, that of a former world
must remain imperfect ; and probably if more attention had been paid
to it, many of the numerous errors connected with the distribution
of fossil animals would not have been committed. Lately the foot-
marks of birds’ have been discovered in a formation sad to be as old
as the new red sandstone ; and the author, from an examination of
these marks, has not only been able to point out the genus, but even
characterise the species. The presumption in doing this, is scarcely
1 Read to the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh.
2 Prof. Hitchcock in Sillim. American Journ. of Science.
22 On the Distribution of European Birds. [J an.
worthy of attention. Cuvier from an examination of the internal ske-
leton of birds, declared that it was, in many instances, impossible
to tell the genus, far less than the species. Let us therefore receive
with caution such observations, even although they have been consi-
- dered as plausible by several of the leading geologists.' We examined
the casts of those so called foot-marks, in the collection of the Royal
College of Surgeons of London,” but were not at all convinced of
their ornithological origin, and till we have further evidence than
such impressions, we would be inclined to argue the contrary; for
we are as much, or rather more, entitled to infer that they are only
vegetable impressions.° To find the remains of birds in such a for-
mation as the new red sandstone would invalidate one of the grand
principles of geology. |
In tracing out the geographic distribution of the animal and ve- -
getable kingdoms, various methods have been adopted. Some authors,
as Humboldt and Latreille, have attempted to trace them according
to parallels of longitude and latitude; others, as Illiger, * Fischer,”
&e., according to the various Continents—which no doubt is the most
unobjectionable method ; for we find, that when the former is properly
examined, it will not stand the test of minute examination, seeing
that we have in each of the individual Continents great groups entire-
ly confined, and which have no representatives in any other of the
other Continents under similar degrees of longitude and latitude, as
we ought to find, if the views of Humboldt, &c. were correct.
Till the laws which regulate the distribution of both the organic
and inorganic kingdoms are explained, such a method can never be
adopted. We no doubt find secondary causes, such as light, heat,
moisture, greater or less distribution of water, configuration of the
land, exercising a powerful influence, which is particularly marked
out in certain quarters of the globe ; and from authors looking to these.
individual places alone, they have put more stress upon these causes
than what we are entitled to do. Thus, for example, in Northern
India, where we find the climate in some places to resemble so much
the European, we have a large series of quadrupeds, birds, insects,
plants, &c. either identical with the European, or undergoing such
slight modifications, as to entitle them to be considered as — local
varieties, or at least the representatives of the European species.”
1 Buckland’s Bridgewater Treatise.
2 For liberty to examine these we were indebted to Mr. Owen.
3 Our reasons for coming to such a conclusion we shall afterwards give.
4 Abh. d. Akad. d. Wiss. Zu. Berlin. 1806, p. 236 et 1812 a, 13, p. 221.
5 Synopsis Animalium et Conspect. Distribut. Geographie.
6 Vigors, Zool. Proc. Pt. i. pp. 7, 22, &c. Gould’s Cent. of Birds. Wils. Cab.
Lib. India, vol. iii. p. 78. Jameson, Wern. Trans. in Ed. New Phil. Jour.
1839-] On the Distribution of European Birds. 98
But although these secondary causes seem to have a certain influ-
ence in some places, yet that is far from being universal, all appearing
to be subject to some great principle hitherto undiscovered, and which
will probably remain for ever so. —
Nor is it alone in the organic kingdom that we find the distribu-
tion liable to vary from unknown causes. In the mineral kingdom
we observe phenomena of a similar nature. Thus we find, as has been
well remarked, “the geographical distribution of minerals to be
very different from mountain rocks ; we do not find the same species
everywhere, on the contrary, they seem to have many kinds of distri-
bution, in this respect approaching more nearly to what we observe in
the physical arrangement of animals and vegetables on the surface of
the earth.””’
It is foreign to our purpose at present to give all the methods which
have been proposed by Humboldt, Latreille, Fabricius, Swainson, &c.
in order to point out the erroneous grounds upon which they are based,
but shall at present confine our attention to that one most recently
given, viz. by Swainsen ; and as he has entered into some detail, in
regard to the birds of one of his divisions, allowing us an opportunity
of refuting his statements, we shall therefore direct particular atten-
tion to it; we are the more induced to do so, as no person has
ventured to point out the erroneous views of this author, which seem
to have been based upon a few and unsatisfactory data.
By Mr. Swainson the globe has been divided into a series of zoological
regions or provinces, denominated, Ist. the European or Caucasian ;
2d. Asiatic or Mongolian ; 3d. the American; 4th. the Ethiopian or
African ; and, 5th. the Australian or Malay. In the European or
Caucasian province he includes the whole of Europe properly so called,
with part of Asia Minor and the shores of the Mediterranean. In Nor-
thern Africa, he states, the zoological peculiarities of this region begin to
disappear ; they are lost to the eastward of the Caucasian mountains,
and are blended with those of Asia and America to the north. 2. The
Asiatic range comprehends the whole of Asia east of the Ural
mountains, which form a natural and well defined barrier between
the two Continents. The chief seat of this zoological region is, he
states, probably in Central Asia; its western confines blend into
the European towards Persia, and disappear in the west of the
Caucasian chain ; it is united to the African range among the provinces
of Asia Minor, and is again connected with Europe, and also with
America, by the arctic regions of the three Continents ; finally, its
7 Jameson, Werner Trans. Annals of Phil. vol. yi. p. 301.
24 On the Distribution of European Birds. [Jan.
most southern limits are marked by the islands of Java and
Sumatra, where the zoological characters of the Australian regions
begin to be apparent. 3. The American province, he states, is uni-
ted to Europe and Asia at its northern limits, and comprehends
the whole of the New World, but into. which it blends at the
other extremity is uncertain. 4th. The African province. In it he
includes the whole of Africa south of the Great Desert ; part, at least,
of the countries on the Mediterranean exhibits a decided affinity to -
the European range ; while the absence of large animals in Madagas-
car, and the presence of genera peculiar to New Holland and the
extreme point of Southern Africa, lead us to the fifth, or Australian
range. 5. Australian province. Australia, New Guinea, and the
neighbouring islands, mark its limits in that direction; Australia
Proper is its chief seat, and it spreads over the whole of the nume-
rous islands in the Pacific Ocean; and he moreover remarks,
whether this province blends with that of America or Europe, re-
mains for further discovery; but its connexion with Africa and
Asia has been already intimated. That the zoology of each of the
individual Continents blend with each other at their junction,
is a fact that never once has been questioned; but with regard
to Madagascar forming the connecting link between Australia and
the African Continent, Mr. Swainson can claim no originality in
this statement, seeing that it was several years before the publication
of Mr. Swainson’s elaborate work, pointed out by M. Lesson ;* and
it is a remarkable fact that lately several animals considered truly
African have been detected in New Holland,’ and, on the other hand,
several pouched animals, which tribe were supposed to be peculiar to
New Holland and America, have been discovered in Madagascar.
The divisions which’ Mr. Swainson has proposed, appear at first
sight very plausible ; but when thoroughly inquired into, will not
bear the test of examination. Thus to arrange under one and the
same division the Continents of North and South America, Mr. Swain-
son has taken for granted what nobody has admitted, cr can admit, viz.
that the geographic distribution of birds is subject to the same laws
as those which regulate man." Upon this argument the whole of
his divisions seems to be founded, which is quite at variance with all
that is yet known in regard to the geographic distribution of ani-
mals. In fact, there is no ground whatever for such an argument ; nor
have we any evidence whatever, on the other hand, to maintain that
8 Annal. de Science Nat, 9 Proceedings of Zool. Soc. of London.
10 The divisions adopted by Mr. Swainson being in accordance with the views of
Dr. Pritchard in regard to the distribution of man.
1839. ] On the Distribution of European Birds. 25
man is liable to be influenced by the same physical laws as those
which act upon the lower animals.
If we take into consideration the Continents of North and South
America, we shall find them fully as well, if not better, marked out
aS zoological provinces—at least South America—than any of the
others enumerated by Mr. Swainson. Thus among the Mammalia
in South America, we find, the genera Priodon, Apara Encoubertes,
Dasyprocta Hydrochaerus, Calogenys,'® &c. entirely confined ; and
in regard to the ornithological kingdom, the genera Pipra, Itupzcola,
Alector, Crax, Penelope, Dicholophus, Crotophaga, Rhamphastos, Rhea
Tanagra, Trochilus, &c. are almost entirely unknown in the Northern
Continent. No doubt a few extend their migrations as far north
as Mexico; and of the family Trochilide, or Humming-Birds, four
are found throughout the Continent of North America; two!' of these
however must be considered as accidental. One, the T'rochilus colubris,
extends as far north as the 57° or 58° on the west coast, '? it also
frequents the warm plains of Saskatchewan, and Mr. Drummond
found its nest near the sources of the Elk river. It advances towards
the north as the season lengthens, and delays its visits to the
Northern States till the month of May, and still as remarked by
Nuttal, as if determined that no flower shall blush unseen, or
waste its sweetness on the desert air, it launches at once on wings
as rapid as the wind, without hesitation, into the flowery wilderness
which borders on the arctic circle." Another species, T'rochilus rufus,
first discovered by Captain Cook at Nootka Sound, hence denominated
the Nootka Sound Humming-Bird, has a much more extensive range,
having been found by Kotzebue as far north as the 61° parallel of
latitude on the Pacific coast ; and there are specimens in the Edinburgh
Royal Museum of the same species from Mexico. Specimens have
also been observed by Swainson from the same quarter, being killed
near Real del Monte. In the T'7xochilus (ornismya) sephanoides, Less.
we see a similar distribution in the Southern Continent, it having
been discovered by Captain King at the Straits of Magellan, and
in honour of whom it has been named the Melisuga Kingii by
Vigors,* although erroneously, for it does not at all differ from
10 For the different genera of quadrupeds proper to the two continents of America, see
Hliger. Loc. Cit. Fischer. Loc. Cit., and Richardson’s excelent Report on North Ame-
rican Zool. in Trans of Brit. Asso. vol. v. for those found-in North America.
{{ Audubon’s Amerc. Ornith.
12 Nuttal’s Amerc. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 605
13 Nut. vol. i. p. 585
'4 Zool, Journ
26 On the Distribution of European Birds. [Jan.
Lesson’s species,'” who is quite correct in giving this name as a synonym.
Lesson’s specimen was received from Chili, and in the Edinburgh
Museum there are several specimens, one of which was received by Pro-
fessor Jameson from Mexico. The occurrence of Humming-Birds and
Parrots in such high southern latitudes was long ago pointed out
by Cook. His observations, however, were called in question, and
denied by Buffon, but happily found to be quite correct by King."
But are four species, two of which are accidental visiters, to be consi-
dered equivalent to nearly one hundred which are confined to the
Continent of South America?’ The same applies to the Tanagers ;
for of the three species found in North America, one alone is pro-
per to it, the other two being also found in South America. The
species we allude to, arethe Zanagra rubra, Lin.and T. astaca Gm.
Numerous other examples could be given from the families Pszttacide,
Falconidee, Musicapidee, Tyrannide, &c. tending to shew the exclu-
siveness of the ornithology of South America. Again, when we turn
our attention to North America,'* we find it characterized by certain
tribes, which however are not so numerous as those of the other Con-
tinent, but quite sufficient in number to mark it out as provincially
distinct from South America. But it is not only by the mam-
malogical and ornithological kingdoms that these Continents are
so pre-eminently distinguished from each other. In every department
of animated nature we find similar characters, to notice any of which
is foreign to our subject at present. But although we have divided
the Continents of America into but two provinces, yet we believe the
time is not far distant when the mammology, ornithology, entomo-
logy, &c. shall be better examined, and more attention paid to the
individual members of each class ; we shall then instead of two have
many zoological provinces. For as in the botanical so in the zoologi-
cal kingdom, we shall no doubt find series of birds, quadrupeds, &c.
having as their fixed places of abode certain regions of the world,
beyond which, although a few may migrate, yet upon a careful exa-
mination, the greater number will be found to be confined. This
statement is well borne out by the collections which frequently reach
this country.
Thus what ornithologist who has paid any attention to the subject
of the geographic distribution of birds, could not at once distinguish
a collection from Southern, from one from Western Africa ; or a collec-
15 Man. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 80. Hist. Nat. des Ois. Mouches, p. 69.
16 Zool. Journ.
17 In Mexico a good many species occur.
18 Richardson Loc. Cit. Faun. Bor. Amery. &c.
1839. ] On the Distribution of European Birds. 27
tion from Northern India, from one from Southern India; or a col-
lection from the Malayan Peninsula from one from any other part
of Asia. ‘The same holds true in regard to collections from different
parts of the American Continents. Moreover, in the Continent of
Australasia we have an ornithology in the neighbourhood of Port Jack-
son quite different from that we find at Moreton Bay. Thus the
Alectura lathamt, Gray,”” found at the latter, is not found in
the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, its place being there supplied
by the Menura lyra Sh. or M. Novee Hollandic Lath. It has
also been shewn by Professor Jameson, that even in some of the
larger islands we have a zoology quite different from that we
meet with in the adjoining Continents. Thus he states—In the
island of Sumatra, which is only a secondary one in point of
magnitude in the Archipelago of Notasia, we meet with the Ele-
phant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c.; but the species of animals are
often different from those in the neighbouring Continents — . Thus the
Rhinoceros of Sumatra is different from that of Asia. Madagascar
produces many species of snakes, which are found no where else.
The inhabitants of Van Diemen’s Land are very different from those
of New Holland, and the greater number of mammiferous animals and
reptiles are specifically different from those met with in the neigh-
bouring Continents.—That many of the islands of the Indian Archipe-
lago have a zoology peculiar to themselves, has been proved by the
researches of Raffles, Horsfield, Sonnerat, Leschenault, Reinwardt,
Dussumier, Duvaucel, Diard, Belanger, Kuhl, &c., all of whom
have increased our knowledge more or less in regard to them. Nor
are the islands farther in the south without their own peculiar
Fauna. Thus we find in New Zealand not only a great many
species, but even many genera which are found to exist no where
else. It is here that we meet with that most extraordinary bird the
Apteryx Australis, first described by Shaw, but whose existence has
more than once been called in question,” although erroneously, as has
been pointed out by Yarrel.” 5
In New Guinea we also.meet with a particular Fauna. It is
here that we find the splendid group of Paradise Birds. We have
19 Proc. Zool. Soc.
20 Lesson Tracte d’ Ornith. p, 12. et Man. d’ Ornith. vol. ii. p. 210.
21 Tran. Zool. Soc. vol. i. and Zool. Proceed. pt. i. pp. 24,80. Of this bird
there are now several specimens in Europe. In the collection of the Zoological
Society of London we saw one specimen, in the Liverpool collection there is an im-
perfect specimen, and we believe that there is a very fine specimen in the collection
of the Earl of Derby, from which Yarrel drew up his description and made his drawing.
See Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. i.
28 On the Distribution of European Birds. (JAN.
therefore in our tables more for convenience, or rather till we get
more information on the subject, arranged the birds under the heads
of the different Continents, and including all the islands south of
Java and Sumatra in the Continent of New Holland, adopting the
term of Australasia.
. Let us now enter more in detail, and trace out some of Mr.
Swainson’s so-called zoological provinces. We shall first notice his
European or Caucasian Province. :
In tracing out the geographic distribution of this province, Mr.
Swainson has divided the birds into a series of groups, or orders, thus
Rapaces, Grallatores, Natatores, Gallinaceee, Scansores, &c., which we
shall now notice individually. In regard to the first of these groups,
he makes the following statement—“ The rapacious order, next to the
aquatic tribe, is of all others inhabiting the land the most widely
spread. This is particularly the case among the nocturnal species.
it is remarkable that of thirteen different Owls inhabiting Europe,
six only are peculiar ; and two of these more particularly inhabit the
arctic regions. Of the rest, four occurin America, two in South-
ern Africa, and one both in Asia and America. The Falconide,
or diurnal birds of prey, in regard to their species, have a more
restricted distribution than the nocturnal; yet of these, the Eagles
enjoy no inconsiderable range ; of four discovered in Europe (I here
‘use his own words?) one is more properly arctic, three have been
found in several parts of Africa, and one occurs in Ameriea—leaving
three only to Europe. It is singular, he continues, that those rapacious
birds which, from the peculiar structure of their wings, have been
supposed to enjoy the greatest powers of flight among their con-
geners, should nevertheless have a much more’ limited range. This
is proved by the fact, that of eight genuine Falcons inhabiting Europe
and Northern Africa, two only have been discovered in America.
it has, however, recently been stated that the Peregrine Falcon of
Australia is absolutely the same as that of Europe.” Upon the whole,
the distribution of the forty-four European birds of prey appears to
be thus regulated—three are more properly arctic; eleven are
found also in America, two in Asia and Africa, and one in Asia
and America; leaving twenty-seven, or more than one half, as
22 Geography and Classification of Animals, p. 22. See also Murray’s Encyclop.
of Geography, vol. i.
23 In regard to the identity of the peter: Falcon of Europe od Australia there
can be no dispute. We examined minutely the specimen described by Horsfield and
Vigors in the Linnean Trans. now deposited in the Museum of that Society, but
could not discover one trivial character of difference. For permission to examine it,
and the collection generally, we were indebted to Prof. Don.
1839. ] On the Distribution of European Birds. 29
characteristic of European Ornithology.” How Mr. Swainson could
have come to such conclusions, seems to us very remarkable ; not one
of the statements which he has made, being at all correct. Thus of
the thirty-five species of diurnal rapacious birds found in Europe and
comprehended in the genera Vultur, Neophron, Gypaetos, Falco, Aqui-
la, Halicetus, Pandion, Circeetus, Astur Accipiter, Milvus, Nauclerus,
Elanus, Pernis, Buteo, Butaetes, and Circus, four are common to
Europe and Asia; three common to Europe and Africa; three
common to Europe and North America; ten common to Europe,
Asia, and Africa ; four common to Europe, Asia, and North America ;
one common to Europe, Africa (?) and North America ; one common
to Europe, Asia, and Australasia ; one common to Europe, North and
South America; one common to Europe, Asia, Africa, North and
South America; and three (?) cosmopolite, or found in all the
different Continents of the world; leaving only four species proper
to Europe, or in the proportion of 1 to 83, and it is even doubtful at
present whether all the four species are confined to Europe. But
Mr. Swainson has marked out in a particularly prominent manner
the genera of Falcons and Eagles, properly so called, in order to shew
that the distribution of birds is not in an equal ratio with their
powers of flight—a statement no doubt quite correct; but he has
been very unfortunate in his illustrations, for among all the tribes
of European birds, the Falcons and Eagles possess a most extensive
distribution. Thus of the nine species of Falcons (one or two of
which seem to be only occasional European visitants), two alone are
proper to Europe ; three common to Europe and Asia ; one common to
Europe and Africa; one common to Europe and North America ;
one common to Europe, Asia, and North America ; and one common
to Europe, Asia, Africa, Australasia, North and South America.”
That the maxim, as the powers of flight so is the distri-
bution, is not correct, many instances could be given; and in no
tribe have we a stronger evidence to the contrary than in the Ralliide,
seeing that they exist in the western hemisphere, so far north as
Hudson’s Bay, and in the eastern, as far south as the Sandwich
islands, having thus a range of about 105° of latitude, and nearly
280° of longitude ; and it is well known that the powers of flight in this
24 Ch, Luc. Bonaparte, in his Catalogue of American and European Birds, gives a
new name to the Osprey of America; upon what grounds we know not. Gould in his
work on the Birds of New Holland, now publishing, has described the Osprey of that
quarter as a new species, to do which he is not at all entitled, there being no characters
whatever presented to mark them as specifically distinct. In the Ed. Museum
there is one specimen from New Holland, agreeing in every character with specimens,
killed in Europe. The same remarks apply to the American species.
30 On the Distribution of European Birds. , (Jan.
tribe is not at all well developed, at least to such a degree as to account
for its extensive distribution. Nor does this remark apply to this group
alone, many other examples, if it were necessary, could be given. In
regard to the Eagles, Mr. Swainson’s statements are equally in-
accurate. Thus of the nine Eagles included in the genera Aguila,
Halicetus, Pandion, and Circaetus, two are common to Europe, Asia,
and Africa ; one common to Europe and North America ; one common
to Europe and Asia; one common to Europe and Africa; two
common to Europe, Africa, and North America; one cosmopolite ;
leaving only one proper to Europe; for it seems not at all improbable,
that the Agudla tmperialis will be found extending throughout the
African Continent.” Moreover it may be stated as a general rule, that
in whatever families we observe a large series of modifications,
there we have a wide distribution. This is strikingly the case in
the Falconide, Anatide, Sylviade, Muscicapidee, Columbide,
Fringillide, Laride, Turdide, Laniade, &c. Nor is this rule
confined to the ornithological kingdom; we havea similar arrange-
ment exhibited in the mammalogical, as well as in many of the other
kingdoms of the organic world; and when we direct our attention te
the inorganic, we can trace out a similar arrangement. Thus in
those families in the mineral kingdom in which the physical and
external characters are very various, in them we find a most extensive
distribution, as is well exemplified by the quartz, calcareous spar,
and garnet families, modifications of which occur in every formation,
from the oldest up to the newest ; in every climate, from the inhos-
pitable regions of Melville island to the tropics, and in all the inter-
mediate spaces ; and, on the other hand, from the tropics as far south
as 70°, and also at all heights and depths yet attained by man,
viz. from 20,000 feet above, to 1600 feet below, the level of the sea.”
In regard to the nocturnal birds of prey, comprehended in the genera
Strix, Bubo, Otus, Scops, Surnia, Ulula, Syrnium, and Noctua, we
have the following statement to make, which is quite at variance with
that given by Swainson. Thus of the fifteen Owls found in Europe,
three ‘only are proper to it, one of these doubtful; common to
25 Mr. Gray, in General Hardwicke’s Work on Indian Zoology has figured a bird
under this name, which however is quite a different species. The specimens noticed
in the Asiatic Society’s Journal for November, 1838, as varieties of the Aquila chrys-
aetos by Dr. Evans, are quite different birds; in fact they do not belong to the genus
Aquila at all, being characteristic specimens of the genus Halietus. The bird is a
new species, and the only other specimen we have seenis in the collection of
the Zoological Society, London.
26 Jameson’s manuscript Lectures on Miner. see also Man. and Syst. of Mineralogy.
1839.J On the Distribution of European Birds. ol
Europe and Asia, two; to Europe, Asia, and Africa, two; to Europe and
North America, five ; to Europe, Asia; North and South America,
one; to Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, one; to Europe,
Australasia, and North America, one; thus leaving a proportion of
I to 5; and from these statements it appears evident that the noc-
turnal birds of prey do not possess such a wide distribution as the
diurnal, as stated by Swainson.
But Mr. Swainson in summing up his observations gives, as
already stated, 27 species as peculiar to the European or Caucasian
province—a number four times larger than we from a most careful
and extensive examination have made it; the number being only seven,
and it is even doubtful whether all these are peculiar to this so called
zoological region or province.
Having now finished our analysis of the distribution of the Rapa-
cious order, we shall now proceed to another of Mr. Swainson’s
divisions, viz. the Gallinacece, whose distribution we shall follow out
in a similar manner. “ On looking,”” says he, “ to the whole number
of our Gallinacec, we find twenty seven species, fourteen of which
have their metropolis in Europe ;. the remainder are thus dispersed—
five extend to Western Asia ; five to the confines of the great African
Desert ; two are dispersed over Central Asia and Africa; whilst two
occur in North America.” In the above statements Mr. Swainson
differs very considerably from our examination ; at least it is difficult
to understand what he has included in his Gallinacec, for to make
up the number of species we must include the genera Columba,
Tetrao, Bonasia, Lagopus, Pterocles, Francolinus, Perdix, Cotur-
nix, Hemipodius, Otis, Cursorius,and Glareola, comprehended under
which we have twenty-seven species ; of course leaving out the Tefrao
rupestris, a doubtful species, and which has only been met with in
Europe once or twice. Nor do we include the Phastanus colchicus,
an imported species. We however comprehend the Tetrao hytridus,”
considered erroneously by some: naturalists as a hybrid between the
Tetrao urogallus and the Tetrao tetrix, it presenting many characters
to mark it out as a distinct and well marked species. Of the twenty
seven species found in Europe, five are common to Europe and Asia ;
three common to Europe and North America; one or two(?) common
to Europe and Africa; and four common to Europe, Asia and Africa;
thus leaving fourteen proper to Europe, or in the proportion of nearly 1
to 1 ; and of these, one alone is peculiar to the British islands, which is
27 Loco. Citato. p, 23.
28 Yarrel, Proc. Zool. Soc. Gould’s Birds of Europe.
32 On the Distribution of European Birds. . [J AN.
rather curious, it being the only bird which is so. Moreover the manner
in which Mr. Swainson has traced the distribution of this tribe is
much to be questioned, it appearing to us a more plausible than real.
one, many of his statements no doubt being founded on the peculiarity
of the country ; at least we are not at all aware of any thing being
stated by any author which would authorize him to make such state-
ments, and he makes no mention of being guided by personal examina-
tions, which he no doubt would have done had he travelled in these
regions, seeing that there is no individual more ready to inform us
of the extent of his travels.
In regard to his next division, we have the following statement—”
“The Swallow-like birds, Fiss¢rostres,” says he, “are well known by
capturing their food on the wing, and by their migratory habits ; only
one, the common or European Kingfisher, being stationary. Hence it
is, that most of the European species occur in other regions ; the pro-
portion of those which appear confined to Northern Africa is as 1 to
3.” He does not give any more details in regard to the Fisszros-
tres, leaving his readers to fill up the rest by their own imagination.
In his proportional number of species he is not correct. Thus of the
fourteen included in the genera Hirundo, Caprimulgus, Merops,
Coracias, Alcedo, three are probably confined to Europe ; and of the
others, three are proper to Europe and Asia; to Europe and Africa,
three ; to Europe, Asia, and Africa, three ; to Europe, Africa, and
North America, one ; and to Europe, Asia, Africa, and North Ame-
rica (?) one ; thus leaving a proportion of 1 to 3m ; but as many of the
species, as stated by Mr. Swainson, of this order are migratory, it ren-
ders the proportional number very doubtful; at least it is very liable
to vary. |
In regard to the Scansores, Mr. Swainson states their number to be
fifteen, including probably the genera Picus, Apternus, Yunz, Sita,
Certhia, Tichodroma, Upupa, and Cuculus, eight of which he states are
confined to Europe ; and as for the distribution of the other seven, as
in the Fiss¢rostres, he gives usno information. The number of species
however is eighteen, and of these eleven are proper to Europe; two
common to Europe and North America ; three common to Europe
and Asia; one common to Europe, Asia, and Africa ; and one, the
Wryneck ( Yun torquilla) common to Europe, Asia, and North Ame-
rica, which was many years ago pointed out.” Whether all of the
above ten species are proper to Europe, is at present a question, owing
29 Loc. Cit. p. 24.
30 Jam. Edin. New Phil. Jour. and James Wilson’s Quart. Rey
1839.] On the Distribution of European Birds. 33
to the near approximation of several species from Northern India,
which still require further examination ; and before the point can be
settled, a large series of specimens will require to be examined. In
the Indian Creeper (Certhéa vitticauda, Jam.)" and Indian Nuthatch,
(Sttia Himalehensis)” although we have many characters in common
with the European, yet still there are many others entitling us to con-
sider them as specifically distinct. The occurrence of the former
species in Northern India was a most interesting discovery, pointing
out that the genus Certhia is more widely distributed than was
originally imagined. In several of the Woodpeckers of Northern and
Southern India we have also a great similarity with the European spe-
cies, and in fact so remarkable, as to cause several of the more recent
writers to consider them as identical.
In noticing the Crow and Starling families ( Corvide and Sturnidee )
Mr. Swainson has made some most extraordinary statements. Thus
he states that not only several species, but even peculiar genera are
left to characterise this portion of the world. Tv us this is quite unin-
telligible. Species we have, we will admit, but as for genera in this
group peculiar to Europe, there are none ; and even among the whole
birds of this so called province, there is not one genus peculiar to it,
if we except one or two among the Sylviade, whose generic characters
however must be called in question ; and even if they should latterly
be found to be correct, it would give but little more weight to Mr.
Swainson ; for there is no group hitherto more neglected, and_of which
our knowledge is so imperfect, than the Sylviade.
For many years, no doubt, the genera Cinclus’ and Nucifraga
were supposed to be confined to Europe ; but species belonging to the
former have been found in North America and Northern India; and
in regard to the latter, we have one species occurring in Northern
India, considered erroneously by some authors as identical with the
European— it is the Nucifraga hemispila of Vigors. We shall after-
31 This bird has received other two names. It has been described by Vigors as the
Certhia Himalayana, Proc. Zool. Soc. Pt. i. p. 174, and by Swainson as the Certhia
Asiatica, Anim. Menag. p. 393.
32 Jard. and Selb. Zool. [llust.
33 The distribution of the Dippers stands thus—In Europe we have two species,
one proper, the other being also found in Northern India. In America N. and S. (? )
one species (Cinclus Americanus). The new species described by Bonaparte is
the above. Audubon, since the above was written, informed us that he had receiv-
ed two new Cincli and a true Nucifraga from the Rocky mountains, the latter
however had been long before described asa Corvus. Brehm has described a third
species under the name of Cinclus melanogaster, it however appears te me to bea
mere yariety of the Cinclus aquaticus.
KB
34 On the Distribution of European Birds. [ Jan.
wards notice the European genera in regard to their distribution, but
in the mean time shall confine our attention to the distribution
of the species. In regard to the species included in the genera
Corvus, Sturnus, &c. Mr. Swainson states their number at twenty-
one found in Europe, thirteen of which, or more than one half,
habitually reside ; four occur in Northern and Central Africa; one
common to Europe, Asia, and Africa; and three found in America.
Nor are the above statements even in regard to the species cor-
rect. Thus of the seventeen species, for we cannot make out
more, included in the genera Corvus fregilus, Pyrrhocorax gar-
rulus, Nucifraga, Pastor, and Sturnus, six are proper to Europe ;
four common to Europe and Asia ; one common to Europe and Africa ;
three common to Europe, Asia, and Africa; two common to Europe,
Asia, and North America; and one common to Europe, Asia, Aus-
tralasia (?) and North America. We mark Australasia with an inter-
rogation, for the occurrence of the Corvus corone in that Continent
seems doubtful. It is upon the authority of M. Lesson,” that we make
the statement ; who, however, we rather think has confounded with it
a nearly allied, but quite.distinct species. M. 'T’emminck” has also in his
Catalogue of the Birds of Japan given the Garrulus glandarius, and
marks it as the Japanese variety, which it undoubtedly ought only to
be considered, for the characters which it presents vary so little from
those of the European, and are of such a trivial nature. It is not to
be confounded with the Garrulus bispecularis of Vigors,” a well-
marked species, also presenting a close affinity to the European, it
however is confined to Northern India. In the Garrulus melanoceph-
alus, Bon.” we have another species presented, bearing a close
affinity to the European, but it not only differs in several characters,
but also, like the two Indian species, has a quite different distribu.
tion, representing in its locality the common Garrulus glandarius.*
34 Ann. de Sci. Nat.
35 Man. d’ Ornith. vol. iii. Introd.
36 Proceed. Zool. Soc. Pt. i. p. 7. Gould’s Cent.
37 Gen. Mem. of the Acad. of Turin, vol. xxxvil. ‘p. 298.
38 Strickland on the Birds of Asia Minor. Proc. of Zool. Pt. iv. p. 97.
(To be Continued. )
1839.] On a new Genus of the Fisstrostral Tribe. 35
x
Art. IV.—On a new Genus of the Fissirostral Tribe. By B. Hi.
Hopeson, Ese. Catamandu.
[ Note by the Editors.—This and the following paper were transmitted to the late
Editor more than two and a half years back, and were acknowledged at the time,
though by some accident afterwards mislaid. The expert ornithologist will perceive
that Mr. H’s. genus Raya is equivalent to the Psarisoma of Swainson, and the
- Crossodera of Gould; but, by referring to dates, it will be seen that Mr. H. was the
first person to characterise this new form, of which he has given two species. |
Dentirostres todide, Swainson.—Fissirostres todide, Vigors.—
Syndactyles, Cuvier.
Genus—new, Raya nobis. Species two, new, Sericeogula and
Rubropygia. Rai and Raz Sziga of the Nipalese. Habitat, Central
and lower regions.
These singular birds might be considered with almost equal pro-
priety as the Dentirostral type of the Fasstrostres, or the Fissirostral
type of the Denétirostres.
Swainson would regard them in the latter light; Vigors in the
former; Cuvier would probably have placed them with hesitation
among his Syxdactylés. ‘They seem to me to be compounded of 77-
tyra and Eurylaimus—two parts of the latter, and one of the former.
The bill is shorter, broader, more arched along the culmen, less
suddenly hooked, as well as more deeply cleft in the head than in
Tityra ; it is longer, and more covered by those frontal plumes
which entirely conceal the nares, than in Eurylaimus. The nos-
trils have exactly the same character as in Z%tyra, but they are
considerably more advanced, being nearer to the tip than to the gape.
The wings agree in their gradation with those of T7tyra, but they
are shorter and feebler than in that genus, or in Eurylaimus; and
in. consonance probably with this feebler structure of the wing is the
elongation and extreme gradation of the tail of our birds, a feature
in which they differ alike from JZ2tyra and from Lurylaimus.
The feet of the Raye, like their bills, more nearly resemble those
of Eurylaimus than those of Tityra; and whilst they differ from
both genera by the smoothness of the acrotarsia, they depart from
their otherwise strict correspondences with the feet of the former
genus by the essential circumstance of a more restricted junction
between the toes. In Eurylaimus the exterior toe is united to the
end of the second phalanx, the interior, to the end of the first. This,
the typical syndactyle structure, is only half developed in Raya ;
the connexion between whose lateral fore toes reaches forward only
to the mdddle of the respective joints.
26 On a new Genus of the Fissirostral Tribe. [ Jan.
With these preliminary remarks we shall proceed to characterise
the genus or sub-genus Raya, thus—
Bill shaped as in Eurylaimus, but equal to the head, or longer,
and having the soft frontal zone more produced, and concealing the
nares ; orbits nude; head large and crested; gape very wide and
smooth ; wings scarcely exceeding the base of the tail, rather feeble ;
the third and fourth quills longest and equal; the first and second,
very slightly gradated ; the primaries plus the tertiaries by about half
an inch.
Tarsi longer than central digit, slender, smooth, more or less plu-
mose ; toes and nails as in Eurylaimus exactly, but the connexion
of the lateral fore toes reaching only to the centre of the second and
first phalanges respectively ; tail elongated, firm, conspicuously and
equally gradated throughout; tongue short, flat, triangular, sub-
fleshy ; the tip pointed, cartilaginous, and sub-bifid or sub-jagged. In
manners, and food assimilating with Trogon, and with Rucia ( nobis ).
Ist. Species. Sertceogula. Silken-throated Ray, nobis. Parrot-
green, changing into verditer blue below; head and neck, superiorly,
black ; inferiorly, silken yellow ; a narrow band of the latter co-
jour circling round the brows, and bottom of the'neck, so as to enclose
the black colour ; a blue spot on the crown, and top of the back, and
a yellow one behind each ear; tail, and external edge of the pri-
maries blue ; wings and tail, internally, jet black ; orbitar skin yel-
low ; iris hoary brown ; bill lively green ; legs dull greenish or yel-
lowish ; crest vague ; tail considerably elongated, and wedged ; the
gradation equal, and complete ; tarsi plumed at top only ; 11 inches
long by 13 wide, and 23 oz in weight ; bill 13 inch; tail 53; tarsus
1; ; central toe ae and nail 2 hind toe, Ms and nail a Sexes
alike.
2nd. Species. Rubropygia. Red-rumped Raya, nobis. Structure
less typical ; colour slatey grey blue ; lower part of the back, tertia-
ries, and upper tail coverts, red ; wings, tail, tibie, and a band from
the eyes to the nape, black ; primaries with a blue speculum, and
blue tips ; the latter margined on the inner side with white ; rec-
trices, except the two central ones, broadly tipt with white ; head con-
spicuously crested ; tail shorter, and rather rounded than wedged ;
tarsi half plumed ; bill soft blue ; iris brown ; orbitar skin, orange ;
feet greenish ; size 7 to 73 inches by 103 to 11, and 1{ to 13 02; bill
14 inch; tail 31; tarsus 15 ; central toe 11; hind toe §. Sexes
16 16 16 16
alike.
Nepal. May, 1836
ssaey Yqe7 2292 SPY YPPIGT
‘qou oe 5, snuasd Supe
y
“gS MdIA OPISUL
*
MOTTA eaprisyno
stgou eIqig snuaep aq].
1839. ] Two new species of Meruline Birds. OV
Art. V.—Description of tivo new Species of a new form of Meru-
line Birds. By B. H. Hoveson, Esq. Catamandu.
Merulidee philedones, Cuvier.—Merulide crateropodine ? Swain-
son.— Tenuirostres meliphagide, Vigors.
Genus—new, Szbia nobis. Sibya of the Nipalese. Habdtat. Lower
and central regions of the hills.
What shall we say to a Meruline form compounded of the bill and
tongue of Chioropsis, the nares of Cinnyris, and the wings, tail, and
feet of Cinclosoma ? for such is the general, though not the precisely
accurate, indication of the form I am about to describe.
Cuvier has separated from the promiscuous heap of the Meruline
Birds a group which he tells us is distinguished from the Mezles by
a slenderer, sharper, and more arched bill, and by a brushed tongue.
To this Cuvierian group my birds unquestionably belong; but the
group itself is so large, and its contents have been so little accurately
ascertained, that small way is made to a definite conclusion by the
determination of that point. There are a vast number of the aberrant
Thrushes, both short legged and long, which closely approximate by
the bill and tongue towards the Tenuzrostres ; but I am nevertheless
of opinion that these relations are of secondary, not primary, importance.
The birds in question are Thrushes, as Cuvier considered them to
be; but whether or not they can be, most of them, ranged with
propriety among the Brachypodine and Crateropodine of Swainson,
I know too little of his general system to enable me to judge.
It may serve to illustrate the character of our birds to say, that they
appear to me to belong to the latter sub-family, serving in many res-
pects to link together the two. Mr. Swainson considers the long-
legged Thrushes to be equivalent to the Tenwirostral Promeropide. It
is certainly remarkable that in one of our species we have the long,
broad, and gradated tail of Promerops.
Genus—SIBIA NOBIS.
Generic character.— Bill and tongue as in Chloropsis ; but the bill
more depressed and more keeled towards the base; and the tongue
forked as well as brushed. Wares basal, lateral, elongated, pervious,
Junated, and almost lineated by a large, soft, sub-arched and nude
membrane.
Nareal bristles, none ; rictal, small ; frontal plumes smooth ; wings,
medial, round, acuminate, firm ; fifth and sixth quills longest ; first
and second considerably, third and four trivially, gradated ; primaries
_ plus tertiaries nearly one inch; tarsi elevate, stout, nearly smooth; toes
submedial, simple, stout ; fores compressed, hind depressed and large ;
38 Two new Species of Meruline Birds. [Jan.
lateral fores and hind subequal, last strongest ; nails stout, moderately ~
curved, acufe ; tail various, as in Pxomerops or in Cinclosoma.
Species Ist. Pdeaotdes. Pie-like Sibia mihi. Saturate slatey-blue ;
paler. and greyer below ; darker and merging into black on the wings
and tail; speculum on the secondaries, and tips of the rectrices,
white ; legs plumbeous ; bill black ; iris sanguine ; tail very long, and
gradated conspicuously and equally throughout ; head not crested ; 14
wees long and as many wide; bill 1} inch; tarsus 14; central toe
; hind toe a3 its nail /; tail 82; waibite 14 to 12 oz. Sexes alike.
— 7
Sls
Species 2nd. Nigréceps. ae Szbia miht. Rusty, with the en-
tire cap and the wings and tail, internally, black; central wing coverts
white toward their bases, slatey toward their tips ; outer webs of the
primaries slatey-grey; of the secondaries and tertiaries, slatey; the
last, rusty, like the body ; two central rectrices con-colorous with the
body towards it, then black; the rest wholly black, and all with
broad slatey points; bastard wing black; legs fleshy brown; bill
black ; iris brown ; tail moderately elongated, gradated only in the
six laterals ; head with a full soft garruline crest ; outer web of the
secondaries rather enlarged, discomposed, and curled downwards ;
size 83 to.9 inches, by 105 to 11, and 13 oz. in weight ; bill 1 inch;
tarsus - s central toe 10, and nalts hind toed, and nail § ; tail —
16°
41, Sexes alike.
ord. Species. Nzpalensis, nobis. Described already as a Cinclosoma,'
and forming a singular link of connexion between the Cznclosome
and the Size. I postpone what I have to say upon the habits and
manners of these birds to a future opportunity; at present it must
suffice to observe, that they are indissolubly linked to the 6 ae
by the nature of their food and manner of taking it.
Nepaul May, 1636.
ae ae ARIRMNNIAREGAST eens yeeerensy ne aioweseneae er
Art. VI.—On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. By
Don Srinpaitpo Demas.
Several unfruitful attempts have been made in different parts of
Europe since the labours of Reaumur to introduce the artificial mode
of hatching eggs. In some parts chickens have heen brought forth
which have not propagated; in others, for instance in Aranjuez,
instead of chickens, hard eggs have been made. Notwithstanding
these failures, being persuaded that they proceeded rather from igno-
rance on the part of the experimentalist than from any real or insuper-
1 Note.—As Soc. Transac. Phy. Class., vol. xix. p. 143.
%
1839. | On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. 39
able obstacle in the nature of the country where the experiments
were performed, since my arrival in Egypt I determined to study in
person minutely all the proceedings, without trusting to accounts
which would always leave me uncertain of the truth. The enterprize
was by no means an easy one. Few in Egypt possess the art, and
those few make a secret of it. Besides, this first difficulty vanquish-
. ed, so much patience and perseverance is necessary to remain for 21
days in an oven at 34° of Reaumur, full of the pestiferous smoke of
burning dung—contending incessantly with the stupidity and pre-
judices of the Arabs, who always suspect some sinister motive,
and to every thing oppose difficulties, (believing, among a thousand
other follies, that the thermometer warms the room in which it is intro-
duced, )—that no traveller before me, that Iam aware of, has examined
the matter in a satisfactory manner, or has given a circumstantial
description of it. Nevertheless, my intimacy with my countryman
Gaityany Bey, who rendered me every facility which the Government
could offer, my knowledge of the vulgar Arabic language, and my con-
stitution of the south of Europe, enabled me to overcome all the
obstacles which hitherto embarrassed all Europeans who attempted
to investigate this subject.
Before entering on a description of the process, I will stop
a moment to shew that the artificial hatching, practised from time
immemorial in Egypt, is not only a curious fact, but an eminently
useful one ; since it facilitates with surprising rapidity the reproduction
and abundance of the fowl, as well as the egg; both of which may be
reckoned among the most pleasing and salutary articles of food for man.
The operation is carried on in an oven, generally composed of eight
divisions or cells. In each of them 6000 eggs are hatched every 21
days, for the space of 34 or 4 months. It is admitted that Egypt con-
tains more than 200 of these ovens. Deducting one quarter of the
eggs which may be lost, we shall see that this artificial hatching gives
374 millions of chickens in one third of the year; which again must
produce an immense number of eggs,’ Thus it happens that al-
though latterly the price of all provisions has been doubled in that
country, I have bought in Upper Egypt one egg for half a para, and
the best fowl for a piastra.’ It is to be considered also, that the
power of establishing these ovens is given by Government to the
highest bidder; and that from this circumstance a considerable re-
venue is received, which cannot fail to raise the-price of the article.
1 In the Encyclopedia Britannica the number of ovens is stated to be 360;
and the chickens produced 92 millions; which I think at least in the present day
is a very exaggerated calculation.
2 One Company’s rupee=10 piastras. 1 piastra=40 paras.
40 On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. [JAN.
To produce 273 millions of chickens without artificial heat, at least
two millions of productive hens would be required in the space of
four months! ;
The artificial mode of hatching does not oppose any obstacle to
the natural one, since a hen born by means of the oven, or under the
wings of the mother, at every season of the year can as well in Egypt
as in any other country cover and hatch its own eggs.
One great inconvenience has been attributed to this method—it is
said that the fowl degenerates, and consequently its egg.
This opinion originated in observing that the fowl of Egypt is ge-
nerally smaller than that of Europe. The fact is true; but I can by no
means agree that it is the consequence of artificial hatching. It is to
be considered, Ist, That in Egypt several animals are of smaller size
than those of other countries. 2d, That the artificial hatching consist-
ing only in applying to the egg the same degree of heat that it
might receive under the hen, without changing any of the natural
operations, the number of days which it employs in vivifying it, &c.
there is no plausible reasons to suppose that the chicken does not
under this process attain its natural size. 3d, That there is in some
parts of Upper Egypt a large kind of fowl called dégany or dinderany,
and its eggs placed in the oven produce fowls equal in size to the
mother. 4th, and to me the most convincing argument of all—if the
action of fire could so reduce the fruit of the egg during its develop-
ment, other circumstances being the same, the same cause must continue
to operate every year, and small as this annual diminution may be
considered in the number of ages that this method has been practised,
(we find artificial egg hatching mentioned by Herodotus,) the fowl
of Egypt ought to be reduced by this time to the size of a fly
at least. Lastly, even admitting the hypothesis of degeneration, we
must admit that the decrement has operated in a very- slow and
imperceptible manner. This diminution being so inconsiderable, can
by no means neutralize the beneficial results of artificial hatching.
The economy and benefit that this method is capable of diffusing
among those who practise it being sufficiently demonstrated, I will pro-
ceed to give a circumstantial narrative of all the steps of the opera-
tion, as I have seen it practised in the ovens established in Ghisa,
a suburb of Cairo, situated upon the right shore of the Nile. ;
The building is composed of a corridor with vaulted roof 40 feet
long and 5 broad (A BC D, fig. Ist) The vaulted roof has five small
apertures to give light. In the centre, tothe right hand, there is a
door of 33 feet high and 23 broad (E, fig. Ist); this leads to another
corridor (F G HI, fig. 1st) 48 feet long by 5 broad, also with vaulted
1839,| On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. 41
roof, in the centre of which there are three apertures (J K L, fig. 2nd)
of nine inches in diameter, to give light from above ; to the right and
left hand of the corridor there are five divisions or cells of two stoves.
Each inferior room or stove has an-aperture of 14 feet square (M, fig.
2nd). ‘The superior room has another aperture above of two feet five
inches in height, and one foot nine inches broad (N, fig. 3rd); it has
also an aperture of one foot square in the wall of the right hand, and
another of equal size in the left, which I have seen constantly
stopped up with tow (d, fig. 4th). The walls of the said upper stove
begin rectangular from the ground, finish in a vault of 63 feet
high (O, figs. 3rd and 4th), with a hole in the top of nine inches
diameter (P, figs. 3rd and 4th). The ground of this room is nine
feet long and eight broad (X Z V U, fig. 5th) and has in its breadth,
that is to say in the same direction with the corridor, two grooves
(Q Q, RR, fig. 5th.) of nine inches broad and two deep, and in the
centre an aperture almost round of two feet in diameter (S, fig. 5th).
The. first room entering to the right hand is destined to keep a
fire always kindled ; it has only one stove, and its door is larger
than the others (T, fig. 2nd). The first room to the left hand
has no hole in the ground of the upper stove, but only a fissure
of two feet, which separates the ground from the interior of the wall,
to which it is notwithstanding united by several iron bars in the
form of an oblique grate, (b, fig. 6th.) In this cell the materials
destined for combustion are thrown through the hole in the top.
They pass through the grate as through a sieve, and are taken away
by the inferior aperture to be transported to the opposite cell which
contains the magazine of fire.
There are, lastly, to the left hand of the exterior corridor two rooms
15 feet square, with vaulted roofs of 12 feet high, with an aperture
in the top; they are intended for the preparation of eggs, as well as a
place for chickens recently born, &c. (f and g, fig. Ist).
The material for constructing the oven, is the same employed
generally in Egypt for the houses of the peasants; that is to say,
mud mixed with straw. The vaults are constructed with burnt
bricks. The ground which divides the cell in two stoves is sustained
upon two trunks of palm trees parallel to the corridor, and a bed
of branches of the same tree supported by the said trunks. Upon
this entablature is spread the mud which forms the ground whereon
the fire is placed.
A little straw or tow is prepared on the ground of the inferior
room; upon it a mat is placed, and upon the mat 6000 eggs,
G
o
4°
42 On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. ee ‘Tila
which are not more than twenty-one days old, taken from a-hen-yard
in which there is a cock.
For combustibles the dry dung of animals is used, which the
Arabs reduce to small pieces with their hands; this material they
call (jmong Cdims). In the first room to the right hand two pyra-
mids of burning dims are formed, covered with common earth.
The dims must take fire slowly, without making a flame. It is
taken up with a fire shovel, put on to a plate of baked earth, and
afterwards placed in the grooves (Q Q, R R, fig. 5th) which have
been first half-filled with cold dims. Again a little dims is placed
upon the burning portion, and upon the whole a little earth is strewed.
The burning dzms which is taken from the magazine is continually
replaced with an equal quantity of cold material. i
On the morning of the day destined to begin the operation the
fire is placed in the cell to warm it, and at sunset the 6000 eggs are
disposed in the manner explained. The fire is renewed three times
a day—at dawn, at midday, and at sunset; there is however no
very religious exactitude observed in this. If the fire put on in the
evening is yet alive at the dawn of the subsequent day, it ig left,
and is not renewed till midday. In one instance, which I saw,
being ready about 12 o’clock to put on the fresh fire, a quarrel hap-
pened, and it was not put on till 8 o’clock. At sunset it was not re-
newed, and this dzms lasted till the dawn of the subsequent day.
When the new fireis put on, the door of the superior stove is left
open, also the hole of the vault, and if the fire is too strong, even the
small door of the inferior stove. The aperture in the ground of the
superior stove is always covered, as well as the two apertures in
the walls to the right and left hand. When the heat begins to
mitigate and the smoke to disappear, all the small doors of the inferior
stove are stopped up, afterwards the hole at the top of the vault, and
lastly the door of the superior stove, which is not generally stopped.
The doors of all these apertures are merely handsful of tow for each.
When the fire is recent, and the heat at its greatest strength, the ther-
mometer marks 33° or 34° of Reaumur. When the fire is extinct, and
before it is renewed, the heat is 30° sometimes as low as 29°.* Six or
* Reaumur. Fahrenheit. Centigrade.
2a y=. 86. (Bee wep
28 y=, 95 = 35
32 = 14 = 40
36 = — hag 8 ES: = 45
— 1839.] On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. 43
seven times every twenty-four hours the operation that I am going
to describe is practised.
A man entirely naked enters by the door (N, fig. 2nd); he
either carries a light in his hand or he opens the hole of the
vault to procure light; he opens also the round hole in the centre
of the ground, and comes down through it to the inferior stove.
He carries all the eggs placed on the side V fig. 7th to the side U;
and those of the side U to the side V. The eggs placed under the
central hole are found sensibly colder than those placed at V and U,
and these latter not so warm as those of the sides X and Z. Generally
they are heaped toward the corners. This operation is very neces-
sary not only to apply the heat to all the points of the egg, but to
apply it in the same proportion to all the eggs, so that development
may not be effected sooner in one than in another. This removing
of the eggs is performed during the day, and several times during the
night. Thus the affair proceeds till the 7th day. On this day, as on
the 8th, the whole of the groove before the door RR, fig. Sth, is not
filled with fire, but only 2 or 24 feet near the entrance. By these
means the heat is diminished gradually ; and during these two days
the thermometer at its greatest height marks only 32° or 31° of Reau-
mur. . After the 8th day fire is no longer placed in the room. We should
naturally expect that the cell unprovided with fire would return to the
natural temperature of the surrounding air, but it is not so. We have
already said that in the oven there are eight cells destined to the
process of hatching. Three or four days after that on which the eggs have
been put in the first room, they are placed in the second, and so on
successively. The consequence is, that though one or two cells may be
without fire, the others contain it ; besides which fire is always burning
in the chambers wherein the fuel is prepared, the door of which is
never stopped, while its temperature ranges from 36° to 38°. All these
fires produce a degree of heat which diffuses itself through the whole
building, and maintains even in those rooms which are without fires
a temperature varying from 27° to 274°. On the 14th day another
operation is performed. Half the eggs are left in the inferior room
(fig. 8th) and the other half are brought to the upper one upon a cir-
cular bed of tow (fig. 9th); in this way they continue wrapping
them up two or three times a day, but without bringing down those
from above, or carrying up those from below. ‘To this operation of di-
viding the eggs they do not attach much importance. During my ob-
_ servations of the operation, this division was not executed till the 16th
day, because they had no tow ready to prepare the circular bed with.
When the eggs are divided, the man does not enter again through the
44 On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. [ JAN.
door of the superior stove, but through that of the inferior one, arrang-
ing the eggs below ; afterwards standing up he pushes his head and
arms through the hole of the roof, and arranges those above.
The eggs which have not been in the oven eight days they call «sp
(el tart) the fresh. I have eaten some of them after two or three
days baking, and they were good. Towards the sixth or seventh
day, they look at them before a light. Imf the egg appears opaque and
obscure, it is inferred that the operation will succeed ; on the contrary,
if it is transparent and white, they conclude that the chicken will not be
formed. The people who keep the oven eat these eggs or sell them.
They have the appearance and taste of boiled eggs. Those which
go on without fire after the eighth day they call ¢ gio (meléh) the
good. Lastly, those which have continued more than twelve days.
in the cells they call bo Summa (el mésku) which has taken; or that
wherein the chicken is already formed. The cells where eggs are
divided half below and half above, as they are placed after the
fourteenth day, have their doors constantly stopped with great care. .
During the last days of the process the hole of the top of the vault is not
only stopped with tow, but with a great deal of earth upon the tow.
Four or five days before the end of the operation, the door in the upper
stove being open, as well as the hole of the vault, the thermometer in-
dicates 26°, the hole being stopped 274°, and the door being stopped 27°.
Two days before the birth of the chicken, being all well stopped, the
temperature reached to 25°, and the day before to 284°. At the mo-
ment that the chickens are coming to life the heat is 284°; and in the
inferior stove, in which there are about a thousand recently born, 30° ;
an augmentation which proceeds no doubt from the animal heat of the
. young birds, since there is no fire in the room, nor has there been any
in it for thirteen days.
It is also curious to observe that the temperature varied during
the last few days ; this probably is the effect of the animal heat which
begins to develope itself in the inside of the eggs.
If we reconsider all the facts I have detailed, we shall see that the
hatching of which we are speaking, consists only in applying to the egg
equally and regularly during twenty-one complete days, a degree of heat
which beginning with 33° or 34° of Reaumur, falls to 274° or 27°, and
rises again to 28° or 29° with the help of the animal caloric, produced
by nature in the process of hatching.
As soon as the chickens are born, the egg-shells are thrown away.
The eggs of the inferior stove are carried to the upper, and the chicken
to the inferior, which is reserved for them. These are treated with
——— ee se ee
1839.| On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. 45
very little care. They take them up in handsful and throw them
below. Here they remain till the subsequent day, on which they
are draw out to the corridor, where they pass some hours ; sometimes
one whole day. After this they are carried in covered baskets to par-
ticular houses, as will be explained, where they begin to eat ground
corn or hard eggs. During the day they are exposed to the sun ; be-
fore sunset they are carried to a room to be sheltered from the cold.
The Arabs never help the chicken in breaking the egg-shell.
During the hatching at which I was present, the natural tempera-
ture in the shade varied from 13° to 16°; the day on which the chick-
ens were born it was 16°, and the thermometer exposed to the sun
about midday marked 29°. On the subsequent day, under the same
circumstances, it rose to 333°. The weather was always perfectly
fair excepting the fifteenth day, on which a little rain fell during the
night. All the apertures were on that occasion well shut up, and the
dampness produced no bad effects.
I have always placed the thermometer in the upper stove (n. fig. 3)
in which the fire existed. ‘That which served me for these observa-
tions compared with others of Reaumur’s, was found to be rather lower
than these.
The oven in which I studied this description, began its labours on
the 2d of February last. Generally they begin fifteen or twenty days
later. The hatching season closes in the month of June at the latest.
In the midst of summer the sun is more powerful, and the eggs
more abundant and cheap. Why, then should this operation be prac-
tised in the spring ?
To give a satisfactory answer to this objection, there must be
facts of which I am not possessed, never having had either opportu-
nity or time to set one of the ovens in operation during the hot
season. However I am fully convinced in my own mind that
spring is the season best calculated for this operation in Egypt,
according to the present mode of working ; for the first inventors of
these ovens would not have fixed upon this season but through expe-
rience, having no doubt made repeated trials.
Where facts are wanting, conjectures founded on observations
and reason, may frequently in a great measure supply the deficiency ;
I shall therefore state what I conceive to be the reasons for giving
spring the preference to summer in the lighting of the ovens.
1. During the spring months a hot southerly wind prevails, which
ceases at the commencement of summer, yielding to a strong, cold,
northerly one; this fills the whole atmosphere with dust and fine
sand, of which there is such abundance in Egypt; it is therefore im-
46 On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. [J AN.
possible that the little tender chickens just hatched should be able to
withstand the inclemency of such weather ; whereas if hatched in spring,
they become strong enough before summer sets in.
2. The great difficulty of collecting a sufficient quantity of fresh
eggs during the summer, must be a decided objection for putting them
into the ovens at that time, for in five or six days all the eggs become
spoilt, and it takes some time to gather the required number of eggs ;
indeed this is the reason which the natives themselves assign when
questioned on the subject.
Whatever may be the weight attached to these opinions, yet the
very circumstance of this artificial hatching being practised in spring
furnishes us with a strong proof that its introduction not only in hot
but in temperate climates is feasible.
In this firm conviction, and with the anxious desire of its adoption
in other countries with success, I shall venture to offer a few remarks
which I trust will be profitable.
Without waiting to shew the different modifications and improve-
ments of which the Egyptian ovens are capable, I shall only mention
that the system of large ovens is subject to many inconveniences.
1. This work becomes a monopoly to a few, and Government
consequently levy a tax on the establishment. _
2. The collecting of so many thousand fresh eggs becomes a work
of labour and expense.
3. Taking care of the newly-hatched chickens would be attend-
ed with immense trouble and loss; for at sunset they must be placed
in a warm room, their food and drink must be attended to, and
cleanliness, and other little cares, must-not be neglected to rear them,
whilst the oven-keeper must be looking after more fresh eggs to
continue his subsistence. In fact, these serious inconveniences have
been felt and remedies adopted.
In some districts people bring eggs to the ovens on their own
account; these they mark with ink or otherwise, and pay the proprie-
tor for the use of the oven and his superintendence, taking the chickens
away when hatched.
In other districts Government allot six or eight villages for the exclu-
sive use of the oven-proprietors, to whom alone the villagers must sell
the eggs. In this case the proprietor farms out a certain number of
chickens to several poor families, either paying them when the fowls are
sold for the trouble of rearing them up, or receiving back generally one
half for the number of chickens given; the persons taking as many
above that number as they may have succeeded in rearing, as a com-
pensation for their trouble.
1839.] On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. 47
A small oven worked by a single family on their own risk and
profit, would be free from these inconveniences, and no doubt would
remunerate them for their labour and expense.
An oven for that purpose ought to be of a rectangular shape, made
of baked clay, 3 feet high and 3 feet broad, and from 4 to 6 feet long,
with a double roof, so that the fire might be spread evenly on the whole.
The lower roof should have a hole to allow of the heat passing into the
oven where the eggs are. ‘The upper roof must have an aperture for
the smoke to issue, and if necessary to lessen the heat, and also for the
purpose of introducing a thermometer. ‘This aperture should be made
like the lid of a box to lift up, for the greater convenience of removing
the ashes, and renewing the fire; one of the walls of the oven should
be made to open to admit of the hands being introduced to remove and
shift the position of the eggs.
This oven moreover must be kept in a closed room, out of the way
of any current of air; while the room where the oven is placed would
be further useful for keeping the newly-hatched chickens till they gain
strength.
Perhaps it would be an improvement if the oven were made with a
double wall an inch or two apart, and the space filled up with some
non-conductor of caloric, such as cork or triturated charcoal.
I think that any potter could make such an oven for the sum of five
or ten shillings, and that this artificial hatching might thus be car-
ried on in almost every country house, on a small scale, at all seasons
of the year, particularly summer, with successful results. A high tem-
perature must of course be more favourable than a low one for this
process. In Egypt itself this fact is acknowledged by a common pro-
verb among the people,
gods US, toys gS gery US Spill GS
cytes Slay a Ut KiS
** The chicken of the bean (i. e. the chicken hatched at the season
of beans) eat and die; the chicken of the mulberry eat and die; but
the chicken of the apricot eat and thrive.” The season for beans is in
February, and that of apricots in May.
Besides this, a curious circumstance once occurred which still more
strongly proves that this is the best season for hatching. Three eggs
were forgotten, and left in a basket in July in the house of Mr. Aime
_ at Cairo; these were hatched spontaneously, and produced three
chickens which thrived. Why should not then two or three hundred
in a smal] oven succeed ?
48 On the Egyptian system of Artificial Hatching. [ JAN.
Before I conclude this brief account, I would just mention that this
artificial mode of hatching will apply equally to turkey’s eggs. Several
Europeans had put them into the ovens in Egypt, and a few did suc-
ceed in being hatched, but Arabs being totally ignorant of the prin-
ciples of the oven-hatching, they subjected them to the same condi-
tions as fowl’s eggs—hence the failure of the greater number. But that
they might be hatched artificially was evident from some of the eggs
which were put in having been hatched. By this means the supply
of turkeys would also be cheap and abundant.
I have no doubt that if this artificial] hatching of turkeys as well
as fowls were introduced into any country, and commonly adopted in
farm houses, it would tend greatly to the advantage of the land.
References to the Plate.
lst. General plan of the oven.
2d. Section of the corridor F G H IL.
3d. Section of one cell in the direction of the corridor F G H I.
4th Section of one cell in the direction of the corridor A B C D.
oth. Floor of the upper story of one cell.
6th. Floor of the upper story of the cell Y.
7th. Floor of the under story of a cell.
8th. Floor of the under story of a cell after the 14th day.
9th Floor of the upper story of a cell after the 14th day.
Art. VII.—Report on the Mortality among Officers and Men in
H. M. Service in Bengal, and on the comparative salubrity of
different Stations. By the late Dr. W. A. Burxker, Inspector-
General of Hospitals.*
To W. W. Birp, Esa.
President of the Committee for the Insurance of Lives in India.
Sir,
I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, which
a protracted and severe illness. prevented my replying to as soon as I
could have wished. I shall now endeavour as faras possible to comply
with the request of the Committee in affording all the information
in my power regarding mortality in the rank of officers as well as men
* For this very valuable paper we are indebted to Mr. Martin, the Surgeon to
the Native Hospital of Calcutta. Dr. Burke’s tabulated returns form an important
addition to our knowledge of the laws of vital statistics. In connexion with this
paper the reader should consult Mr. H. T. Prinsep’s paper on the “* Value of Life in
~ the Civil Service.””—Journal of the Asiatic Society, 1832, p. 277, and 1837, p. 341;
and his ‘‘’Table of Mortality,’’ founded on the registers of the Lower Orphan School,
1838, p. 818.—Eb. ;
..
f fp At j ay
apr ay y aug yy exe prot rele ft pad yous? ip
]
Pai, +, % 9 et 4 Lat
SAS eh Fr haha et Fs pr asegpior: s Ep
‘
=
aa
ee
8 Ta
Me ter oe Se
Oe alge
1839. ] Dr, Burke's Reports. 49
in His Majesty’s service in Bengal, and the comparative salubrity
or otherwise of the different Stations for European Troops in this com-
mand.
As to the healthiness of the Stations occupied by H. Majesty’s Troops
in Bengal, the following abstract from their Sick Returns will serve so
far, to afford the requisite information for a period of four years, as to
their comparative degree of health from 1830 to 1833 inclusive.
| Officers. Men | Women. Children.
Pec eete s a | Cars Se ee
ae Geel ees eee pla! | Siete bol By
21 13 (5 9] bo Bol So BO la 1 SS 1S 1 ao
Poe Pepe y eet fg Eel. 1 as ater en gp Ga ere,
3 ‘| 2/9 -5 3 aS & Ss ae Bt B&B |S-=| wal & Om} tx ©
Stations. |S| nmlSaleol mn | 28!) Pal 212s) On| wm 123] i
S| ol, AISe ev a) Sool 0 |e wm! & be o |. RY 5,
B{ Boole a, 2 oo 5] BS o{ sg! a |oe| fe
Galea eS | Se) Bele os) B5| Ss ele?
; FL | aan se ra an 2 = | Bn e 2 toe
SF les SS eS or eee
Meerut,.. ..| 4/222} 3)1°35} 5,900) 117) 1-98] 722} 16) 2°21)1,200) 59) 4-91
Cawnpore, ..| 4/226) 7/3°10) 5,950) 271) 4°55] 914; 37} 4:04/1,572)| 145) 9-22
Ghazeepore, ..} 4/109} 3/2°75) 3,754) 143) 3°80) 456) 15) 3-29} 845) 56} 6-62
Berhampore,..{ 4/118} 9|7°62} 3,515) 236) 6°77; 473) 27) 5°71} 865} 70) 8-09
Chinsurah,....| 4/119} 6/5:04} 2,523) 154) 6°10] 469} 28] 5:96} 756] 28] 3:70
Fort William, | 4/119} 715-88) 3,097; 235) 7°59) 447; 48]10.73| 761) 124)16:29
Kurnaul, .. ..| 3| 81} 1)1°23) 2,827; 85! 3°00) 404 7| 1°73} 679} 45) 6°62
Agra, .. -. +o} 2| G3} -.) ..| 1,913) 29) 1-31} 208 3] 1:45} 336] 30] 8-92
Dinapore,.. ..| 2| 56) 1/1-79| 12612} 56] 3-84] 189, 8} 4-23] 299] 37]12-37
Boglipore, ..| 1} 27) ..] «| 1,037; 41) 3°95; 119 1 5°05} 190) 16] 8-42
ChirraPoonjee,} 1! ..| . ae 38 6)15°79) 4 tis sie
Landour, es e080 4} 26 o¢@ Pah) 16 5°82) e ° eo ®
[er fe
| 4-43'7,503 | 610!
Among the Officers there were ten more deaths, but none of which
occurred in any of the above Stations, viz.—
LES SS ESOT SOS CER MEA ORR MGT EE Sn etc ag Art Dy
COME IVED's of 'c 6 o.s es ,n0 ons a A anastasia ce
PO A in ni Zi atin'se fy 0 8 s0 ashlee eis. als Vedat cis) 6 Gtk
At Sultanpore Benares............ i Cae oer toh
Sei he e 7 16 IRUIRD ai hoe GA RER, eeG |
On the Tis... vss. ue ae aie ages nd eo ore ic ial
Giving the following proportions of deaths among the Officers His
Majesty’s service for four years, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive—
¥
Total Total Total ratio of
Average strength Deaths, deaths to strength.
1140 47 412
Bf
5
50 Dr. Burke’s Reports. TJ an.
Among the Men also there were other deaths, not within the scope
of the foregoing Statement ; in consequence of which an abstract is give
to include the whole of the casualties regimentally among all His
Majesty’s Troops throughout the Bengal command, for the period
1830 to 1833. | |
¥
4 0 =f, oy n Se Set ot
3 oe Wen lee (Shee lees
Sore wale IS | © | £4 lSH S$] _- P
REGIMENTS. SSiaeeias_, 138 .SiQlABSsizcs] z a
Soi oss | Belo 2 135.1 8 2
Bolegriog jn | | eA |eeea) =z
Osi, . = a = 3 rs SI
BS Ba IAs 2 S wo = o
agses| 3s |<1o | A ja] &
Pas ee) ie Soe
llth Lt. Dragoons, ..| 4 |2,626 ot ST AS 92 | 3:50 | 18 3 a 5
W6th Lancers, .. ..| 4/2488] 121] 12/16 | 149 | 5-83 | 36/2 58
Sd. Buffs, ss 43,138 | 185 | 13] 7| 205] 653] 4/863
13th Lt. Infantry, ..| 4 (3,917) 87| 6| 4] 97| 301] 13|2#°
° i —
14th Foot, ., «1-1 (1,350 | 58 67 | 496| 08 23
. Es
16th Ditto, .. ..| 41/3047] 199 7 215 | 7-05 | 20 gg 8 é
26th Ditto, .. ..) 4/3447] 53] 3/24] 80] 232/10 lea
oom
Blst Ditto, - eof 413,925] 100] 18] 18} 136] 372] 8|8" ab
: Sams
38th Ditto, .. «| 413,927 | 146 | 20) 22) 188) 4781 4/8 2e8
: we DO 4,
44th Ditto, 4/3,510{ 135] 9 149) 424) uN 12 85
anes
49th Ditto, .. 4}2,909| 110] i] 2| 223] 766] 8lasse
AAS
oo nee || oe ee
Total, .. ..| 0 [83,485] 1,369 | 107 |125 | 1,601 | 4-78 {133
Shewing the strength and deaths, and the ratio of deaths to strength,
in His Majesty’s Regiments, in the Bengal command.
Total Average Total Total ratio of
strength. Deaths. deaths to strength per cent.
DLP TS ii. so 33484 1601 4:78.
_ It is to be observed that the strength of the troops in this statement
4s as given in the Regimental Returns on the Ist January of each
year, and which differs from the mean annual strength; the latter
being 32041, the ratio of total deaths to it is 4:99. In the different
Stations of His Majesty’s Regiments in the Presidency of Bengal,
there is so little difference in the periods and duration of the seasons,
as well as in their general temperature and climate, that it is upon
the innate features of each Station itself, and from the data afforded by
1839.] Dr. Burke's Reports. 51
its Returns, that its comparative salubrity would appear to be best
deduced.
The steadiness or mutability of the climate, or considerable anoma-
lies of weather, or physical properties, seem more to influence the
health of the troops than either its heat or its cold, abstractedly consi-
dered.
The causes of sickness in many Stations must be traced to other
sources than climate.
The soil of Bengal being composed of alluvial matter, formed by
the detritus carried down by the great rivers, and accumulated for ages,
there is a poison in the exhalations of such soils, the nature of which
is unknown; but from it emanate all those species and varieties of
fevers, (dependent on marsh miasma as their remote cause) so fre-
quent in Bengal, and to which one general character appertains—
periodicity, or remissions, and exacerbations.
A large proportion however of the cases of sickness and deaths
among the European soldiers, may be more or less attributed to ex-
cesses, especially in the use of spirituous liquors.
The relative healthiness of each Station is according to the Returns,
as follows, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive—
Deaths to strength.
Pott Wiig 16. 7. So oes escvceewee . {09 per cent.
Berhampore: . 2. 2) 68 04 Ses Lee ee 6°77
Chinsurah ....... eee ae soie'> sm twee od GLO
Daemmete srr ees ee ee ce. te scan = 4°55
POR IIONS u Fie a I ia Sapa tnstinanatoiconor aeha onpvork esas B95
Dinapore ........ Tote ee cc ae ae 3°84
Ghazeepore........ tei pretty heal We ces 3°80
IROEUT ohersngs = gah au) «ety ole aaa jaan: ie) = BY 3°00
DECOR cree Seer ee ye oe more t-OG
Ba EPR es ron Sethe! clan soartnk tas Senet Ghtins a alle aie Ooms 19)
There are given Classification Tables, taken from the Regimental
Returns, shewing the different classes, numbers, ages, and deaths, of
the soldiers of His Majesty’s service in Bengal for the years 1826 to
1833, viz.
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Dr. Burke's Reports. (Jan.
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Dr. Burke's Reports.
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1839. | Dr. Burke's Reports. | | 61
The General Abstract of the foregoing shews that for the four first
years, viz. 1826-27-28 and 29 the ratio of deaths is,
From the age of 18 to 20 years 16:12 per cent.
90085. (4) +988 seoy
ad tO 20 «5, AOS 3
iam 20. t0.8> 3)”, 10:02 ¢ a
a a5 to 45. ,,, “54 a
For the four last years, viz. 1830-31-32 and 33, the ratio of deaths is,
From the age of 18 to 20 years 0°58 per cent.
"arto od” aes poe
in 25, AO). 5. DOO
SsvineetO Cooks, ap ae
% 35 to 45 4, 6°78
There will be observed a striking difference between the ratio of
deaths in each class of the two periods of four years; viz. first, from
1826 to 1829, and, second, from 1830 inclusive. But there is to be
taken into consideration, that in the first period there are included
the casualties (in 1826) of the Troops His Majesty’s service who
had been in active service at Bhurtpore, Ava, and Arrakan. During
the campaigns, in the latter places especially, the deaths from disease
among the young soldiers recently arrived in India, was very great.
Thus in the 13th Regiment Light Infantry, that had arrived in
India in May 1823, and was composed chiefly of young soldiers, the
mortality was,
Strength. | Deaths. Proportion.
At Bengal from May :
ety December. 1go8 653 45 689 for 8 months
At Aya in..,......1824 . ..608 231 37°99
Mendon i654): 441825 377 115 30°50
In the 38th Regiment, which arrived in Bengal in May 1823, the |
mortality was,
Strength. Deaths. Proportion.
In 1822 inBengal.. .. 748 94 12°65 per cent.
_ Im 1823 do. .. .. .. 695 D2 7°48
In 1824 in Ava .. .. 648 185 28°77
SeerG20 GD ss ee ts ADE 162 . 35°37
62 ‘Dr. Burke's Reports. | [ FAN.
In the 44th Regiment, which arrived from England in November
1822, the mortality was,
Strength. Deaths. Proportion.
‘In 1823 in Bengal 661 73 11:43 per cent.
In 1824 at ee ee 598 88 14-96
and Arrakan
In 1825 at Arrakan 500 208 40°60
There is a difference however in the mortality of young recruits of
Regiments when on active service, and the contrary ; as, for example,
in the 13th Light Infantry, which in 1826 in Bengal was joined by
600 recruits, of whom there died in that year 79, being a proportion
of 13:16 per cent in Bengal.
His Majesty’s 3lst Regiment arrived in Bengal in June 1825, and
was joined in that year by 500 recruits, of whom there died 65, a
proportion of 11 per cent, in Bengal.
The volunteers are generally men from the age of 30 to 30, in
which class the ratio of deaths from 1826 to 1829 (including a period
of active service) was 6°92, while during the same period, the ratio in
the class from 18 to 20 years was 16:12 per cent.
Besides the sending from England of lads too young for the service
in India, there was another important circumstance as affecting their
health, which was that of their having been sent out at improper
periods ; for they arrived in Bengal at the hot and rainy seasons, found
to be more especially obnoxious to the lad or boy recruits; and of
such, unfortunately, was the chief part of those sent out in 1826 to
1829, as well as before.
From the difference of habits of “military and civil life, young
‘soldiers are in every climate peculiarly liable to disease, and c@(erds
paribus the younger the more susceptible to feel the change; and
this change has a direct tendency to induce a highly inflammatory
diathesis, leading to such explosions of disease as witnessed here among
the recruits. The tendency to disease exists it-is true in all seasons
in India in the young and plethoric, but it is in the hot and rainy
seasons, and particularly at the commencement and termination of the
rains, that endemial diseases are most dangerous, and fatal ; yet this
was the very time at which these recruits principally arrived in
Bengal.
I took the earliest opportunity, and seized every occasion, to make
the strongest representations on these important subjects, and of
sending out soldiers for His Majesty’s service to India at proper
1839. | Dr. Burke's Reports. | 63
age, and season ; and there are on record my memorials on these
subjects to the Commander-in-Chief in India, and to the Medical
Department in England—of December 23d, 1826 ; May 3ist, 1827 ; 6th
January, 1828; and_ December, 1829—and upon which the Home
authorities at last acted. In these memorials it was represented
by me,
lst. That the soldier should arrive in India at the ege and period
when he can be of the greatest use when called upon for actual
service. That age to be 24 or 26, or full grown manhood, as most
- favourable to health, and least so to disease in India.
2nd. That recruits and soldiers should be embarked in England,
so as to arrive in Bengal at the commencement of the cool season,
when they might be marched to their several Stations up the country,
instead of proceeding by the river.
These memorials I accompanied with various statements; such
as those in this communication, in proof of the great comparative
mortality among the lad recruits particularly; as also the com-
parative mortality between the soldiers arriving in Bengal in the hot
and in the cool season, as by the following abstract of statements from
December 1825, to July 1829, of casualties of detachments His
Majesty’s service, arriving in Bengal from England, being,
In the cold season, per cent, Mo te erate client, Neen, MOI
In the hot season, yi Re ee cee Mecca oot, en)
Proceeding by water to join thst « COGS tee ats vate 5's» GSO
On marching to join their corps, Brel Neen aco Vee ort ta a UG)
Average of casualties on the voyage out, -. -. .. .. 1°50
Average of casualties from the date of arrival in Bengal
to joining their corps, .. .. ests 675
Ditto of casualties of the whole of ca detachments )
from their eee England to Join their corps in 8-0
Bengal, ai Seg | MER og Se mesP ay
The accompanying Returns* elucidate these subjects still further,
shewing the state of each Regiment His Majesty’s service, their
strength, the numbers who joined, and that died, from the date of
their arrival in the Bengal command to the 31st December last.
On consulting the monthly admissions in the returns of sick, an
abstract from which is given on the other side, the number of cases
of disease (and they are particularly of the acute kind) and casual-
_ ties, will be observed to correspond in a most remarkable manner with
the range of the thermometer, especially at the Stations in Upper
India ; and so great is the difference between the cold season and the
* The Returns alluded to, will form an appendix to the next Number.—Ep.
64 Dr. Burke's Reports. [ Jan.
\
hot, that a partial illustration is afforded: of the influence of climate
which sets all theory on the subject at defiance.
Among the soldiers exposed to the same degree of heat, the influence
of the ingesta seems to be more powerfully injurious to the constitu-
tion than climate. There is a marked difference in the ratio of sick and
- easualties between the Cavalry and Infantry Regiments, stationed in
- the same cantonments, of His Majesty's service in India, in favour
of the latter. In the Cavalry the soldier’s pay is greater, and among
them a superabundance of stimulant food and drink keeps so great
a number in an almost perpetual state of proximity to inflammatory
diseases.
During the cold months the men continually expose themselves,
especially in the Upper Stations, to the direct rays of the sun, which
is a great cause of disease, even when all accumulation of heat is pre-
vented by the coolness of the breeze, for then the infringing of the
direct rays of the sun upon an opaque body causes a greater increase of
temperature than is observable by a thermometer.
Abstract from the Monthly Returns of Sick shewing the proportion —
of the average daily sick, and of deaths to strength per cent for
four years. 6
oe
Proportion of the average
daily sick to. strength per
cent.
|Proportion of deaths to
| strength per cent.
Months,
|
|
otal proportion of the
proportion of deaths
ge daily sick to
to strength per cent.
strength per cent.
1830|1831)1832) 1833
avera
1830/1831] 1832] 1833
rc
T
| Total
January, .-| 712| 5-94] 6-33] 5-45} 621) 26, 23) 31) 15] 24
February, 7:58} 5°85) 5:96) 5:52] 6:23) 20; 10) 12} 18) 15
March, 8°64| 5:80} 6-10) 5°89} 661) 18) 19) 15) 15) 17
April, .---| 9:24) 7:14] 6-88) 6:22} 7:37; 28) 19} 17; 15) 20
May, 9°75| 8:47] 7°88] 6°78] 8:22} 20; 44) 25] 25) 29
June, 9°34| 8°47] 7-36] 7:19} 8°09] 31) 37| 32] 37) 34
July, 9:14) 8:36! 7-61] 7°72] 8-21) 30| 44] 34] 74] 46
August....| 9°49) 9:10) 7-74/ 8-29) 8°65) 34) 47) 35] 74) 48
September, | 10°71} 8:32| 8-03] 9.79! 9-21] 71) 46) 43)1:15; 69
October, ..{ 8°92) 8:12) 8-20) 8-29} 8:36} 47; 64; 52) 30) 48
November, | 8:16] 7:18) 7:05] 7°79] 7°54| 51} 60] 43] 35] 47
December, |
-6°77| 7-06 6-23] 7:40 Pw 33; 221 gal 44} 38
Total, ....| 872) 748) 7-11'7-18! 7-62! 4:15| 4:39] 3°73] 4-98] 431 _
The sick at Landour and Chirra Poongee are not included in the above.
1839. | : Dr. Burke's Reports. 65
By the returns for four years, the minimum of sickness and deaths
‘occurs in February. January and it are the driest months. The maxi-
mum of sickness and deaths occurs in September ; being the cessation
of the rains, when the exhalations have brought the surface to the
consistence of mud—a state that appears especially to generate the
miasmata producing fevers, &c.
Berhampore.
With respect to the localities of the Stations “as affecting their
salubrity or otherwise,” as required by the Committee, I have in
reference to the return of the sick, &c. at the several Stations, given
at the commencement, further to add, that at the Station of Berham-
pore, the Barracks are so placed, that one particularly is close to a
large stagnant tank, into which the sewers of the Barracks and
necessaries, &c, empty themselves, so that in the dry and hot season
especially, the men are enveloped in the stench from it. That the
influence of its exhalations spreads far, I have no doubt. The malaria
from it, as well as numerous other sources, is of course the active cause
of much of the mischief that infests the Station of Berhampore.
For the period of four years, from 1830 to 1833, inclusive, the
average proportions of deaths to strength per cent was, af Berhampore,
PUAUGES ee arate Eo aM fata ta la ha “ep 762 per cent per annum.
Men ...... eUcheh. = RiVEMRESYerE eye & 6:77
OS eS ae eee 571
SMM PERE Sees 6 cn asshieh s Styne wea ie 8:09
Cholera prevailed epidemically in Berhampore in 1829 and 1830,
and commenced in the temporary sheds recently erected, (not far from -
the great tank before mentioned) for part of His Majesty’s troops;
after which it appeared in the women’s quarters—a low one-storied
brick-building ; afterwards on the ground story; and then in the
upper story of the Barracks next the great tank, &c.
Fort William.
In the Station of Fort William, in the Barracks generally occupied
by His Majesty’s troops, the apartments for the men are deficient
in height and ventilation. The buildings are too crowded together.
The estimate of space, and of domestic convenience, has been too con-
fined for the climate. ;
From the crowding of the buildings, and height and proximity
of the fortifications, the radiation of heat is not only very great, but
there is prevented the dissipation of those malarious vapours of which
there appears to be so copious a supply from various sources in Fort
William. | |
K
66 Dr. Burke's Reports. ' [ JAN.
One of the consequences of all these is, in the warm season especi-
ally, the men feel so oppressed at night that they Jeave their rooms and*
expose themselves to all the causes and bad effects of suppressed trans- —
piration.
The average ratio of mortality in His Majesty’s troops quartered
in Fort William is as follows, for four years from 1830 to 18338—
ite a ere eae Ar 5°88 per cent per annum.
LCD nese sis sate ols. «pear 9 s.0.6.0 7°59
PE coe a kas susan eye oh ee 10°73
RMIT ss pos soe 5s 0g gine a s.0. 2 16:29
Fort William is one of the worst, if not the very worst, of the Mili-
tary Stations in India for children.
Cawnpore.
In the Station of Cawnpore for the period of ree years, from 1830
to 1833, the average proportion of deaths to strength is,
Oficers.i er srajtoids.o dt wisalaut ote 3°10 per cent per annum.
Men. Pid: os eens - sganl- ani aae 4°55
WOMMEH ais bern wyere dente ob ee 4:04
PC BUGPR nig G6 6 pie ee «ese 2 ose 9°22
As to the locality of this cantonment, none of the Barrack build-
ings come close to the river, excepting the Hospital in which the sick of
the King’s Regiment of Infantry are, treated. The soil rests on asub-
stratum of Kunkur, which is favourable to the dryness of the Station.
The declivity of the site secures it against any accumulation of mois-
ture ; the drainage is also facilitated by several small ravines or gullies,
which intersect the cantonment, each of which during the rainy
season becomes a streamlet ; thus the water does not lodge, but runs
quickly off into the river (above which all the Barracks are sufficiently
elevated) or it is speedily absorbed, so that the wet season at Cawnpore
is generally found pleasanter than in many other Stations in Upper or
Central India.
The site of the Barracks of His Majesty’s Infantry Megihient i is
pretty high, that of the -King’s Cavalry Regiment not so high; but
that of all however is sufficiently elevated to allow of the water pass-
ing off.
The ground in the rear of the King’s Infantry Regiment’s Barracks
is broken in many places, by the violence of the periodical rains,
into deep fissures and ravines, containing numerous cavities, which,
however individually small, may form in the aggregate a consider-
1839. | Dr. Burke's Reports. ; 67
able deposit of stagnant water, which before its final evaporation
cannot fail to be an agent more or less active in the generation of
miasmata. :
In the Barracks for the European troops here, the plans adopted
by the architect would appear to have arisen from the idea of a
Regiment standing in open column of companies, which however
ingenious in a military point of view, is rather objectionable in a
medical one, as it makes one building a screen to another, and thus
opposes perfect perflation, an object of paramount importance where
masses of men are to be congregated together, and where a perpe-
tual current of air becomes the grand neutralizer of insalubrious
miasmata.
The prevailing winds are from the west and east, varying to the
north or south. If the buildings were placed in echelon this might
be prevented.
Meerut..
in the Station of Meerut the locality is in Meerut deemed good.
There are a few jheels and swamps in the vicinity ; but not near, or
considerable enough to have much effect on the health of the troops.
The country around is flat ; the soil is sandy, with a slight declination
to south sufficient to carry off the heavy rains into the Kallee Nuddy
to the eastward.
Notwithstanding the northern latitude of Meerut, considerably
without the tropics, and in the third climate, the heat is intense in
-the dry and hot season, and tropical diseases are prevalent during the
hot and rainy seasons. For the period of four years, from 1880 to 1833,
the average proportion of deaths to strength is, at Meerut,
eas espe so, sls 8) oa Yarisng eh ie 1:35 per cent per annum.
EE aio 2ii5\ clear ay folie ein jars @coNa wate 1-98
WV igmiiets( Sasisitinr. Mies isisicre%s dere 2:21
COLA ELT ate nS ee 4:91
The diseases are such as arise from sudden and considerable varia-
tions of temperature and malaria, and especially among the soldiers,
aggravated by exposure to the sun and intemperance.
Dinapore.
In the Station of Dinapore the aspect of the Barracks being the
reverse of what it should have been in respect to the prevailing winds,
free perflation is. prevented. The roof is flat and chunamed; the
length of each building is 800 feet, and width 20 feet; there is a
verandah on each side.
68 Dr. Burke's Reports. [Jan.
The masses of men, women, and children in ,these Barracks, is
another cause of the unhealthiness experienced generally in them by
the troops. There are no separate accommodations for the women and
children. The doors and windows are jealousied.
The cold weather here was generally ushered in by severe hepatic
and dysenteric affections. And in the oft season there were severe
ardent fevers, very sudden in their operation, and often terminating in
apoplexy.
In His Majesty’s 13th Light Infantry for the period of two years,
for 1830 and 1831 last, at Dinapore, the average proportion of deaths
to strength was,
/
CPIMMEIN Ah eerste es a eee Are oe 1-79 per cent per annum.
iL ia ae hipaa Beihai 3°84
Women og os en cece: os 4:23
COUGren see. Wes cae e eects 12°37
The facility with which the men could obtain toddy, and dele-
terious liquors in excess, was one great source of disease and mor-
tality, as also the difficulty of confining the men within bounds,
there being no enclosure to the Barrack compound.
The 13th being a Light Infantry corps, their movements were more
likely to expose them to profuse perspiration, and consequently to
more frequent alterations of heat and cold, with the usual bad effects.
Boglipore.
In the Station of Boglipore the Barracks formerly occupied by
His Majesty’s 3rd Buffs, were merely a set of buildings erected tem-
porarily in 1825 as stables for some Native Cavalry, and were very
inimical to health.
Ghazeepore.
The Station of Ghazeepore appears to hold a middle station as to
healthiness. ‘The soil is readily permeable by the rain falling on its
surface, which sinking down to a very considerable depth before it finds
a hard bottom to detain it, is soon out of reach of superficial evaporation,
and cannot afford the constant supply of moisture necessary in co-
operation with other agents to produce the maturity of marsh mias-
mata. From the continuation of these circumstances it might a prioré
be thought that the Station possesses to a great degree an immunity
from marsh miasmata. .
1839. | Dr. Burke's Reports. 69
For the period of four years, from 1830 to 1638, the average propor-
tion of deaths to strength is,
UENO OTS oi /a)a's 30's 4 '«, ne WHE oe 2°75 per cent per annum.
"LS nO lg ie oe NE iin pil ee 3°80
OND re hae 3'29
MME NY a cist ahaa: te & brie:'ch Sup adhedacore 6°62
Kurnaul.
In the Station of Kurnaul the locality of the Barracks for His Ma-
jesty’s Regiment is the best the place afforded. The soil generally is
light and sandy on the surface, but at the depth of 12 or 15 inches it
is a stiff clay ; in some parts however it is calcarious, (and of which the
natives make lime). The large canal in the immediate vicinity forms
an irregular semicircle near the Station, and tends in a great measure
to drain that part.
For the period of three years, from 1831 to 1833, inclusive, in which
it has been occupied by a King’s Regiment, the average proportion
of deaths to strength per cent is,
ROMNCCTO” oes CU eee cs eee 1:23 per cent per annum.
te ee, ot toe eee ets oes 3°00
RY amie ee ee ES 1°73
rdw ee OS PIED! 6°62
Agra.
In the Station of Agra the cantonment for His Majesty’s troops
is stated to be elevated about 170 feet above the level of the river
Jumna, from which the distance is about the same as from the Fort,
that is 14} mile. The immediate banks of the river are deeply in-
dented with water-courses, which serve to convey the rain water into
the river.
The 13th Light Infantry Regiment has been healthy ever since
its arrival there, a period of two years, in which there died 29 men;
but almost all of them had the foundation of their disease laid in
Dinapore. This comparative healthiness, as far as locality is con-
cerned, arises from the cantonment enjoying constant ventilation, the
water running immediately off, the drainage being good, and there
being no stagnant pools, or sources of malaria in the vicinity, and
especially that the troops are well accommodated, and so are the sick.
Setting aside intemperance, which is the cause of so many diseases
of the soldier in India, they may be said to have enjoyed a state of
health at Agra almost equal to what a Regiment would be found to
do in the healthiest parts of Europe.
70 Dr. Burke's Reports. [ JAN.
For the period of two years, for 1832 and 1833, in which there has
been a King’s Regiment in Agra, the average proportion of deaths to
strength per cent is,
PECTS AERO iicks cick. Zass see se eX ag
PPOr Ve Sa Pes oie ee ee Ses week 19]
WV OMT Asi kk Rie da. ae. ca Soaiinoell 1°45
Riibdtemiciciiicr: MR sadie. onitat.25- «jomkesateh 8:92
I have the honour, &c.
( Signed ) W. R. BURKE,
Inspect. Gen. Hospitals H. Majesty’s Forces in India.
—
RS
Art. VII.—Observations on the Burmese and Munipoor Varnish
Tree, “ Melanorrhea usitata,” which has lately blossomed in the
Honorable Company's Botanic Garden. By N.Wauutcu, M.D.
When I published my account of this tree in 1830,* I had only met
with it in fruit, and was obliged to confine the description of the
flower to what could be gathered from a few decayed and not very
perfect samples in my possession. The generic character was chiefly
derived from specimens of another species, Melanorrhea glabra,t
a native of the coast of Tenasserim. As I have recently had a tree of
M. usitaia in flower in this garden, I am able to furnish the following
details, accompanied by a lithographic sketch of a flowering panicle,
from a drawing made by one of the painters of the establishment.
The individual tree to which I allude is one among several which
were raised from Munipoor seeds presented by Mr. George Swinton.
The seeds were sown in July 1827, and began germinating exactly
a fortnight afterward. About the same period some seeds that had
been procured from Martaban, being more fresh, sprang up seven
days after being put into the ground. The trée which has blossomed
is the largest among the seventeen individuals which we at present
possess. It measures in height about 22 feet, with a clean stem of
seven feet, having a circumference near the base of 14 inches. It has
not many branches, and is now very scantily furnished with leaves.
It began opening its flowers on the 20th of January last, and continu-
ed nearly one whole month in flower. There are at present a small
number of fruits on the tree, which I expect will ripen in the
course of next month.
“* Plante Asiat. Rar. 1. p, 9. tab. 11 and 12.
+ Ibid 3. p. 50 ab, 283.
Melanorrhoca usttate Walt Z.
1839.] Observations on the Burmese and Munipoor Varnish Tree. 71
Panicles of flowers terminal on leafless branchlets, broad-oval,
spreading, much and loosely subdivided, 12 to 16 inches wide at the
base; the divisions cylindric, covered with much soft down. There
is a small linear, caducous bract under each branch. Flowers white,
inodorous, rather large, two or three in each fascicle, supported by
pedicels half an inch to an inch in length. Calyx smooth, consisting
of five sepals which are marginally soldered together into one,
forming a conical, attenuated, obtuse hood, slightly marked with paral-
lel veins; it falls off the instant the coralla is ready to expand,
leaving an annular vestige on the peduncle immediately under the
coralla ; its base circular, irregularly slit a little way, in four or
five places. Petals white, imbricating and slightly contorted in estiva-
tion, lanceolate-oblong, rather obtuse, with entire, a little undulated,
ciliated margins, thin and membranous, pubescent on both sides, mi-
nutely reticulated, half an inch long. Torus large, fleshy, hemispherical,
pitted for the insertion of the stamens, its base five-lobed. | Stamens
very numerous, straight, spreading in all directions, half the length of
the petals ; filaments subulate, smooth ; anthers oval, versatile. Ovary
very small, obliquely oval, smooth, supported from the centre of the
torus by a short, cylindric, pubescent pedicel, one-celled ; ovule sus-
pended from a lateral ascending funicle. Style rising obliquely from
the vertex of the ovary, subulate, not reaching to the ends of the
stamens. Stigma minute, obtuse.
The accompanying figure represents a panicle of flower reduced to
one half of its natural size. Fig. 1, flower-bud, the hooded calyx
commencing to detach itself, and at Fig. 3, completely separate. Fig. 2,
corolla in estivation. Fig. 4, the same fully expanded. Fig. 5,
petals separate, showing the pitted torus. Fig. 6, ovary opened show-
ing the insertion of the ovule.
72 Asiatic Society. 1839.
Art. [X.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
Wednesday Evening, the 2d January, 1839.
The Right Rev. the Lorp Bisuor of Calcutta, Vice-President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read.
The Meeting then proceeded to the election of Office-bearers for the ensuing year,
when the following gentlemen were chosen :—
The Right Rev. Lorp Bisuor of Calcutta,
The Honble. SirJ. P. Grant,
H. T. Pauiszp, Esq., ba Were elected Vice-Presidents.
Col D. MacLeop, J
Mr. W. Cracrort, Capt. Forszs,
Mr. W. P. Grant, Dr. STEWART ]
Mr. D. Hike » : vasa : aia Rahal of the Committee of
Dr. Geo. Evans, Dr. meneck cha
Dr. M‘CLELLAND,
Dr. Gooprvsz and Mr. R. O’SHavuecunessy, proposed at the last Meeting, were
balloted for, and duly Spl Miomiers of the Society.
Messrs. A. Porteous and J. Cowl were proposed by the Officiating Secretary,
seconded by the Vice-President.
Dr. O’SHAUGHNESSY apprised the Meeting that the Committee of Finance had
recommended 20 rupees per mensem, as an increase to the Clerk HERAMBANATH
THAKUR’S salary.
Resolved,—That the meeting approve of the decision of the Committee of Finance,
and that it take effect from the date of the Clerk’s application. :
Read a letter from J. K. Kane, Esq., Secretary of the American Philosophical
Society, acknowledging receipt of the first part of vols. 19 and 20 of the Asiatic
Researches, and vols. 5 and 6 of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.
. Library.
Read a letter from J. Vaucuan, Esq., Librarian of the American Philosophical
Society, forwarding the following works for presentation to the Society—
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol 6, Part 1, New Series.
Transactions of the Literary and Historical Committee of the Society.
Read a letter from M. Cassin, Book Agent of the Society in Paris, enclosing
account of sales of oriental publications sold by himin France, and forwarding from
the proceeds thereof several recent publications for the use of the Society. He had
likewise sent several books for sale in this country.
Resolved,—That the books for sale be advertized on the cover of the Journal,
Asiatic Society, with their prices. *
A brochure by the Royal Society of Camwell, presented by Capt. . fs JENKINS
through Dr. Watuicu.
Meteorological Registers kept at the Mauritius, during the last six mit of 1836,
and first six months of 1837, were presented by M. JuLien DESJARDINS, Secretary
of the Natural History Society of the Mauritius.
Read a letter from MapuusHupaNna Gupra, forwarding specimens of the plates for
the “ Sarira Vidya’ engraved by Native artists.
The Officiating Secretary with reference to the very high cost and inferior execution
of the plates submitted, proposed a reference by the overland mail to Professors
Quain and Paxton, by whose friendly co-operation he had no doubt casts of their
anatomical wood-cuts could be procured at half the price, and in half the time the
Native artist would require.
The proposition” was seconded by Baboo Ramcomun Sen, and unanimously
agreed to.
“
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 73
Antiquities.
Read a letter from J. P. Grant, Esq., Officiating Secretary to the Government of
India, intimating that measures have been taken by the local authorities to prevent
any further dismantling of the Kanarak temple, or Black Pagoda.
Museum.
Read a letter from Major Hay, with reference to a Museum of Natural History
collected by him from the Cape and the Eastern Archipelago,
Resolved,—That the Officiating Secretary be requested to inform Major Hay, that
the present state of their funds entirely precludes their purchase of his collection, but
that the Society will be happy to allow the use of their rooms for the reception of the
specimens, and to employ their establishment for their care and preservation. It
was further decided that the Society make a repre }O8 Government on the
subject.
The pee eine Secretary ‘hen laid before the Meeting the Annual Report of the
past year’s transactions.
[This Report will appear in a subsequent number. |
Baboo Ramcomut SEN submitted the Account Current of the Society for the past
year, in which a balance of rupees 7,759: 1: 2 stands in favour of the Society on the
3lst December, 1838.
{The Account Current will be found at the end. ]
Proposed by Baboo Ramcomut SEN, seconded by Mr. Harz, and unanimously
agreed, that a sum ofrupees 4,500 be invested in Company’s five per cent. Govern-
ment Securities.
The Officiating Secretary informed the Meeting, that with reference to a communi-
eation made by him to Messrs. SHERRIFF and Co. regarding the repairs of the Society’s
house, that these architects report that the roof of the house is in a very ruinous state,
and unless immediate steps are taken, serious danger is apprehended. .
Mr. H. T. Prinsep remarked that Mr. JamEs Prinsep thought that additional
rooms might be built for the Museum.
Resolved,—That Col. MacLeop be requested to furnish a plan to that effect, and
an estimate of the probable expense, in order that the Society may determine on
the subject at their next Meeting.
After the conclusion of the routine business, Mr. H. T. Prinsep called the at-
tention of the Members present to M. Masson’s large collection of coins and relics
then exhibited on the table.
This collection Mr. PrinsEp stated had been made from the funds advanced to
M. Masson by the Government; the proceeds having been forwarded through Col.
Porrincer to Bombay for transmission to the Honble. Company’s Museum in
England, were ordered by the Right Honble. the Governor General to be first sent
to Caleutta for examination and arrangement by the gentlemen connected with
this Society.
The articles having consequently been sent round in the “ John Adam’’ from Bombay,
were laid upon the table of the Society in order that if any gentlemen were dis-
posed to undertake their examination and arrangement, the Society might form them
* into a Committee for the purpose.
The collection consisted of some hundred gold and silver coins and several thousand
copper coins.
Some discussion arose as to the steps to be taken by the Society with this collection.
By an unfortunate coincidence, all the leading numismatologists of the Society being
absent from Calcutta, either through illness (as Mr. James Prinsep and Professor
* Matan,) oron Military duty (as Col. Sracy, Capt. Cunnineuam, and Mr. TREGEAR)
it was suggested that the Government be requested to forward the collection to
England, where the Court of Directors might refer the examination to Mr. J. Prinsep,
who will no doubt be happy te meet the wishes of the Court.
- L
*
Asiatic Society.
peas id Asiatic Society,
[ JAN. 3
Establishment and Charges.
To paid Secretary’s Office Establishment, from December
1837 to 30th November, 1838.....-..ee0e Bie ean AE oe
»» Dittoefor Contingent charges......seeeseee .
Oriental Library. s
,, Paid Establishment for the Custody of Oriental Books
deposited by Government, from ditto to ditto, at 78 Rs.
Labrary and Charges.
»,» Paid Establishment, from ditto to ditto.... 1,627 15 0
», Contingent Charges........ 2 ine usliaia Renkaties'» epee ee bo
s7 ce OF DiNd UMP EPOOKS « 4.5 sai» on of, oe et ars ae 285 12 O
Museum.
», Paid Establishment, from ditto to ditto .. 2,619°11 6
35 COMMOPENDOUATSES ys os rec aade samidinstee ity Toda AiO
9° Miieina Oepinitets. 0%... osc. 5 5 eons @ oe6se 246 O QC
Printing.
,, Paid Mr. Huttman for printing 20th vol. Ist. part of the
Researches. 2... acce cccccecs conppvnincs ve asioviee's ve
4 mossinauth for plates.. » 6 «:jeie0:9:4 qelMlme «06 406 » MSC aa
»» der. Eluttman for Paper for dittor sc. ..s0c0 o>. ose bode «
>» Munnoololl for Oriental Catalogues... 2... cess eevee ,
Building.
,», Paid for making a Cook Room for the Librarian in the
Becretary’s CCl’ x6 anle's «.caleleeiene ve vie
Journal Asiatic Society.
», Paid J. Prinsep, Esq. for the Journal Asiatic Society
being supplied to the Members of the Society in 1837.
,, Remitted to England for the bust of Mr. Wilson.......|.
Establishment and Charges for the Statistical Committee.
,, Paid Establishment for the Statistical Committee... ....
Balance in the Bank of Bengal... wre ce eeees weeenees
Co’s,
TUPeesienitieas els
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0
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for the year 1838. — Cr.
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By Balance of account closed up to 3lst Dec. 1837... .. soesreseoves| 2020 3 10
Members. |
,, Collections made for quarterly Contributions and ad-|
mission fee from January to December, 1838.... ....) 7,848 15 6 ©
Subscriptions for Busts. si :
_ »» Subscriptions made for the Busts of Sir William J ones, |
H, T. Colebrooke, and H, H. Wilson.... .seee. seee] 1,778 O OO] ®
\———___—_—| 9,626 15 6
Government Allowance. | E
,, Cash received from the Sub-Treasurer, allowance for the}
Custody of Oriental Books tr ansferred from the College}
of Fort William, from Ist Dec. 1837 to 30th Nov. 1838,|
Be Ge. coon ease Abe See Leta Moa. «atatos od ae. rO
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et gpd Moy. 15s0 af 900 Hs. cs cacao ss ene mmaad oU:,.O- 0
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posited with the Govt. Agent up to 30th June, 1838.,.] 803 5 2
i eel 4,402 6 3
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RAMCOMUL SEN,
f Officiating Secretary Asiatic Society.
Caucurta, of é . é
31st December, 1838.
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 86.—FEBRUARY, 1839.
Art. 1.— Report on the Settlement of the ceded portion of the Dis-
trict of Azimgurh, commonly called Chuklah Azimgurh, by
J. Tuomason, Esq. Collector of Azimgurh, dated Agra, De-
cember 16th, 18377.
Ist. The completion of the settlement of Chuklah Azimgurh,
affords the opportunity for offering some remarks on its state. The
settlement operations have extended from the year 1833 to 1837, and
been conducted either by myself, or others acting under my superin-
tendence. I am hence desirous to place on record the principles
which have guided me, and to note some circumstances, a correct
understanding of which is essential to the future prosperity of the
district. My remarks are intended to be strictly practical, and to
convey impressions and opinions having reference to the locality.
2nd. A brief statistical account of the Chuklah will form a fitting
introduction to the subject.
ord. It lies between the 25th and 27th degrees of north latitude,
and the 82nd and 84th degrees of east longitude. It is bounded on
the west by the Oude territories, on the north by the river Goggra
and district of Goruckpore, and on the-south and east by the river of
Benares. The country is generally low, with water near the surface,
and abounding in large jheels, or lakes. It is traversed from west
to east by several rivers or streams, all of which take their rise from
lakes situated either in the district itself or in Oude, at a short dis-
tance to the west between the Gogera and the Goomtee, and fall into
_the Ganges; of these the Surjoo and the Tonse are navigable during
the rains, whilst the Phurchee, the Koonwur, the Bainsehee, the
Munglaai, the Beysoo, and the Gunghee, are never navigable, but are
highly valued for the irrigation which they extensively supply.
M
78 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Fss.
4th. The soil is generally fertile, and peculiarly adapted for the
cultivation of the Sugar-cane. There are however Salt or Oosur
plains, which no culture can ever render productive.
5th. The size and general character of the several sub-divisions of
the district will best appear from the following tables. They show the
arrangements which have been made for the fiscal and civil adminis-
tration and for the police of the district, and the charge which the .
establishments constitute on the resources of the district.
I.
Table showing the size and resources of the several Pergunnah
Divisions of the Chuklah.
Name Name Se Nae eee 5 mPa sg
of of S |seclesylase| 42 [eee |
Pergunnah. Tuppah SH te) lg See eer ee 2se rs
om Chey a) ~~
S$ |RCAScHiess| ss | Bee St
Zz |< a < = 0) dala De
Aitenee, ¢ & 4 ..| 361| 43,867] 22,642] 7,989] 74,498] 81,587] 46,271
fermen, (os RUBS PH) ae) Saul ae ae
Go al oor, ee ee ee 2 > > F) > ’
Suggiee,.. |Akberpoor, ..| 71} 7,120] 17353] 6,620| 15,093) 14’918| 10,599
Buchour, .-| 40] 38,203) 720) 1,681 5,604 5,656) 3,494
Baroohhur, ..| 37| 3,117] | 808] 3,126] 7,051] 888i] 4,710
Birman, ..._..| _35| 3,975] 1,055} 3,330) 8,360] 7,498] 4,461
Bindrowl, .. —..| 120} 11,327] 1,986) 13,136] 26,449} 24,447! 18,886
Bilaree, .. ..| 72] 6,086) 1,45]| 5,651] 13,688] 14,245] 9,806
Chinchool, | 92]10,536] 5,316) 9,494! 25,345) 16,794| 12,059
Havelee ae 93| 4,684] 1,180| 3,866 9,730 8,630) 9,595
mabad, ee 2 5)
Khas, .e «| 64} 8,202) 7,689} 8,152] 24,043} 14,558) 10,908
Koorkoonar, 52] 6,118} 1,556} 3,876} 11,550} 12,019) 3,983
—— | —— | ff fF
Total of P even 676| 64,867 | 23,114] 58,932| 1,46,913] 1,27,646| 84,501
Sugegree, ..
Ghosee, ... Jonas AD Seder 60 9,760] 4,152} 3,971] 17,883 ~ 90,507 7,319
Havelee, ...... 159| 14,800} 8,039] 15,727| 38,566 28,271) 11,416
Simree, .... ..| 28] 38,750] 2,401) 5,532] 11,683] 7,951) 2,473
Koorhunee, ....| 65) 8,783] 3,717) 7,121] 19,621] 17,560! 9,958
Gontha, .. ..| 63] 8,118] 3,109] 6,214) 17,441} 19,790] 11,506
Chow © °*8™2 | 375] 45,211] 21,418] 38,565! 1,05,194] 94,079) 42,672
——
te ff
Mithoopoor,|.>. .. ..| 327] 38,647| 10,276|26,784| 75,707 | 58,887-6| 38,724
Uturahee Roo-
shungunge, oe.
pooeenee ef | ee | cece eee | ee
Mahol, .... : 89] 22,006] 7,101|17,429| 46,636] 46,926| 29,481
1839.]
Report on the District of Azimgurh.
19
Table showing the size and resources of the several Pergunnah
Divisions of the Chuklah.—( Continued.)
Population.
14,107
30,863
22,215
96,666
18,407
19, 106
1,83,617
2,706
2,004
aes Se
27,412
6,472
8,421
14,893
1,369
22,800
a, ee 182 (feo) & em
BA oe ee oe | ae [ee
Name Name le eae | (ues aye eB 2 aaa
ee |S | ae lees] Boe | Me | ese
ergunnah. ‘uppah. oe Se i> O84 s Mat 3
F et 2 ee [seg| 258 22° (S83
Zila 4 < a ns
Powai, .. ..{ 118| 14,923/11,547| 5,6621 32,1321 29,810
Deedargunge, | 162] 23,759} 15,798 9,140} 48,697) 52,412-4
Mahol,” ;...| 165] 18,783 15,534] 5,263| 39,580} 38,553
Total of Per- fave [a ae ce hee ellie Sande oll nyaal
ae 534! 79,571] 49,980] 37,494) 1,67,045] 1,67,711
Nizamabad, |Utharsee, ..| 75] 8,557| 1,968] 3,165! 13,690| 17,907
Belah, *i1 112) 153576] 5,312} 15,461] 36,349] 417941
ee 2) 182} 14,205] 5,385] 12,619} 32,209] 31,487
Dobartah, ':.| 122} 12,106] 4,120] 7,596} 22,829] 27,995
Dowlutabad, ..}| 114] 19,838} 4,427] 20,278) 44,543] 47,982
Dealpoor, ..| 56 7,793| 1,708} 11,203} 20,704) 20,3835
Kotah, ‘| 136] 13,347| 6.8731 9,811] 30,031] 30,658
Goozarah, 83 8,070} 2,947; 7,494| 18,511] 18,563
Nundaow, ..! 130} 14,172} 4,330] 17,241] 35,743] 41,654
Hurbunspoor, | 140] 12,446} 4,680] 8959] 26,065] 28,889
Total of Per- EN Pe, es
gunh. Niza-6 {1150} 1,26,110| 41,750] 1,13,807| 2,81,667] 3,07,4)1
mabad,
Kurriat 2 | amdhyee, 98] 2,876] 1,691] 2,572] 7,139] 6,844
Mittoo,
Taree, 38} 3596] 965] 3100! 7,661| 7,452
Total of Per- aire nae
gunh. Kurri-6} 66{° 6,472] 2,656] 5,672] 14,800) 14,296
at Mittoo, ..
Cheriakote, |Havelee, “122| 8,185] 3,241| 3,354! 14,780! 16,320
Khanpoor, 78 6,013; 2,355} 4,102] 12,470) 11,643
Dhurwara, 52| 7,186| 3,099} 4,269} 14,554) 12,152
Suleemabad,..| 38 2,575| 1,444; 1,251 5,270 4,969
Total of a? oe ee
gunh. Cheri-6| 290] 23,959110,139} 12,976] 47,074| 45,084
akote, rs
Belhabans, |Ooturuha, ..| 89/ 12,764) 5,312| 6,478] 24,554] 25,548
Duhkunha, ..} 74} 7,218] 3,223] 31834] 14,275] 14,389
TBelisabane, | 163] 19,982] 8,535} 10,312] 38,829] 39,937
Mahomeda- ali sce | a Sareea are pees
eg She ..| 30] 1,566} 903] 1,355] 3,824] 3,757
: ehrozpoor, ..| 121) 14,304) 8,125} 12,187) 34,616] 32,543
Purduha, ..| 61| 9,842] 5,987 8,981} 24'810| 21,079-8
9,755
[ Fre.
ect of Azimgurh.
tr
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Report on the Di
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1839. ] ‘ Report on the District of Azimgurh. 8]
Ti:
Table showing the extent of the several Fiscal Divisions of the Chuk-
lah, and the cost of the Tehseeldaree Establishments.
. |g Population. S 6 4
é S oj a er he Bos oe b05
‘Name of | Nameof | S ae & $ SE og jes
Tehseel- Perghs. it iS = 3 te a 5 Be i
daree. contains. each ZS oS : as fie a ae
ee tees ra ee |) Oa te a.
Z| wal < 2) eco. ia |o8
Atrowlee- |
ah Tilha- | |
1. Koelsah, < |nee, Kow- 681} 224) 59,421] 21,508) 80,929) 1,47,424) 6,336; 4 13
reeah, and
Gopalpoor. |
2. Suggree, |Suggree, ..} 676] 230) 65,102| 19,399] 84,501} 1,27,646] 4,476] 3 6%
Ghosee and |
3. Ghosee, Mithan- 702} 282} 53,528] 27,868] 81,396} 1,52,966] 4,596) 3 0
poor, ... |
4. Mahol, ..;Mahol, --| 534] 261 69,740} 26,926] 96,666 1,67,711| 5,316) 3 1
5. Nizamabad| Nizamabad, |1,150} 440} 1,34 334) 49,283] 1,83,617; 3,07,411} 9,108} 2 15
Boyt: ecenakote, |
. erla- erlat |
kote, “4 Mitthoo, &¢| 219} 158) 34,697)
Belhabans,
12,868} 47,565) 99,317) 4,284; 4 8
oe Mahe. Mahomeda-
Bes, )ibad, Goh
medabad 4/0" 'Mownare | 823] 33!| 73,765) 45,093] 1,18,858) 1,85,477| 4,812] 2 92
Gohna ownat
- Bhunjun,
8. Deogaon, |Deogaon, ..| 456] 195) 63,517} 22,506] 86,023} 1,18,689| 4,008] 3 6
Total, . .{5,541/2,121| 5,54,104} 2,25,451| 7,79,555|13,06,642| 42,936] 3 44
zs
Note.—The area, population, and Jumma are entered as in the preceding Table.
82 } Report on the District of Azimgurh. (Fes. |
III.
Table showing the extent of the several Police Divisions of the Chuk-
lah, and the cost of the Establishment.
th ee) Population. 3 agilod :
S| go | “=> Rena ieee oan
Names: | Nameot | =| 45] & El. [38 | $4) eae
ae Thannah, | > | 4"5|> 3 oes 3 e |23 |o 8%
. te | = os = o om] pO
° o 8 L PaaS ae a pr o 9
s/f Bp ee ee
+ Z eae en a < an) Od 3
l.Atrowleeah| 236! 77| 22,103] 8,249] 30,352} 57,662) 1,824) 3 24
Koelsah 2 — 270| 99] 95,540] 9,219) 34,759) 61,842) 1,824! 2 15h
i aharaj - a
gunje,! 175} 48) 11,778] 4,040} 15,818] 27,920} 1,824 6 Sf |
4, Belema- | 91 48.8 6 1 3
gies i, re gunje, 227 26,981} 7,139] 34,120] 48,855} 600 7
gurh,| 449] 149) 38,121] 12,260] 50,381! 78,791] 1,284) 1 12
Peet 375} 164) 23,832] 18,840] 42,672} 94,079] 1,284] 1 Sf
Ghosee, .. . Muddho-- 2 |
lan, | 327) 118) 29,696] 9,028] 38,724) 58,887-6) 1,284| 2 2§ |
8. Mahol, 283| 148) 49,477] 17,867], 60,344] 69,634] 1,824, 2 9% |
i ..2|9. Deedar- |
gunje,} 251) 113] 27,263) 9,059} 36,322] 98,077] 1,824] 1 13h
10. Kutwal- y
ie leea Azim- ;
gurh,} 313) 141} 27,399] 17,125] 44,524] 69,706} 1,380] 1 15}
Nizama- q
bad,} 455) 291) 47,236] 13,059] 60,295) 95,954] 1,272) 1 og
12. Gunnu- :
poor,! 382) 298} 59,699} 19,099] 78,798] 1,41,751} 1,536} 1 14
¢ 13. Cheria-
Cheriakote~|14 p es 356] 97] 22,782| 9,890} 32,672] 59,380} 1,404) 2 63.
elna- 2
? bans,| 163} 61) 11,915} 2,978] 14,893] 39,937) 1,356] 3 6
15. Mooba-
Mahome- ruckpoor,| 400] 137] 29,288) 20,056] 49,294] 79,143] 1,284} 1 9}
dabad, .. )|16. Kopah,..} 150} 70} 15,602} 15,013) 30,615] 39,777] 1,284 3 3
17. Mhow, ..| 273} 124] 28:925] 10,024| 38,949} 66,557} 1,284) 1 14g
Deogaon, ..|18. Deogaon,| 456] 195] 63,517| 22,506} 86,023] 1,18,689} 1,320] 1 15
Total, ....5,541|2,121| 5,54,104| 2,25,451 778585 13,06,642| 25,692) 1 15§ |
Note.—The area, population, and Jumma are entered as in the preceding Tables.
18389. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 83
IV.
Table showing the strength and charge of the Local Establishment
on the Jumma of the Chuklah.
TA ep aR So
ge)23] .. ine:
EI 3S a | Oma |
ar neo} ~ =| . i Lear) i)
© 2 5) a ) ~ ost }
ge 2lS 6 @ = seo |
Nature of Establishments. [32/223] 3, ape i Bice Remarks.
CS ha aS a lege |
sas 2) )/S=PieI ° =) | om |
i5 C19 ° ae o f e Spot |
| AG ea oS = |} Pwo |
eS e) S 3 | Bas 3 |
I4E\4a| (S) of
| |C This is exclu-
Sudr. Revenue Establishment,| 49] .. sive of the Ab-
| karee, Stamps,
Mofussil Tehseeldaree Estabt. | & Opium.
This excludes
the Jail Estabt.
& Burkundaze
Guard.
Total Revenue Establishment, |
Sudr. Magisterial Estabt. .... |
Mofussil Police Estabt. ....|
Total Magisterial Estabt. ....|
Sudr. Judicial Establishment,| 41] 165 39,512] 3 OL
Mofussil Judicial Estabt. ....| 6). 3,660] O 44
Total Judicial Establishment,| 47| 15| 62| 43,172] 3 43
Grand Total,....| 285} 862) 1,147) 1,74,276| 13 54
N. B. The Darogahs, Jemadars, Sowars, and Burkundazes are reckoned as armed,
the rest are unarmed. The Sudder Establishments show that portion of the charge
which should be debited to the Chuklah Pergunnahs, exclusive of Pergunnahs Se-
cunderpoor, and Budaon, which are part of the permanently settled province of Bena-
res. The charge has been distributed on the Jumma, but the total of persons is
shown. The higher Civil Establishments are assumed at the average salaries of the
respective grades, thus, 1 Collector and Magistrate at 22,500 per annum. 1 Judicial
Magistrate and Deputy Collector at 12,000 per annum. 1 Judge at 30,000 per annum.
1 Principal Sudder Ameen at 7,200 per annum. 1 Native Deputy Collector at 4,800
per annum. 2 Moonsiffs at 1830 per annum.
6th. The chief natural products of the district are Sugar, Indigo, and
Opium. Comparatively little grain is grown in the district, seldom
sufficient for the support of the whole population, which is partly
dependent upon importation from the neighbouring district of Goruck-
pore, or from Behar, or the Western Provinces, as the crops in either
direction may happen to have been the most plentiful. The river
G4 Report on the District of Azimgurh. (Fes.
Goggra is the general channel for these importations. Golahs, or grain
markets, are established all along the course of this stream, and the
supplies are thence poured in, as necessary, to all the manufacturing
towns in the district.
7th. Sugar is the staple produce. It is cultivated throughout, and al-
ways yields a high rent, generally 12 or 15 rupees the acre ; but in some
parts of Pergunnah Mahol, where the finest Sugar land is situated, it
runs as high as 30 or 40 rupees the acre. An effort has been made to
ascertain the value of the Sugar annually produced in the district,
founded on a calculation of the quantity .of land shown by the settle-
ment returns to be under Sugar cultivation, and the average produce
of the land. This estimate gives a total area of 1,02,735 beegahs
(acres 57,877), the produce of which is 12,832,707 Ghazeepore maunds
(11,55,663 cwt.) of Goor, or inspissated juice. This may be valued at
33,89,946 rupees, and is calculated to yield 3,08,177 maunds (2,88,916
ewt.) of Sugar of Ist quality, and 1,23,271 maunds (1,15,989 ewt.) of
Sugar of 2nd quality, and to give the manufacturers a net profit
of 4,12,957 rupees. For this estimate, I am indebted to the ingenuity
and research of my successor in the collectorship of the district, Mr. R.
Montgomery. As the calculation is curious, I have given it in detail
in the Appendix (A.) ee
F. A.D. “| Sth. Dhte price
Price of Goor in 1236 1829..12 Srs. for the rupee! of Sugar has
, 1287 1830. .12 A, varied consider-
» 1238 18381..14 - ably during the
» 1239° 1832. .17 Ks ee few years.
111240 1832.223 X When that ar-
» 1241 1834. .20 ie ticle formed part
» 1242 1835.16 of the Com-
, 1248 1836. .16 my | Pany’s invest-
7 AB44 |. WBF. E12 a J ment, about 5 or
6,00,000 were advanced to persons in the district for its supply, and
then prices were steady; but when this demand was suddenly stopped
in 1832-3, and the Company withdrew from the market, prices of
course fell, and some distress was consequently experienced till the
trade found new channels. Lately, the reduction in England of the
duties on East India Sugar, has occasioned much speculation, and a
great rise of prices. It is not likely they will continue long at the same
standard, but a much lower rate will handsomely remunerate the cul-
tivator, and lead to considerable extention of the cultivation.
9th. The immediate effect of the demand for the home market has
been to draw down to Calcutta a great deal of the Sugar, which till
lately had found its way to Mirzapore, and thence to the markets of
1839.] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 85 .
Central India, and the Western Provinces. The total quantity
for which certificates have been granted under Act xxxu1, 1836,
from the time the provisions of that enactment came into operation
in December 1836, till November 1837, was 1,58,162 maunds. All
the raw produce of the district is manufactured into Sugar within its
limits, and exported in the refined state. European skill or capital
has not yet been largely or successfully employed in the manufacture :
this is generally conducted at small native factories scattered all over
the districts. There are scarcely any large villages without one or two
of these factories, which afford a ready market for the produce of
the surrounding country. The largest native factory belongs to
Deep Chund Suhoo, and is situated at Decha, in Pergunnah Nizama-
bad, about eight miles south east of Azimgurh. The same person
has also a similarly large factory at Muchaitee in Jaunpore, just on
the southern border of Pergunnah Deogaon, whence a great deal of
the raw material is drawn. It should however be remarked, that the
juice is expressed, and inspissated, i.e. formed into Goor, by every
cultivator himself, at simple mills, and boilers erected in the immedi-
ate neighbourhood of his field. The manufacturer confines his labour
to converting this Goor into refined Sugar.
10th. Indigo was some years ago much more cultivated than it is at
present: the quantity now annually manufactured is about 1,500
maunds. It is reckoned a good quality in the market, and brings a
good price, but still neither the climate nor soil is peculiarly adapted
to the production of the plant; and whilst Sugar is so much in demand,
advances can readily be obtained by the cultivators on Sugar-cane
crops, and the facilities of procuring land for Indigo will be diminish-
ed. Since, however, Europeans have been permitted to hold land,
several villages, or parts of villages, have passed into the hands of the
Indigo planters by sale, or mortgage, and in these Indigo can be culti-
vated to any extent that may be found profitable.
11th. About 1,700 maunds of Opium are annually produced in the
district. This, at the cost price of 300 rupees per maund, would bring
upwards of 5,00,000 of rupees into the hands of the agriculturists.
The cultivation of the Poppy is at present confined almost entirely to
the Keorees, a class of industrious cultivators, some of whom are to be
found in almost every large village in the district, conducting the gar-
den cultivation in its immediate precincts. They are generally tenants
- with rights of occupancy, or at will, and are very seldom themselves
proprietors of the land. They constitute almost a separate community,
having Mahtoes or Sirdars from amongst their own body, through
N
86 Report on the District of Azimgurh. | Fes.
whom their concerns, especially in the Opium department, are
managed. The cultivation of the Poppy might be very much in-
creased, and the north eastern parts of the district are peculi-
arly adapted for its production; but the expenses attending the
cultivation are heavy, and now that Sugar yields so profitable a
return, and is so much in demand, it is not probable that the
production will be greatly increased at the present price. The
cultivation is also generally unpopular ; the Zemindar is jealous of his
Keorees taking advances from the Opium department, because it
renders them, in some measure, independent of him, and introduces
into the village another authority than his own. The Keorees
themselves would like the employment, if they were always sure of
protection from. the exactions of the inferior officers of the depart-
ment. ‘This of course depends upon the nature and vigilance of the
superintendence exercised over the department. At present the organi-
zation is far more complete and efficient than it has been for some
time.
12th. The manufactures of the district are a considerable source of
wealth to it.- These consist mainly of Cotton cloths, but some Silk
goods are also made, and others, containing a mixture of Cotton and
Silk, commonly called Tussur. The demand for these goods used to
be very great, but is now much diminished by the competition of
English goods. English twist is also very extensively introduced into
the market, and has ina great measure supplanted the use of the
native thread. This again has much injured the quality of the cloth,
for though the English is more regular and even in its texture, it is
far less durable than the country thread. The Cloth is made at looms
erected in the private houses of the weavers, who are congregated in
great numbers at some of the principal towns, such as Moobaruck-
poor, Kopah, and Mhow, and are also to be found in many large
villages in all parts of the district. They are all Mahomedans, a
weak and sickly looking people, but mostly possessing fire arms, and
very liable to be excited to riot by any thing which affects their
religious prejudices. They have of late years been particularly tur-
bulent, in consequence of the spread amongst them of the tenets of
Seyud Uhmud. This sect is especially opposed to the ceremonies of
the Mohurrum, and the several superstitions which characterize the
prevailing belief of the Sheeas; whilst, by its general intolerance, it
tends to embroil the whole body of Mussulmans with the Hindoo
population.
13th. Every loom pays a small acknowledgment to the Zemindar,
1839.) Report on the District of Azimgurh. 87
under the title of Kurgahee (from Kurga, a loom). This is com-
monly called a tax, but it is more properly a rent, or equivalent for
permission to reside on the estate, and obtain the protection of its
owner. The payment is very trifling, generally of a few annas on
each loom in the year; it is highly prized by the Zemindars, and
cheerfully paid by the weavers, when no attempt is made to raise
the rate, or to infringe upon the established custom regarding it.
14th. It is calculated that there are 13,682 looms in the district, of -
which 10,561 are for the manufacture of Cotton, and 3,121 of Silk
and Tussur goods. ‘These looms probably produce 10,00,000 of pieces
in the year, which may be valued at 23,00,000, and are supposed to
yield a net profit of nearly 4,00,000 to the manufacturers. The
particulars of this estimate, also furnished to me by the kindness of
Mr. Montgomery, will be found in the Appendix (B.) It is not
likely to be too high, for the value of the exports in Cloth are sup-
posed to be about 10,00,000 rupees, which would leave only 13,00,000
rupees worth to clothe 8,00,000 of people. None but the more wealthy
classes wear any other than the manufactures of the district.
15th. It is not easy to account for the existence of these manufac-
tures, so far inland, and in a country where no Cotton whatever is
produced. Their rise was probably occasioned by peculiar encou-
ragement afforded by former Governments; and in Mhow, tradition
especially states this to have been the case, when the little Pergun-
nah formed the appanage of one of the Begums of the imperial house
of Delhi, in the reign of the Emperor Shah Jehan. Probably, too,
the superior fertility of the soil, the uniformity of the climate, and
the exemption of the country from the severe droughts which occa-
sionally lay waste other districts, has contributed to this. The great
variation of the price of food in the large grain districts, would tend to
discourage the formation of a manufacturing community. The habits
which would be naturally engendered in a year of plenty would
necessarily cause ruin and emigration in a year of local scarcity. On
the other hand, a district which is always dependent on commerce
for the support of its redundant population, would never suffer much
distress, except in a season of general famine, when the whole country
would be reduced to equal misery and destitution.
16th. There is not much trade passing through the district. The
Goggra and Goomtee on either side of it, and the Ganges at no great
distance, are the great channels of commerce. Some Salt finds its way
across from the Ganges to the Goggra, and grain is carried back in
return, but this is mostly intended to facilitate the supply of the local
88 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frp.
wants of intermediate towns. <A considerable quantity of Cotton
however passes from Mirzapore, and the markets near Allahabad to
Goruckpore, and Nipal through Jaunpore and Azimgurh.
17th. The chief Exports and Imports of Goods may be roughly stated
thus, though the latter are evidently much underrated—bullion, in
shape of cash remittances by the Government, is not mentioned.
Exports.
Cotton and Silk Piece Goods (entirely in hands of
Native traders), a Be es -- 10,00,000
Opium, .. 1 he ari <r -- 5,09,700
Indigo, 2,70,000
Sugar exported by Europeans, .. fb -- 19,00,000
Ditto ditto by Natives, .. Rs os -- 93,590,000
ee ae ee
Total Rs. .. 40,29,700
Imports.
Raw Cotton, bee tye oi ay -- 2,15,000
Miscellaneous Spices, &c. ae ite 20, /s SOLO
Grain, at ct a Shia fae -- 9,40,000
a eee
Total Rs. .. 12,45,000
18th. The total Receipts and Disbursements of the Government
Treasury in the whole district (including Pergunnahs Seeunderpore,
and Badaon of the province of Benares,) are Rs. 19,64,150, thus,
Receipts.
Land Revenue, .. bis os ce .- 14,77,150
Stamps, .. tra rw am x «<) 990,000
Abkaree, .. a 0 fi3 i i 72,000
Miscellaneous, ar 3e oh: asd -- 93,80,000
Total Rs. 19,64,150
Disbursements.
Local Expenditure, oe Ap oe -- 5,63,000
By Bills, .. ap 5 rie oy os) Ope
Transported to Benares, .. Pas ioe -- 5,74,000
Total Rs. 19,64,150
NO
APPENDIX (A.)
Sugar cultivation in the District of Azingurh.
The prices vary with the Season and Markets.
Average produce|First boiling of| Second boiling of
Name [No.of Beogahs for hess are Bec-| of Goor avout 12] Goor ives’ an | G00 and Molas-| About 45 per Goor being 2-12) second quality off ;
o in the Pergun-| &ahs of Sugar-] Ghazeepore | average 25 por | 48 Bives about] cont. ot Mo- | Cat of Goor at | Per maund fhe} Sugarshould |V f Profit and Loss,
Pergunnah. | , the Pergun-| Gin, mands per cent fst quati- | 10, per eas ea “Iz per | Ht quality, Su) foich 7-8 per | about 7 Ki
Beegah ty Sugar. Rigas maund, fo atpERGHE Ghaveene per maund
zeepore maund.
B. D|Beegahs. B. D.] MaundsP. C.| MaundsP. C. | Maunds P.C,| Mauls S.C.| Rn As Gs, | Rs. As Ge | Rs As. Gs | Rs. As. Gs, aa:
: ga i Bastioh Goon. roll) ee ce ee eel ROOST
Interest on this at 12 per cent. for G mouths, |<. 42,048 816 1
Nizamabad, .. 2,12,366 7 O0| 21,236 12 15 | 254,839 26 0} 63,709 36 8} 25,483 38 10 | 1,14,677 33 12] 7,00,809 0 12 | 637,099 2 O| 191,129 11 17 | 1,14,677 13 10 6,37,099 2 0 O| 7,42,857 9 8 1
Ditto ditto, .. a. 191,129 11 17 2 | §,28,288 13 17
Net profit Co's, Rs... 85,371 49 1
Cost of Goor, ..
Interest on this at 12 per cent. for 6
E of Ist quality Sugar,
Mahomedabad,....] 1,36,327 0 0 17,694 10 10 | 2,11,254 12 0} 5,21,813 23 0 21,125 17 3 95,064 17 7 | 5,80,919 5 4) 528,135 12 0 | 1,58,d40 11 13 95,064 6 19 0
Price of Ist quality Sugar, «. «- ++
Ditto Wditto, .. .. ee ve oe 3 13 | 6.86076 7 13
Net profit Co's, Ks... oe
Cost of Goor, Fe; Wee eatres)| | 2S CRON TGN CIO
Interest on this ut 12 per cent. for 6 months, | 1. 3) tL 1715 G15 2
70,770 3 5 3
Mownat Bhunjun, 8,663 13 0 866 710} 10,396 20 ( 2599 5 0 039 °96 a ae one a a ‘
: y a. DISS SAU) mes ce LO 1) Pees SU RB TU 16 2, G2 AN TO) | area? 18.10)]) AS, O7S SBI te eree om Rttruallty Sugar, oe ve ve | BH 4 0-0 215 2
(bits 2d ditto, .. ee te ae we 7,797 6 0 0 310 0 0
Net profit Co's. . on one = 3182 13 1 2
Cost of Goor, .. ++ + | 431,930 6 8 0
| £ { teres on this at 12 per cent, for 6 months, ome 913 138 19 1
Mahole, -eeeeesee+] 1,69,118 0 0} 13,088 16 0] 157,065 24 0} 39,266 16 0 61] 70,679 20 13 6 8 | 3,92,664 0 0} 117,799 3 4 70,679 8 6 —=
Hs 2, Price of Ist quality Sugar,
we ee ce 0 0} 457,816 4 7 1
7 1
1/5,lu463 3 4 1
Ditto 2d ditto, .. oe “oe |, ‘
Net profit Co's, Ks. wee 52,616 L170
Cost of Goor, Sweremeeat oe) +. |3,90,599 5 16 0
Interest on this or 6 months, eon co 4
Suiggrea, «+ sees»! 1,07,135 8 0} 10,018 3 5] 1,20,217 380] 30,054.19 8| 12021 3113] 54,098 3 21 3,30,599 516 | 3.005 90,163 7 8| 54008 1 5
\ 3 A 30,599 5 16 | 3,00,544 14 0) 90,163 7 ae Price of Jt quality Sugar, .- s+ s+ + |SUQ54L 1
Ditto 2d ditto, .. 5 W163 7 8 3
: Net profit Co's, Rs.. © Sain talaga 10,273 0 7 3
ee aoe = ee
5 ts oe ane nterest on this at 12 per’ Cent. for 6 months, te ee ee
Deoguom, -sr-+-+.) 95,645 2 0/ 4165514 0] 55,868.16 0| 13,967 4 0/1 5,586 3310 | 25,140.31 4 |1153,638 1 12 | 1,39,671 0 o | aig01 417 | 25,140 1210 are
Price of It quality Suga, .. «. | 1,393,671 0 0 0
Ditto 2d ditto, Rates 41,901 417 2
18715 1113 2
Net profit Co's, Ks... ..
Cost of Goor,
P ae. tes -- «| 127,818 ld 8s 0
Interest on this ut 12 j per tent. for 6 months,
achias usistaeisc) | MW SEERNE ISI
Chetiakote, .
38,377 0 0 3,873 6 O-] 46,479 24 0} 11,619 36 0 4647 38 64) 20,915 32 13 | 127,818 M4 8] 116,199 0 O} 34859 1L 4] 20,915 13 2
i} : (bite of Ist quality Sugar, -. ..
116,199 0 U 0} 1,385,488 1 6 3
34859 11 4 1] 151,058 11 4 1
of 53,4380 15 4 0
2
Ditto 2d ditto, ..
Net profit Co’s, Its...
(ieee Coy co
=
te
Interest on this at 12 per cent, months,
Karriat Mittoo,.
16,221 12 0 1,622 3 0 79,465 32 0 4,366 18 0 1,946 23 3 875924 6] 53,530 15 4 48,664 8 0 14,599 5 11 8,759 9 15 9
43,6614 8 0 0
Ditto _2d ditto, .. .. :
Net profit Co’s. Rs.. Seen
Cost of Goor, .. .. . ° ae
(tnteree on this at 12 per cent. for 6 uionths
Ubi ai te Sugar, .. «.
c 6521 0 8 3
to. | 116191 10 8 0
Bolhabans,.....+4| 35,21010 15) 3,521 1 0 Qs
~
=
0 10,563 6 0 4,225 10 Gy} 19,013 26 13 | 116,191 10 8 | 1,05,631 8 0 31,689. 19,013 10 14
Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. .. 2
Ditto 2Mditto 2... ce ce ce | Sh bs 7 4 1] 187,820 15 4 1
Net profit Co’ yay oe iii ye ‘
x Cost of Goor foes Df se ae [BRL 8 1
OSCE, orereesene 5 E 5 58.416 ; ai e0 08) ee 2581015 0
see, TAB) 0}, aC 0} apaai6. 8.0) Ino 20), gantavam| S767 Nieo| ke51m 216 yr 6 of sia a 7| aojrey ara|| Peete om teat ee centr 6 ——
i Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. .. 171,040 8 0 0} 1,99,433 3 IL O
; litsiaas zai! eee alal2 2 7 0 | 224802 10 7 OU :
CNet profit Co's. Rs... i. ce se SS | Ie aO)
Poeecreery 74,167 8 0 U
Cost of Goor, -
ose ne we 4450 0 16 0
| Interest on this at 12 per cent. for 6
Nuthoo) 2,047 mar ;
meno verses) 24981 8 8)| 924710 0] 26,970 0 0] 67990 01 2697 0 9 1213020 o| 74167 8 0 67,425 0 0
8 0] 12,136 8 0
} Price of Ist quality vets o.
Ditto 2d ditto,
Net profit Co's. R.
Cost of Goor,
Interest on this a
903116 4 0
per cent. for 6 months,
Tilheenee, -e+.0.| 72,475 3 i : 7
72475 3 0 3,699 5 0} 44,391 0 0} 11,097 30 0 4439 4 0} 19,975 38 0) 1,22,075 4 0} 1,10,977 8 0} 33,293 4 0| 19,975 1d 4 /
0 0} 129,399 9 18 0 |
0 0 | Leee70 Lz 0
Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. see
| Baas 2A ditto, <.
Net profit Co’s. Is 5
Cost of Goor, .. .. +e
Interest on tltis at per cent. for 6 months,
14,871 2 2 0
u
Sajivataeaeteeh| GU bOSmIam ALO)
a. 7,830 5 1 L
1
1
34,031 15 0 3,954 16 0 47,457 240 11861 16
ih eee mor arc 971 1017 1
o = 8 0 0} 1,23,166 5 5 1
0 4745 30 6 | 21,355 36 12 | 1,80,508 6 8] 118614 0 0] 25,593 3 2 21,355 14 14 Jan 33
w a | Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. .. .. .. U | 338,338 1d 9
(Ditto 2d dito, 2 owe ee ae oe 2 | 1,04,237 3 2
: Net profit Co's. Revs oo sea ae oe ae i Re a 15,808 413 1
jostofGoor, .. .. - eee 7
259170)! 2917 5:10)|| 85,007 12 0 || gaa 0| e009 al assa 2 6 $6270, aeeally sy sista | aseeeerr aul WEed aac [iste this at 12'percent. for 6 montls, | <. :. tc sa] 3,776 319 3
ie ‘ 1 Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. .. .. .. | S7,018 4.0 U| 102,06 5 3 3) *
Ditto 2 sitto 5 2209 7 1 | 113,773 WL 1 | We i
et prot ‘Ss. ee 72 2
relia Panties Sa aaeiekes «. | 254719 15 160
Tithenee. § > 92,625 18 0} 23156 ld 8 9,262 21 1241 41,601 18 1 | 254,719 15 16 | 231,563 10. 0 coasglrer'|| alos 7h 4 Interest on this at 12 per cent. for 6 month oe =» | 15,23 3 5 2
a =d oh ” »'
: Price of Ist quality Sugar, .. .. «. .. | 2,31,583 10 U0 0 | 270,03 3 1 2 :
ttou,..../ 0ST pio" att Hp eset ce ce ce ae sa) 7 wl gonaas a1 A Poe é 3
Are 10,594,301 19 3° 1,02,725 138 5 11292,707 38» ———— : eymromeGo'aRe os. i os sv oe R 52
, 308,176 30.8 | 2: Gainer a ae
: 08, 23,270 31 13 | 554718 28 2 33,89,046 13 6° 30,81,769 14 0 924,530 15 8 5,54,718 9 5| * The ptice obtained for the Molasses is suffi. : «ota B57 Fit 7
. t cient to meet all the expences of the manufac-|
qs 7 - 2 5 oo ture, and w cover the Interest on stock and its ‘
; = 2 ‘Gee f = iin, ; Pera ee a
S| SSS ——=
hanna —ot ee er ta
A
=)
Se 2a 1S
Sao: 2S S
Nv 0 0
“
; Silk and
r.
cloths
Total of Cotton
Tusse
© 8 0 5,96,628
21,816
7,824
23,092
64,742
21,828
44,299
4,656
7,852
16,584
| 1,752]
| 14,208
| 49,968
5,616
1,744} -
60,896
Total Value.
Rs. As.Gs.Cs.
43,917 0
12,996 0
35,502 0
1,04,322 0
27,074 0
75,769 8
57,557 12
67,061 12
20,694 0
2,154 0
18,480 0
90,515 15
8,424 0
2,916 O
3,20,068 0
S
32,873 8
9,282 0
24,513 0
0
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19,515 13 10
70,366 13
49,913 12
56,249 12
16,621 0
1,776 0
14,843 4
78,365 6
7,722 0
2,633 0
2,43,208 0
0
8
8
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O} 11,043 8 0
0} 3,714 0 0
0} 10,989 0 0
0] 28,624 8 0
O} 7,558 2 10
0} 5,402 11 0
g
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= a
3 S
r) °
HH H
Rs. As. Gs.Cs. Rs. As.Gs.Cs.
14,07,509 LL 4 O!12,08,563 0 O O}1,98,946 11 40
S 2. SC oS ©. Bee eo oles
> 8 0 0} 9,99,436! 22,72,308 6 12 01 18,91,635 13 6 013,80,672 9 6 0
1839.) Report on the District of Azimgurh. 89
It is only during the last year that so much money has been drawn
from the district by bills, and that is occasioned by speculation in
Sugar, which is generally paid by bills on the Collector, drawn either
direct from Calcutta, or intermediately from Ghazeepore, Benares, or
Mirzapore.
19th. The inhabitants of the district are generally very illiterate.
The Rajpoots, who constitute the great mass of proprietors, are seldom
able to read or write. Endeavours have been frequently made to
obtain returns of village schools, but these have been very unsatisfac-
tory. Indeed there are very few professed instructors of youth ; nor is
instruction regularly afforded to the youth of any part of the country,
except at the Sudder station and its immediate neighbourhood, where
the Residents have established schools. In other parts of the country
the village Puéwaree, or some other Lallah, occasionally gives instruc-—
tions in Hindee as it suits his leisure or inclination, and his neighbours
will occasionally send their children, and acknowledge his services by
small presents, perhaps of money, or more probably grain or other
agricultural produce. All Brahmins of any learning have a few
disciples attached to them, but this sort of instruction is not professedly
for gain. It is restricted to their own class, and partakes greatly of the
nature of a religious duty.
20th. The returns show seventy-seven schools, where instruction is
given for remuneration. The number of scholars is supposed to be
674, and the total monthly emoluments of the teachers about 300 Rs.
per mensem. The great majority of these are for the instruction of
Mahomedans in Arabic, Persian, or Oordoo. There are also sup-
posed to be 134 schools where instruction is given to 1,334 scholars,
without any express remuneration to the teacher, all of which, with
one exception, are kept by Brahmins for giving instruction in Sanscrit.
2ist. Having thus generally stated the extent, disposition, and
resources of the district, I proceed to explain the nature of the landed
tenures, as they are now found to exist. In doing this it will be
necessary first to decide in whom the proprietary right to the land ac-
tually rests.
22nd. In discussing this subject, it is of little use to view it theoreti-
eally, and to refer to the maxims and principles laid down in books of
law. Supposing these to be ever so clear and decisive (which they by
no Means are) it is questionable if they ever were acted upon with
any consistency ; or supposing them at any time to have been acted
upon, the period has long since passed away, and the disuse into which
they have fallen for centuries has practically annulled them. It is of
*
90. Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
more use to look to the actual state of things, and ascertain as far as
may be possible, what that was in any one part of the country, or at
any particular time. It is my purpose to do this as far as I may be
able, for the tract of country to which this report refers, and for such
period as we may have tradition or history to direct us. _
23rd. The whole of Azimgurh must have originally formed part of
Rama’s kingdom of Ujodhya. The inhabitants of that time are call-
ed by the present race of men Rajburs and Assoors. The latter is
evidently only another instance of the tendency to attribute every
thing that is old or wonderful to superhuman agency. There are
still existing a race of men called Buys, a very low class, who general-
ly tend swine. They are said to be the descendants of the aborigines,
and it is not impossible they may be; but they have lost all traces
of their original character, and I do not know a single instance of their
now possessing proprietary right.
24th. The inhabitants of the country, by whatever name they
are distinguished, were a powerful and industrious race, as is evident
by the large works they have left behind them. Immense mud forts
still exist, such as are seen at Hurbunspoor and Oonchagaon, near
Azimgurh, and at Ghosee, which are attributed to them ; and traces
of a large excavation still exist, which seems to have connected
the Koonwur and Munghai Nuddees, and is known by the name
of Asooraeen. The Huree Bandh at Ameinuggur, in Pergunnah
Nizamabad, is another work generally attributed to them.
25th. These people were overwhelmed by incursions of Rajpoots,
who seem to have come over from the west, under different lead-
ers, and to have completely subjugated the country. Whether the
incursions were successive or simultaneous, or at what time they took
place, there are no means of ascertaining. An inscription found
in Deogaon shows that in the middle of the twelfth century that
Pergunnah was included in the dominions of the king of Canoje,
and was probably a favorite place of resort for the court.
26th. These invasions of the Rajpoots are the foundation of the
present existing proprietary right in the land. Different tribes located
themselves in different spots. The descendants of each chief mul-
tiplied, till at length, in some instances, they displaced all other
occupants of the land, or at least assumed to themselves all proprietary
privileges. The stocks were numerous: each Tuppah, or sub-division of
a Pergunnah, is marked by the prevalence of its own stock. These all
pretend to trace their origin to a single person, who first conquered the
country. Thus, the Gautum Rajpoots came from the Dooab un-
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 91
der two leaders, Gen Rai and Men Rai. They established themselves
in Tuppah Dowlutabad, and there founded two villages. Mehannug-
gur was the residence of Men Rai, and Goura of Gen Rai. To one of
these two stocks all the Gautums of that part of the country trace
their origin. It is impossible to say when this incursion took place,
but circumstances wil] afterwards be stated, which show that in the
beginning of the seventeenth century, the family had increased to such
an extent, that some of the stock were obliged to leave the country in
search of subsistence.
27th. It is not to be supposed that the families regularly multiplied
without interruption from the first stock to the present day. Vio-
lent changes constantly took place. Tribes were swept away by
the incursions of foreigners, or by the aggressions of their neighbours.
During the fifteenth century the kings of the Sherki dynasty from
Juanpoor, exercised great sway in the district. Parts of the country
seem indeed to have been held by Mahomedans. Pergunnah Belha-
bans is said to have been peopled by Mahomedans, who were extermi-
nated by an incursion of the Bais Rajpoots, who are at present in
exclusive possession of the country. ‘Thus too Tuppah Shah Suleem-
poor, in Pergunnah Deogaon, seems both from its name and the
numerous Mahomedan tombs still existing, to have been not very long
ago in the possession of Mussulmans, though it is held entirely by a
race of Bhooimjars, who came originally from Goruckpore, and are of
the same stock as the Rajah of Benares.
28th. The occasional incursions and supremacy of the Mussulmans
is strongly marked in different parts of the country by the existence
of shrines and tombs of Shuheed Murds, who are believed to have
fallen in contests with the inhabitants of the country, either Hindoos,
if in later times, or evil genii, if in older times. Thus the town of
Mhow obtains its distinctive title of ‘ Nath Bhunjun’ from the exploit
of a saint called Mullick Tahir, who expelled the evil genius Deo
Nauth, and made the country habitable by men; or, in other words,
Was some adventurer, who drove out the original inhabitants, and
located a colony of Mussulmans. The followers of Mullick Tahir
have however long since given place to a colony of Dhoonwar
Rajpoots, and no trace of the exploit now remains but the old shrine,
with numerous other graves strewed around it, where the devotion of
all classes, Hindoos as well as Mahomedans, constantly keeps a light
burning. Instances similar to this are numerous.
29th. Near the close of the 16th century a member of the Gautum
family of Rajpoots in Tuppah Dowlutabad, Pergunnah Nizamabad,
92 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
who had left his native village of Mehannuggur, in consequence of
the smallness of his share being insufficient for his support, found
employment in the imperial court at Delhi, turned Mussulman,
became an eunuch of the palace, and obtained in the fourth year of
Jehangire (a.p. 1609,) a grant of the Zemindarry of 22 Pergunnahs,
in which Chuklah Azimgurh was included.
Baje inion Sie _ From ap. 1609 to A.D. 1771, nine succes.
Alee Mahomed Nadir sions of these Rajahs are said to have taken
Rasch ‘Hobo place. Their power appears to have varied great-
Rajah Dhurnee Dhur, Jy, Their rule is said to have been very oppres-
Rajah Azim Khan, : :
Ravah Ikram Khan, sive. They never paid more than 50,000 to
Baboo Mahabut Khan, : ; F
Rajah Tradut Khan, 1,00,000 Rupees into the imperial treasury, and
Rajah Jehan Khan, even this was often withheld, and the efforts
R : iA A . Kh: n. : . < ,
lias Seki OE of the Rajahs are said to have been uniformly
directed to the annihilation of all other rights but their own. The
Canoongoes were proscribed, and all Pergunnah records that could be
found destroyed. Hence none are now found of a date belonging
to this period, or prior to it. The Rajahs were first much resisted by
the other tribes of Rajpoots, and it was not till after much fighting
that Azim Khan, the fourth of the race, about a.p. 1620, overcame
the Bais Rajpoots of Uthaisee, and founded the Fort of Azimgurh,
Mahabut Khan (said to have reigned from 1677 to 1722) was the
-most powerful, and established his authority from the Goggra to the
Ganges. In 1771, the Nuwab of Oude, Shoojahood Dowlah, resumed
the grant, expelled and proscribed the family, and governed the district
by Chukladars, till it was ceded to the British in 1801.
30th. Subsequently to our acquisition of the country, the descend-
ants of this line sued the Government in the Provincial Court of
Benares for their restoration to the Zemindarry. The suit was of
course thrown out, but in the course of it the claimants produced an
Altumgha Sunnud as the foundation of their right, granted in the
fourth year of Jehangire. Doubts may be entertained of the authen-
ticity of this document, but there is no reason to doubt that some
such Sunnud was given, and the document produced in Court, if not
the identical one, was probably an imitation of it, or at least was
drawn up in the form which such grants generally assume. As the
document possesses some interest, from the light it is calculated to
throw on the proper meaning of the much contested term Zemindar
I subjoin a copy of it, and a translation in plain English, divested of
the redundancies of the original.
1839.]
whey wl Xs) A awd WAS gh 3
al fs ne Kio oxo 5 ROO ee)
3)
ss f )
aan BAD jiec wie, 3; als bol,
Drish slyT all aque 3! OS yy 935
rere nd 93 Le? Lig ys land
KS awl e229 y 49> 0 ye)
59 2 TM g ols oro Glos; ,3
dle . el ys elSs 5 sons} 593s),
Colas ly Maio 3 cl> > 5 las
5 cilednw Soleo wy acxiio » sions
prs Sout Slaiiul 5 Sle wl la pile
> epl spakul 9 yfpbiad yd Soy
OS Any ye? srnigS Ush®o 9 yn dio
dey Mend 5 y9Sd0 tbs? CULT,
prka ,Iartls iby de, Lily 9 Uw
gsld, yp Kass I ySy2 s Jis
Ky dro Ww rats Slo yaa
72 MSY wary Sty Crd 9 aA
& BS MSL xasto Iyex® Ad gaS
lof Synby xgsdpw 9 XS yw
Spt apse Lape Jingo;
wr) Aras 5 pati esas 5h 5 S3loye
BRAS Gwar 9 Gy grt wdiio yo!
nel S E272 3) gdb ans? din
paste O55) 945 Wily} My Kadas
LBS wohe ely ainys II Ey
Report on the District of Azimgurh.
93
It has happened in this pro-
pitious time that Ubhinan
Sing, Zemindar of Mehannug-
gur in Nizamabad, has embra-
ced Islamism, and been hono-
red with the title of Rajah
Nadir Dowlut Khan. We
have therefore bestowed upon
him 22 Pergunnahs in Soobah
Allahabad from the commence-
ment of the Khureef Crop,
and according to the specifica-
tion below. Our illustrious
sons, and rulers of the pro-
vinces, and Mootsuddies must
ever use their strongest en-
deavors perpetually to main-
tain this grant, and confirm the
Zemindaree of the above Per-
gunnahs to the afore-mention-
ed person, and his descendants,
They will deduct
1,25,000 Rupees, as his Nan-
kar from the total Jumma
payable to the Government,
in order that he may spend’
for ever.
it, and the fixed allowance
per village and per centage in
the Jumma and other Zemin-
darry dues for his support.
This Sunnud will not require
renewal. Dated Rubeeool Ak-
hir 15th, in the 4th year of the
reign.
94 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
and grand ayod Specification on the reverse.
ANA Pads )
\ Sys Pergunnahs 22, Nizamabad,
39 AA Bi Nemes 40h > Waray
er cs Ih Pes et te SLs x ¥, Kowreea Tilhenee, Gopalpore,
Peg sist Aide By Oss Fes) , alt oat Suggree, Mahomedabad, Goh-
na, Ghosee, Chukeysur, Nu-.
Sy ee us yoo aif ee es dk a thoopoor, peas Keriat
iS : ws" 3 € “Ss : ols ree Mittoo, Belhabans, Deogaon,
l, 2 Sys 2 oe pre Ag >: gabe * Mownat, Bhunjun, Shadee-
beh wi Be Spaee ks aif a . abad, Behreeabad, Puchotur, —
ec LE <. pelts bok x5’ ys 2 und l, Seydpoor, Bittree, Zuhoora-
ue x» 4 ly l, ols ais Die we “3 bab, Bhudaon.
wi ys >» »= mS ys stat use Nankar 1,25,000 Rupees,
ols} 5 x? nif Sse Deas Zemindarry dues per village
sortnoy loth wal og aS 4 9 Rs., per cent 1 Rs.
3lst. If the holder of this Sunnud had been in power when we
first acquired the country, it is not improbable that we should have
acknowledged him sole proprietor of all this tract of country, and have
reduced the real proprietors to the rank of mere tenants.
32nd. From these revolutions the Pergunnah of Mahol was gene-
rally exempted. A family of Seyuds obtained possession of it in
a Zemindarry grant at a very early period, the tradition of which is
now lost. They contrived to locate themselves firmly in the Per-
gunnah. Branches of them entirely suppressed the Rajpoot commu-
nities in many of the villages. The Rajah was dispossessed of the
government by the Nuwab of Oude, previous to our acquisition of
the country, but he still retains many villages as his private property.
Some of these have passed from him, by sale for arrears of revenue,
to the hands-of the notorious Amil Sheo Lall Dhoobe, and yet in some
of these villages the old Rajpoot communities exist, though they have
long been broken down, and the members reduced to the rank
of mere cultivators on fixed rates. Instances sometimes occur of
the strength with which ancient proprietary associations are maintain-
ed, even long after all exercise of the rights has ceased. The two
contiguous villages of Mohujah and Newadah had long been held by
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 95
the Mahol Rajah. Soon after the cession they passed, by public sale,
into the hands of Sheo Lall Dhoobe. No proprietary right had ever
been claimed by the village communities, and yet in 1834 they fought
regarding their common boundary, and lives were lost on both sides.
33rd. The above historical facts have been mentioned merely to
illustrate the mode in which the proprietary right was generally
exercised, and how this right was transferred, and the present existing
diversity of tenure introduced. I suppose the original conquest of the
Rajpoots to have been the general foundation of the existing proprie-
tary right in the soil. That right we often still find exercised in
its original purity, but in many places no trace of it canbe found. A
few instances in which the mode of its annihilation, and the rise
of a subsequent right is known, may account for these irregularities.
34th. Tuppah Hurbunspoor extends along the south bank of the
Touse, opposite to Azimgurh. It was held originally by a tribe of
Sukrawar Rajpoots, a remnant of whom still survive in Ooncha-
gaon. In order to strengthen their fort, the Rajahs of Azimgurh
determined to lay waste a great part of this tract, and encourage
the growth of jungle upon it. The Sukrawars were accordingly
expelled, and the country depopulated. The soil however is rich,
and in time, when the whim of the day had passed away, it was
considered desirable to bring this tract again under cultivation.
The Sukrawars were, however, then broken and ruined, and in
no condition to assert their rights in opposition to the Rajah of
the time. In this space, accordingly, to the south of Azimgurh,
in its immediate vicinity, we find all sorts of tenures existing. The
village of Siddharee was given to Baboo Baz Bahadoor, a member of
the family, and added to his Talookah. He located cultivators upon
it, and it is now his absolute property. A portion of Jand, for-
merly called Sarungdurpoor, was given to Ikram Khan, who brought
it into cultivation, and there located a body of Puleear Rajpoots from
Sumaidah, in Tuppah Behrozpoor, Pergunnah Mahomedabad, and
called the place Ikrampoor. He passed away, and the resident Raj-
poots became recognized as the proprietors. Thus too Jaffurpoor is
formed out of the land of the old villages of Pooranahpoor, Bullaisur,
and Golwarah. Baboo Jaffur Khan brought the land into cultivation,
and located some Dhoonwar Rajpoots, who afterwards, on the extinction -
of his family, became the proprietors. Another tract of this waste land
- Was assigned to some Buneeahs, who brought it into cultivation, built
a large village, and have left traces of their industry and wealth in
numerous topes, and some artificial bunds for irrigation. This village
was called Bodhaitah. In the days of the Chukladars it was plunder-
96 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
ed, and the inhabitants massacred ; since which time it has remained
without one inhabitant (Be-chiragh). In default of other claimants,
the Canoongoe of the Pergunnah engaged for it, and now holds it
in proprietary right as his Zemindarry. A Bunniah in Azimgurh,
who claims his descent from the old proprietors, attempted to establish
his right in the Special Commission Court, but failed. Ask any intelli-
gent resident in the neighbourhood, who is the rightful Zemindar ?—he
he will answer, the Bunniah. Question him more strictly, and he will
admit the prior right of the Sukrawar Rajpoots. Tradition reaches
no higher.
doth. Achar, and its dependant villages in Pergunnah Mhownat
Bhunjun, was held by a tribe of Kaut Rajpoots. The Dhoonwars of
the neighbouring estate of Khabseh were the more powerful: they at-
tacked, and massacred most of them. The little mud Ghurree is still
shown where the last who held their ground were put to death. This
took place only a few years before the cession. Some of the family
fled into the neighbouring district of Ghazeepore, then in our posses-
sion, and have in vain since attempted to recover their rights.
36th. A family of Chundel Rajpoots emigrated from the Juanpore
district and settled in Pergunnah Nuthoopore, where they acquired
much land about the place where the Durgah of Kullooah Bund has
since flourished. A chur was subsequently thrown up between the
Kuttooby Talow and the river Goggra. | Of this chur the Chundels
took possession. Their prosperity kept pace with the increase of the
chur, and the Chundels of Doobarree are now one of the most flourish-
ing clans. Their Talookah till lately was included in Pergunnah
Secunderpore ; it has now been annexed to Nuthoopore.
37th. In many cases the origin of the present Zemindarry right has
been the rent-free grant of waste land to the ancestors of the present
proprietors, such grant having been made by the actual sovereign, the
Emperor of Delhi, or his local representative. The grantee brought
the land into cultivation, and as the former proprietors had passed
away, on resumption of the grant by some succeeding ruler, was
acknowledged as proprietor. Some terms of this sort are said to have
had their origin in grants by the Sherki sovereigns of Juanpore.
38th. The appropriation of waste lands was sometimes, however,
founded on mere acts of usurpation by powerful individuals or com-
munities, or has grown up by sufferance. Thus the powerful Pul-
wars of Kowreeah have encroached on the neighbouring forest land
in Pergunnah Nizamabad. Their occupation of Kadarampoor is
a case in point. The rise of some Aheer communities appears to
illustrate the latter mode of appropriation noted above. These people
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 97
were familiar with the forest, fixed their residence on some favorable
spot, and began to cultivate ; and when a settlement came to be made,
appeared to be the most convenient persons to admit to engagements
for the land. Thus the villages of Tumbolee in Tuppah Phurchuk
Havelee, Pergunnahs Nizamabad and Muhason, in Tuppah Chit-
pore, Pergunnah Mahomedabad, are held by Aheers.
39th. These instances serve to show in what way the original pro-
prietary right, resting on conquest, may have often terminated, and
been replaced by another right founded on grant of the ruling power,
actual usurpation, or voluntary act, sanctioned by sufferance. It is
immaterial now to discuss the validity or the legality of the circum-
stances, which originally created the right previous to our rule; it was
asserted and maintained whenever there was strength enough to sup-
port its assertion. Since our rule commenced, it has been recognized,
legalized, and consolidated. When no other private rights are pre-
judiced by the recognition, its admission must be beneficial.
A0th. Under the circumstances stated above, the proof of the pro-
prietary right is of very different degrees and nature.
Alst. It is of course strongest where the village communities have
flourished for centuries, and where they have been powerful enough to
hold together, and to keep out intruders. In other cases, where the
origin of the right is not so clear, we find it settled on the prescription
of many years, and capable of immediate adoption. Generally in the
formation of a settlement, possession is the point regarded, and if this
be for only a few years, it is still sufficient to give a title, till a better
be shown ; it being always borne in mind, that possession is only good
as far as it goes, and that a Talookdar who has been recorded by us
as Zemindar, may still have below him bodies of people, exercising full
proprietary rights, and entitled to the recognition and confirma-
tion of all those rights. In the settlement however of Towfeer
Mouzahs, and of resumed Maaffees, the greatest difficulty often occurs.
Here the proprietary right has been long in abeyance. All around a
proprietary right is exercised, and has been so for ages, so that there
is every reason to believe it has- existed on the spot in question, but
it has been in abeyance once, and perhaps disputed for so many years
as to be difficult of determination. If wells have been dug, or trees
planted, or bunds erected on the spot, these are always appealed to as
proofs of old proprietary right. The enjoyment of the fruit of the trees,
or of the fish of the ponds, or of any other of the spontaneous products
of the soil, are adduced as proofs of possession of that right. It is a com-
mon and convenient practice to refer to the Canoongoe’s records,
though these are of doubtful authority. Under present rules the case
98 Report on the District of Azimgurh. LFrs.
is referred to a jury, but even they are often perplexed, and I have
known cases where contending parties have agreed to leave the deter-
mination of the point to lot.
42nd. In rent-free lands some neighbouring Zemindar has generally
acquired some recognition of his proprietary right from the Maafeedar,
either by direct money payment, or by an allowance of land called do-
biswee (i. e. equal to two biswas in the beegah, or ten per cent. of the
whole area) free from the payment of rent, or by cultivating a large
portion of the land on favorable terms. Generally too the Zemindar
appropriates to himself the sayer, or spontaneous productions of the
land, but all these of course often depend on the relative strength
of the Maafeedar and of the claimant of the Zemindarry.
43rd. In the large co-parcenery villages, intricate questions some-
times are raised by the claimants of shares, and it becomes difficult to
decide whether a man is a sharer or not. ‘A member of a village
community often falls into distress, either because his share is really
inadequate to his support, or because he has become impoverished
by his own fault, or by misfortune. Under these circumstances he
may make over his share to a co-parcener, or let it lie waste. In
either case he may leave the village, or continue to reside in it. If he
continue to reside in the village, he may still have his share of the
sayer, though he have no cultivation. Ifa partition of waste land
attached to a village takes place, he immediately asserts his claim,
and if the settling officer were to take the determination on himself, he
would find the task no easy one.
44th. I have thus endeavored to show the probable origin of
private proprietary right in the land, and of the forms under which it
is found to be at present exercised. I will proceed next to classify
these forms, and to point out the principal features which characterize
them.
45th. The proprietary right in the land may rest either in a single
individual, or ina community of people. This community may divide
amongst themselves the profits of the estate either according to their
ancestral shares, or according to some arbitrary rule, having reference —
to the quantity of land which each member cultivates. Of the two
latter tenures the former has been sometimes styled the Zeméndarry,
the latter the Pudteedaree, or Bhyachara. None of these terms have
local application. The term Zemindar is generally applied in the
district to any one having a proprietary right in the land, whilst
Putteedar is restricted to those members of the village community
who are not under engagements directly with the Government. The
term Bhyachara is not known.
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 99
AGth. We will proceed to consider separately the three classes of
tenures mentioned above. First, those where the proprietary right
rests in a single individual.
A7th. Ail these are evidently liable to partition under the existing
laws, in the course of the succeeding generations. The vesting of the
entire right in an individual is rather incidental than natural to the
tenure, and yet deserves special notice, because it is generally created
in a way that brings with it special rights and relations. The sole
proprietors of villages are mostly those who have purchased them at
public sale for arrears of revenue, or under decrees of Court, or by
private contract.
48th. Purchasers by public auction, on account of arrears of rent,
must be held to have become possessed of all of what is commonly
termed the Zemindarry right. From the cultivated land they may
collect the established and fair rates: of the uncultivated land they have
the entire disposal. The Sayer, including the Phulkur, the Bunhur,
the Judhur, and whatever Zemindarry cesses are levied in the village,
of right belong to them, as does also the whole of the timber, which
is not the personal property of the resident who planted it, or his heir.
With the former non-proprietary cultivators the relations of the pur-
chaser ‘are well defined. He steps into the place of the former
proprietors, and is entitled to collect whatever they used to collect
before. From the old proprietors he is entitled to demand for their
Seer the average rate paid in the village, or its neighbourhood, for
similar land, by similar classes of cultivators, though this may be some
times difficult to determine immediately.
49th. An individual may have become possessed of a village under
sale in satisfaction of decrees of Court, and this is more frequently the
case than might be expected, even where the former proprietors were
numerous. A wealthy and intriguing man who once gets a footing in
a village will soon contrive to bring the interests of all the others to
sale, and by purchasing them, become himself the sole proprietor. The
right thus acquired is evidently more absolute than where it rests on
sale for arrears of revenue, though the latter gives the better title.
The latter absolutely transfers only the Zemindarry right, guaranteed
by the State against all other claimants ; the former gives the whole of
the rights and interests of the persons whose estates were sold, but
liable to challenge by any other claimants. In the latter case, the old
- proprietors retain their rights as cultivators ; in the former, they lose
them, and sink to the ranks of mere tenants at will.
50th. Purchases under special contract are of course ruled by the
terms of the contract ; but here, as well as in the case of sales under
100 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [F rs.
decrees of Court, our mistaken practice has introduced much confusion.
It became customary to consider the recorded Malgoozar the absolute
proprietor of the whole share, for which he paid the revenue; and
hence the sale of his rights and interests was held to be a conveyance
of the whole share ; a transfer of the names was made in the Collector’s
books, or, in technical terms, Kharij Dakhil was taken out, and it
became no easy matter to determine what really was transferred. No
doubt recorded Malgoozars have often taken advantage of this mis-
apprehension of their rights seriously to injure their co-parceners and
enrich themselves at their expense, but great injustice has also been
caused the other way. A Putee has raised money on mortgage, or
stood security in the name of its recorded Malgoozar, and received all
the benefit accruing from either transaction ; and afterwards, when the
terms of the contract have come to be enforced against them, have
endeavored to throw the whole weight on the Sudder Malgoozar
alone. The Government has frequently been thus a loser by accepting
. @ Sudder Malgoozar as security in the full amount of his recorded
liability. Cases of this sort must of course be decided each on their
separate merits. I would only mention one rule, which I have found
arbitrators adopt. Co-parceners living together, and holding their
property jointly and undividedly, are held to be bound by the act
of their recorded managers. The presumption in such cases is strongly
in favor of common agreement to the act, and they must be very
strong and peculiar circumstances which could establish a right of
exemption from all the liabilities implied in the deed.
51st. Talookahs are not always held by an individual, but they
frequently are held either by one person or by a few living together,
and exercising their rights as one. Any collection of villages held
together, either by one person or by many, is in the common usage of
the district called a Talookah ; but 1 employ it here in the more res-
tricted sense in which it is generally received in the Western Pro-
vinces, as meaning a collection of villages, each having a separate
community of its own, which by some act of the ruling power had
been assigned to an individual, who was to collect the revenue from
them, and pay over a certain portion of it to the Government.
52nd. Of such Talookahs there are not many in Azimgurh, nor are
the few that exist of any great size. Talookah Baz Bahadoor perhaps
is the only one which deserves very particular notice. Baboo Baz
Bahadoor was a junior member of the family of Gautum Rajahs of
Azimgurh, already mentioned. He obtained from the Rajah of the
time several villages. Some of them were waste, and he brought them
into cultivation ; some of the village communities were weak, and
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 101
either he hoped to crush them, or they anticipated advantages from
being placed under his care. He thus acquired about 20 or 30
villages in different Pergunnahs, and by superior address managed to
keep some hold of them till we acquired the country. Our first act
was of course to call him Zemindar, and constitute him absolute
proprietor of the whole. He himself however was not in a condition
to avail himself altogether of the favorable opportunity. He fell into
pecuniary difficulties—was obliged for sometime to make over his
estates in mortage to a banker, and at the last settlement was unable
to enter into engagements himself, and saw many of his villages
transferred in farm to the members of the village community. Now
in some of these villages the Talookdar was the only claimant of the
proprietary right. The lands had been waste, and he had brought
them into cultivation at his own cost, and here his recognition as
Zemindar was proper. Where, however, the village communities
had retained their rights, these were confirmed to them with reserva-
tion of a Talookdaree right. Some cases were found in which the
Talookdar had never exercised any right whatever over the village,
nor derived any profit or emolument from it for many years, although
he had all the time been nominal and recorded Zemindar. These
were severed from the Talookah and settled with the proprietors.
53rd. If the proprietary right rests in many members of a village
community, they many divide the profits according to their ancestral
shares, or according to some arbitrary rule regulated by the quantity
of land in the cultivation of each proprietor, or, in other words, his Seer
land.
54th. When the profits are divided amongst the several co-parceners
according to their ancestral shares, they may, or they may not, be
cultivators of the land, i.e. the holders of Seer. The simplest form
which the case can assume, is when they all live together as a joint
undivided family, one person managing the estate for the rest, or
appointing a common manager, and dividing the profits at the close of
the year. Sometimes they divide the estate, their responsibility con-
tinuing joint—sometimes the cultivators only are divided by the
Putwaree, each collecting from those assigned to him ; and this assign-
ment may take place annually, or when once made may continue in
force till a re-partition is demanded. There are instances where
each person collects from each cultivator the portion of the rent which
_ is his share, but this is very uncommon. ,
55th. When the proprietors cultivate themselves, the case is rather
more involved. If the Seer of each parcener bears the same propor-
tion to the total quantity of Seer land, that his share does to the
P
102 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
whole, the Seer may be thrown out of account and the collections
from the Assamees divided amongst them, according to their shares.
This however is seldom the case. It is more usual to levy a rate on
the Seer land, either the same that it would bear if cultivated by
Assamees, or some other fixed and arbitrary rate, generally a low and
favorable one. The village accounts being thus made up, the profits
are divided according to the shares. In this case, if the rate levied on
the Seer land is the same as on the Assamees land each parcener
can take up as much land as he likes as his Seer, otherwise there are
constant bickerings on the subject, for of course the increase of Seer
cultivation diminishes the rent roll.
56th. When however the proprietors live separate, but divide the
profits amongst them, it is by far the most common to divide the
estate, and each person to manage his own share as he likes. In
course of time, however, inequalities arise either in the quality of the
land in one share by superior management, or by the gradual en-
croachments of one share on the common waste land. This gives rise
to violent disputes—some claiming re-partition, others resisting it.
These disputes are commonly called in the district, ‘‘ kum a beshee,”
i. e. where the contending parties affirm that the shares are less or
more one than another. The man who thinks he has less than his
right, claims to pay not according to his ancestral share, but according
to his possession. This is not admitted by the other, and default
ensues. Estates have thus been often brought to the hammer, at the
time when sales by auction were the favourite means of realizing the
public demand. Now they constantly lead to attachment of the
estate. The only effectual method of terminating such disputes is
by re-partition of the whole, presuming, of course. that participation
according to ancestral share be an admitted feature of the tenure.
Clause 2, Section x11, Regulation vis, 1822, evidently contemplates
cases of this sort, and confers the necessary power on the settling
officers. Disputes of this nature are most common in the Pergunnahs
of Kowreeah, Gopalpoor, and Atrowleeah Tilhenee, and they also
occur in Deogaon.
57th. But where the proprietary right rests in a community, the
profits of the estate are often enjoyed not according to the ancestral
shares, but according to some arbitrary apportionment on the Seer
land of each proprietor. This apportionment of profit shows itself
in the form of a reduced rate of assessment on the Seer land. In such
cases the Government revenue is said to be paid or made up by a
bach,h on the Seer. These tenures of course suppose that each pro-
prietor is himself a cultivator, though it may so happen, and sometimes
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 103
does, that the proprietor is not a cultivator, but has acquired the share
by purchase, public or private, from a cultivating proprietor. Where
the profits of the estate are divided according to ancestral shares, the
Seer of a Zemindar is that which he has under his own cultivation,
i. e. which he has cultivated at his own cost, and by his own capital.
In tenures however of the kind which we are now considering, the
word Seer acquires as it were an artificial meaning. It is that por-
tion of the land in the possession of a sharer on which he pays the
bach,h, and which when compared with the total amount of Seer
in the village, represents his interest in the estate. It depends upon
the custom of the estate whether this be all or any part in his actual
cultivation, or whether he have any other cultivation in the village
than this. Instances are not very common where the sharer cultivates
no part of his Seer, and they generally arise, as above stated, out of
forced, or voluntary transfers from cultivating proprietors. It is com-
mon however for the proprietor to under-let a part of his Seer,
obtaining from the tenant the full Ryottee rates, and paying himself
only according to the dach,h. Instances are not common where the
proprietors cultivate more than their Seer. One singular case deserves
special notice. In Mowzah Oomahpoor, Pergunnah Mhownat Bhunjun,
thirty-six beegahs were set apart in the village, and each sharer’s
right was determined by the portion of this thirty-six beegahs which
he cultivated. It was his Seer, but besides this he might cultivate
as much more of the village as he liked at the common Ryottee rates,
and so all the sharers did to a considerable extent. Other instances
probably might be found where sharers cultivated the land of other
sharers, or the common lands of the villages, at the usual Ryottee rates,
but they do not come permanently into notice.
58th. It is evident that the Seer land may in such case bear any
proportion to the Ryottee. It may be very small, and the great bulk
of the estate may be cultivated by persons claiming no proprietary
rights in the estate, or it may absorb the whole of the estate, which in
that case is parcelled out amongst the several co-parceners as their
Seer. The latter is commonly the case in the old Rajpoot communities,
which have been strong enough to resist all the changes which
violence or fraud so often effect. In Tuppahs Chowree and Koobah,
in Pergunnah Deogaon, and in a great part of Pergunnah Belhabans
this prevails. The members of the Rajpoot communities are very nu-
_Mmerous and strong. They will not admit that there are any cultivators
but themselves, and record the land as their Seer, each man paying
a proportionate share of the Jumma according to the bach,h. There
is strong reason to believe that this is by no means so generally the
104 Report on the District of Azimgurh. | Fxs.
case as they aver. They have no idea that an arrangement of this
sort enables them more effectually to conceal the real resources of the
village, and would be more effective in resisting the inroads or power
of an auction purchaser, if any one were to attempt to take their
estate at a sale for arrears of revenue. It is certain that many
under-let their Seer, and do not cultivate at their own risk. All aver
that they give portions of their Seer in payment of service to their
ploughmen, herdsmen, and other agricultural labourers. The Putwaree
however does not enter these appropriations of the Seer in his accounts:
their all appears as Seer, his papers merely showing the extent of
each man’s Seer, and the portion assessed on him for payment of the
Jumma and village expenses. An exception to this may perhaps be
said to exist in what are called in Deogaon, Muzhooree Ryots ; but these
are only persons to whom the village community have made over
shares which have lapsed, or are in abeyance from any cause, so that
the land may not be waste and leave a heavier burden on the rest
of the village. Where the whole of the land is Seer, in these cases
the custom which regulates the payments is called bhazunsee, in other
places it is called beegah dam; in both, the practice is the same.
The payments of the early ists are made according to a low esta-
blished rate on the Seer land, and towards the close of the year the
whole community assemble to audit the accounts. The village ex-
penses are added to the Government Jumma, and from the total is
deducted the payment of the Ryots, if there are any. The remainder
is distributed according to the bach,h upon the owners of the Seer
land.
59th. This audit of accounts (or boojharut, as it is called) is a most
important process to the whole of the community. The right of
admission to the audit is the criterion of proprietary right. It may so
happen that a proprietor has lost his Seer, either from poverty or its
accidental appropriation or destruction. Still he has a voice in the
audit, and can claim a scrutiny of the Putwaree’s papers. It may so
happen that the force or fraud of a part of the community or of an
individual in it, has for a course of years kept some of the community
from the audit. Such exclusion is fatal to the possession of the party.
He is considered as dispossessed.
60th. In a community it must always happen that there are some
members of superior intelligence or wealth who obtain a prepon-
derance in the brotherhood. Where so much respectis attached to
hereditary right, this influence often descends from father to son,
although the descendant may not be distinguished by personal worth.
The engagements with Government run in the names of these indivi-
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 105
duals, who are commonly styled Lumberdars (i. e. bearing the
number in the Government Registers). ‘These persons in many parts
of the country arrogated to themselves the whole of the proprietary
right, and imposing upon the ignorance of the European officers of
the Government, succeeded in obtaining recognition of themselves as
the owners or Zemindars of the estate, instead of mere managers on
the part of the whole community. This however was less the case
in Azimgurh than in the other neighbouring districts, especially in the
province of Benares. The hereditary right of the managers had not
become established, and it had been usual on re-settlement of the
estate to alter the name of the manager, and sometimes to increase
the number of managers. In the present settlement the question has
been set at rest by the filing of an agreement entered into by the
whole of the village community, declaring the office to be elective, not
hereditary, and the incumbent to be liable to be ousted by the
voices of the majority of the Pattee or Thoke he might represent, on
proved mis-management.
6lst. Still under any circumstances the audit of the accounts is the
fertile source of discord in the community. The village expenses
are primarily authorized by the Lumberdars, or managers, and as
they frequently include fees or bribes to public officers, or other items
utterly unsusceptible of proof, are regarded with a very jealous eye
by those of the community who are not managers. The power
which the Putwaree possesses of fomenting these discords is great,
and frequently used in- the most injurious manner. It remains
to be proved by the result, how far the avowedly elective nature of the
office will be now effectual to stifle these dissensions.
62nd. Although, however, the profits of the estate may be divided
according to the Seer cultivation of the proprietors, it does not follow
that the ancestral sharers are always lost sight of. Sometimes
they are, and in such cases the only record of right consists in the Seer,
which regulates not only the direct profits arising from cultivation, but
also the Sayer, and other proprietary dues. Of this the best instances
are Kotelah and Sirsal, and some other villages held by Mahomedan
communities in Tuppah Phurchuk Havelee, in Pergunnah Nizama-
bad. The origin of these communities seems to be totally lost, proba-
bly they were originally Hindoo communities, and the genealogy was
lost in the confusion which occurred when the Mahomedan faith was
adopted.
63rd. In other class of cases the ancestral shares are known
and recorded, but profits are still enjoyed according to the Seer. This
no doubt has often resulted from over-assessment. When the demand
106 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Fes.
of the Government is excessive, the proprietors are compelled to throw
their profits as cultivators into the common fund, and of course those
who do not cultivate could not share the profits, whilst amongst
the cultivators the profits would be made to correspond with the culti-
vation. Accordingly we find that since the cession, and especially
lately, when the cultivated area, and consequent assets of the village,
have increased without a correspondent increase of demand, many
changes have taken place, and villages which formerly paid Beegah
dam (i. e. by a rate on the Seer,) now pay Khoo tattee (i. e. according
to ancestral shares.)
64th. In the large Rajpoot communities where the whole of the lands
are Seer, though the ancestral rights are well known, yet the custom
of paying according to the Seer prevails from another cause, viz.
from the constant transfer of land or of shares (generally by mortgage,
but sometimes by sale) which takes place amongst the several proprie-
tors. The natural multiplication of some branches of the family
of course reduces their shares to so small a fraction that some are
obliged to seek other modes of subsistence, and leave their shares
in the hands of the wealthier members of the family. In other cases,
want or temporary distress induces the mortgage of part of the
share. The mortgage generally conveys the land with its portion
of the revenue. Instances where the land is mortgaged free of reve-
nue are rare, and the periods of such mortgages are short, nor are they
often made, except to regular money dealers, the security of course
being bad, as it is liable to be endangered by default of the mortgager.
Wherever transfers of this sort are paid amongst the members of
the brotherhood, the effect is to lodge large portions of the village in the
hands of the wealthier proprietors ; and as the mortgages are often not
reduced for a long series of vears, or perhaps not at all, and are at
length lost sight of, the ancestral shares cease to regulate the profits of
the proprietors.
65th. I would here remark a curious distinction in these mortgages,
which will often be found to afford the clue to disputes amongst
the proprietors. Mortgages are either of specific fields, or of shares ; the
former are called Khet khut, the latter Khoont khut. A man
in distress will mortgage away all his fields one after the other, and at
last he makes over his share also; but this transfer, perhaps, carries no
land with it. Khet khut does not impair the proprietary right of the
mortgager, nor does it create any such right in the mortgagee ; but the
execution of Khoont khut at once terminates the connection of
the mortgager with the village, and substitutes the mortgagee in
his place. The Khoont khut probably conveys only a nominal right,
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 107
or at least only a right to some small item of Sayer, still it is
given with great reluctance, and only under the sternest necessity, and
on account of the higher value attached to the privileges it represents,
may command a considerable sum.
66th. A similar distinction often exists in titles acquired otherwise
than by mortgage. In the village of Burragoon, in Tuppah Chitpoor,
Pergunnah Mahomedabad, there were two Puttees in one half of the
villages, and only one in the other half. The owners of the lat-
ter found themselves numerically the weaker, and fearing that
they might be overborne by the two Puttees, summoned a distant
member of the family from a neighbouring village, gave him an interest
in their half, and had his name inserted in the engagements with
Government, together with the representative of their Puttee. There
was much waste land in the village, and it was agreed that in each
half the waste land was to be apportioned on the Seer of the pro-
prietors. The stranger claimed his share, the owners of the one Puttee
resisted it. On further inquiry it was discovered that the stranger
had acquired a right to certain fields only, not to a share, he was an
owner of khef not of khoont, and his claim of course fell to the ground.
This is an instance of one of the modes, in which the practical pagers
of the distinction developes itself.
67th. The mortgage bonds of this sort are frequently worded so as
to be deeds of sale, and yet by common custom redemption is allowed.
It is astonishing what good faith is generally observed among the
members of the large Rajpoot communities regarding these mortgages.
A member may have been absent for years, but when he returns
to his village in circumstances admitting of the redemption of his
share, a meeting of the community is held, his share is determined
and given up to him, or the mortgaged fields traced out and restored.
An attempt to resist any claim of this sort is highly reprobated
amongst the Rajpoots, and indelibly fixes a stain upon the person who
resists. Unfortunately the artificial system which is springing up
under the influence of our Courts weakens and undermines this
generous conduct. Supported by the strong arm of our civil power,
a man will now venture to brave the hostility of a community, which
in another state of Society, would summarily have enforced its own
award.
68th. The man in possession is now supported by the Government
till he is ejected by the decree of a Civil Court. The usual way of
resisting claims of redemption is either by pleading actual sale,
instead of mortgage, and taking shelter under the rule of limitation,
which bars the admission of a claim after a certain period, or admit-
108 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
ting the mortgage, by bringing forward a long counter-statement of
expenses incurred in maintaining possession of the mortgaged lands,
or in cultivating them. This account may be swelled to a length far
exceeding the value of the land, or the means of the mortgager, and
he is at the same time tempted to bring forward a counter-claim for
the refund of mesne profits. A case of this sort can only be settled
by arbitration. In some parts of the district, as in Tuppahs Chowree
and Koobah, Pergunnah Deogaon, the admitted custom is, that re-
demption takes place on payment of double the mortgage money, and
here disputes of this sort are less liable to cause litigation. The
village of Ailwul, held by a body of Bissen Rajpoots, which includes
a part of the town of Azimgurh itself, is an instance of the ruin which
disputes of this sort occasion. Two of the Puttees deserted the village
during the oppressions of the period prior to the cession. After that
they returned and reclaimed their shares. This was resisted by the
remaining proprietor, who had borne all the difficulties which had
led to the expulsion of his weaker brothers. The arbitrators absolute-
ly, and free of expense, restored their shares to the claimants. A bloody
affray ensued, and the subsequent bitter animosity between the parties
compels the constant interference of a Suzawul on the part of the Go-
vernment to collect the Jumma for the several individuals separately.
69th. The system of Beegah-dam, however, very frequently prevails
in villages where the shares are the subject of dispute, and here the
greatest animosity prevails. The lapse of a share by failure of issue,
the conflicting claims of children by different mothers, and the irre-
gular transfer by widows, who may retain the management of their
husband’s land, are amongst the fruitful sources of these dissensions.
Here the contending parties dispute to the utmost the point of in-
herent right, and when driven from that, the predominant party fall
back on the question of village custom ; and dropping all mention of
the manner in which they originally acquired their large portion of
Seer, claim the maintenance of the custom which makes it the cri-
terion of their interest in the village. |
70th. The circumstances of Tolookah Sithwul, Tuppah Phurchuk
Havelee, Pergunnah Nizamabad, so clearly illustrate many of the
curious and difficult questions attending cases of this sort, that I
cannot refrain from mentioning it somewhat in detail.
7\st. This Talookah originally belonged to a family of Rajpoots,
who are now represented by four branches. Between the years 1085
A. F. and 1130 a. ¥. (A. vp. 1677-1722) they sold the estate to a
Ranee of the reigning family at Azimgurh, who founded on it a
Bazar, now called Ranee-ka-Serai. It was subsequently re-purchased
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 109
for 875 rupees by Tannee Rai, a distant relative of the proprietors,
and a resident on the estate, but not himself an owner before that
time. From the period of the purchase to the present day the
descendants of Tannee Rai held with the heirs of the original pro-
prietors, and all paid Beegah-dam, but till sometime after the ces-
sion, the family of Tannee Rai remained superior. About the year
1820, the descendants of one of the old branches sued for a quarter
share of the estate, and on inspection of the genealogical tree, and
a reference to the law officers of the Court, obtained a decree in
their favor. In this suit the real question was never brought forward,
nor the circumstances explained, under which the Tannee Rai branch
was introduced. This decree was never executed, but at the time
of settlement, the holders of the decree claimed execution of it from
the officer who was conducting the proceedings. They were of course
referred back to the Civil Court for an order on the Collector to give
possession under the decree, and at the same time a proceeding was
held, setting forth all the peculiar features of the case for the con-
sideration of the Court Now we are able to perceive in this particu-
lar case the origin of the tenure, and the means whereby a new
branch was introduced amongst the community of proprietors, alien
_ to the original stock, but still possessed of rights in reality far stronger
than any of the others. The principle of the Civil Court’s decision
went to the exclusion of these, in fact, the rightful owners, and whose
proprietary tenure had been sanctioned by the uninterrupted possession
of upwards of 100 years. Similarly good reasons, no doubt, often exist,
though the trace of them has been lost, for the numerous apparent
anomalies, which exist in tenures of this description. The memory
of the transaction had been maintained by its comparatively recent
date, the high station of some of the parties concerned, and the ex-
istence of the Bazar, which was named in commemoration of it.
Similar transactions which were not rendered equally illustrious,
were doubtless often forgotten in the convulsions and revolutions of
former times.
72nd. It is well to remark some of the incidents of this tenure, and
the points wherein they vary from each other.
73rd. Sometimes the Sayer are divided according to hereditary
shares, sometimes according to the Seer; the latter prevailing where
the shares are acknowledged, the former where they are unknown.
74th. The sharers may themselves cultivate, or they may have the
option of under-letting their Seer. This depends more than any thing
else on the circumstances in life of the sharers. If they are respectable
men, who do not cultivate themselves, or have other means of liveli-
Q
110 Report on the District of Azimgurh. | Frs.
hood, they are accustomed to under-let their Seer; but not if they are
themselves of the class of cultivators, and have no other means of oc-
cupation. In some instances each person pays the bach,h upon his
Seer, whether it be cultivated or not; but in general he only pays
upon what has been actually cultivated. The former custom is usual
when the proprietor is at liberty to under-let his Seer.
75th. The managing proprietor, or Lumberdar of each Puttee,
sometimes receives a fixed sum, or pecuniary allowance. This is the
case in Sithwul, which has just been mentioned. Each manager
there gets 25 Rupees, which is charged to the village expenses. In-
stances of this are at present rare, because the other unauthorized
advantages possessed by the proprietor have generally caused the office
to be much an object of desire; now that the situation has become
elective, and held only at the pleasure of the community, it is probable
that it will more frequently be remunerated by money payments.
76th. Generally the Zemindars are not allowed to extend their
Seer without the consent of the community, but where there is much
culturable waste land attached to the village, or cultivators are scarce,
the rules on this head are little attended to.
77th. In all villages or estates held by communities, exertions
have been made in the present settlement to specify and place on
record the several peculiarities and incidents of the tenure, which
have been referred to above. The members of the community have
been called upon voluntarily to define these in a joint deed, executed
by as many members of the body as could conveniently be brought
together. The points alluded to in these deeds, are the mode in
which the profits of the estate are to be divided, and the rules re-
garding the enjoyment of the Sayer, the cultivation of waste land, the
management of Seer land, the rights, privileges, power and tenure of
Lumberdars, or managing proprietors. As far as practicable, whenever
a desire to that effect has been expressed, the non-proprietary cultiva-
tors and the waste land have been divided amongst the several
sharers or families of sharers, so that whilst the joint responsibility is
maintained, there still exists the greatest encouragement for the im-
provement of each several share.
78th. I have thus attempted to describe the principal sort of pro-
prietary tenures ; but before proceeding to any other branch of the sub-
ject, would briefly notice the topographical distribution of property
which prevails in different parts of this district, and mention the
mode in which the settlement proceedings bear in this respect on the
state of property.
79th. The simplest form of an estate is, where an individual,
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 111
or community of individuals own the whole of a plat of ground
lying within certain limits, and bearing a fixed name, as a Mouzah.
This may from time immemorial have borne a single name, and
be generally recognized as such, or it may contain within its area two
or more Mouzahs, Uslee or Dakhulee, or both, whose separate bounda-
ries have long been lost sight of, and which have become intermingled
so as to form one village, probably bearing the double name.
80th. The estate however may comprise two or more such Mou-
zahs, and these may be situated together or at a distance from each
other.
Slst. The ancestors of many of the Rajpoot communities were
possessed of large tracts of land containing many villages. As
their descendants multiplied, this tract of land was subdivided, and
formed into separate Mehals. This subdivision sometimes was effect-
ed so as to assign whole Mouzahs to different branches of the family.
It was seldom, however, especially when the subdivision was amongst
many sharers, that the property could be so divided. In this case,
perhaps, some entire Mouzahs were given to each branch of the family,
and the inequalities thence arising were made good in the division of
some Mouzahs held jointly by all, or else each Mouzah was divided so
that every branch of the family should have a portion. The whole
Mouzahs, or portions of Mouzahs, belonging to each branch, were
collected together, and made into one Mehal, or estate. But in
the Mouzahs held jointly, the division probably was not in distinct
portions, but field by field, or as it is commonly called, Khet Bhut.
Now these fields sometimes became the subject of sale from one
person to another, and the purchaser might call the purchased field by
the name of his own Mouzah. It thus happens that many Mouzahs
in Tuppah Chowree, Pergunnah Deogaon, contain within them fields
known by the name of other Mouzahs, perhaps two or three miles dis-
tant, and have attached to them fields in other Mouzahs at an equally
great distance. In Tuppah Koobah, Pergunnah Deogaon, the case was
still more involved by the circumstance, that sets of fields in se-
veral Mouzahs, belonging to different branches of the family, bore
distinct names. This distinction existed sometimes in the Govern-
ment records, and not in common usage, sometimes in both.
82nd. Now in all cases of this sort, the system of survey which has
been followed is the most convenient which could have been devised.
_ The professional survey gives the locality of the villages, or of the
plots of ground constituting the site and the bulk of the village,
whilst the native field maps give the several fields within the circuit
of each village. These fields can be distinguished by different colors
112 Report on the District of Azimgurh. (Fes.
according to the different Mehals to which they are attached; and the
fair proportion of Jumma allotted to the Mouzah, may be readily
assigned to each field, or knot of fields. The fragments of villages
thus assessed may be grouped together in Mehals, so as to suit general
convenience, and without any trouble to the revenue officers of
the Government, or any risk to the interests of the Government.
83rd. It may be useful to attempt a definition of these two terms, a
Mouzah, or village, and a Mehai, or estate. 7
84th. A Mouzah, or village, is one or more parcels of land called by a
certain name, of fixed limits, and known locality, neither of which are
liable to change. At the time of settlement, each Mouzah has a name
and number assigned to it in the Government lists, and must so
remain till the ensuing settlement, or till, for any special reason, it
should appear fit, under express orders from the Government, to break
up or alter the arrangement of the Mouzahs.
85th. A Mehal, or estate, consists of one or more Mouzahs, or a part
or parts of one or more Mouzahs, covered by one engagement with the
Government, or Durkhaust, and belonging to one individual or body
of persons, who are jointly responsible for the Jumma assessed upon the
whole. These are liable to constant variations, according as transfers
of property may take place. An annual adjustment of Mehals at the
time of making up the annual kistbwndee if done with discretion, and
under certain precautions, will be found very conducive to the comfort
of the people, and the convenience of the Government officer.
86th. I would now proceed to notice the right possessed by non-pro-
prietary cultivators, i. e. cultivators not under engagements with the
V. p. 23, Gov. Government themselves, or through their Rssip ines
Genl’s. minute of
Sept. 26,1833. These may be divided into,
First,—Those having an hereditary and transferable right to hold
their land at a fixed rate.
Second.—Those having a right of occupancy at a fixed rate, either
for a certain period or during their own lives, or those of their imme-
diate descendants.
Thirdly,—Mere tenants at will.
87th. Under the first term I would include all holders of resumed
Maaffees, with whom such an arrangement has been expressly con-
cluded by the Collector at the time of settlement, and generally those
who by purchase, gift, or special compact, have obtained rights of this
nature from the Zemindars, such as Bisweedars, Sunkullupdars, the
holders of land at reduced rates, or rent free, as security for loans, the
holders of land on special terms in lieu of proprietary claims on the
estate. These persons may be, as it happens, themselves cultivators or
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 113
may have cultivators under them. At the time of settlement the
extent of land held by them, and the conditions of their tenure, have
been clearly recorded. The proprietor is of course responsible to the
Government for the Jumma fairly assignable to their holding, but
he may sue them summarily for the amount, and on failure of pay-
ment may oust them or bring their tenures to sale. It may happen,
aud it frequently does happen, especially in Talookahs, that a whole
Mouzah may thus be held as an under tenure by the old proprietors,
who are responsible to the Talookdar and not to the Government, and
who yet may manage the village concerns according to established
custom as a proprietary body. The provisions of Act viir. of 1835,
which authorizes the sale of under tenures of this sort, on failure to
pay the amount decreed in a summary suit, afford considerable faci-
lities for the realization of the rents from tenures of this description.
88th. In the second class may be placed the former proprietors of
estates sold by auction for arrears of rent, as regarded their Seer
land—ousted proprietors, or old claimants of proprietary right, as
regards the land they have long had in possession, and generally those
who, whether actually resident in the village, or otherwise, may be
proved to have long held the same land on the same terms for a course
of years. The period which constitutes such prescriptive right has
been no where settled. It has been held, that land so possessed since
the cession may come within this class. A shorter period however
might fairly be assigned, and probably the Civil Courts would recog-
nize the term of twelve years as sufficient to constitute the claim. It
is not unfrequently the case that tenures of this sort originate in con-
tracts entered into by the Zemindars themselves, with cultivators
whom they may engage to bring waste land into tillage.
89th. Now it is evident that all tenures of this kind are liable to
adjustment at the time of settlement. No proprietor is at liberty to
fix rates which should hold good beyond the term of his own tenure,
or lease, nor would the settling officer be justified in recognizing
rates which fall below the average of the Government demand, or the
fair proportion of assessment which may be levied from the fields in
question. It is sufficient that the fair rate fixed at the time of settle-
ment should be invariable during its duration, and that the extent
of land thus held, with the rate and right of permanency, should be
slearly defined. Of course if the holders of this land extend their
cultivation, and take other fields than those which they are recorded
to possess, they do not carry their privileges with them, but must
make their own terms with the Zemindars for their new requisitions. |
90th. The most perplexing cases of this sort which are likely to
114 | Report on the District of Azimgurh. | Fes.
occur, have reference to estates formerly held by large bodies of
cultivating proprietors, which are brought to public sale for arrears of
Government revenue. In such cases it is only the proprietary
right of the defaulters which is extinguished, their rights as culti-
vators remain intact. They are still entitled to cultivate their Seer
land at a fixed rate, but the rate requires to be defined. Before the ©
present settlement there was the greatest difficulty in deciding cases of
this sort. The Putwaree’s papers, supposing them perfectly genuine,
show only the extent of each Zemindar’s Seer and the dach,h he had
hitherto paid. But the extent was stated in an arbitrary Beegah,
commonly called the Bhaiunsee Beegah, much larger than the ordi-
nary standard Beegah, being used only amongst the brotherhood,
where relative and not absolute area was the only requisite. In
order then fairly to fix rates for the Seer land, it was requisite that
the auction purchaser should first measure the land, and then deter-
mine the average rates which were paid by other cultivators for
similar land. It was seldom, in former times, that auction purchasers
were able to accomplish this. Any attempt to measure the lands of a
turbulent village community would have inevitably led to a breach of
the peace and bloodshed, and the loss to the proprietor would have
been immense. The matter used generally to end in a compromise,
which of course was more or less favorable to the purchaser according
to the strength or influence of the two parties. The rate once fixed,
and in general it was a very low one, the efforts of the old proprietors
were always directed to including in their Seer the best, and richest
Ryottee land. Hence the rental was soon reduced so low as to yield no
profit to the Zemindar, and ultimately, in all probability, the estate
was returned on the hands of Government as over-assessed. No other
purchaser would of course come forward, a Government Suzawul was
helpless, and unless some great exertions were made by the officers of
Government, the deterioration of the estate was permanent.
91st. Talookah Oonhaitch, formerly included in Pergunnah Pucho-
tur, Zillah Ghazeepoor, illustrates the process. It was permanently
settled in 1197 F., but broke down in 1223, and for many years
had been held kham by Government at a considerable annual
loss. It has now been re-settled with the former village communities
at the old Jumma, and arrangements made with the proprietors for
the repayment of the balances by instalments within twenty years.
The Jumma, and the instalments have now been regularly paid two
years, without the smallest default. The estate has since been
transferred to Azimgurh, and forms part of Tuppah Purduha, Pergun-
nah Mahomedabad.
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 115
92nd. The case under the new settlement will be very different. In
all estates held by cultivating bodies of proprietors, the custom of
bach,h only is recorded regarding the Seer. ‘There is no necessity for
vexing or alarming the proprietors by fixing Ryottee rates on their
Seer. If therefore the estate be brought to sale by public auction,
there will not be found any rates fixed on the Seer. But still its
extent and locality will be certain, and the rates paid by other culti-
vators of similar rank in life for similar land will be found recorded.
There are generally in Azimgurh two rates of rent for the same land,
varying according to the rank in life of the cultivators. The respect-
able, or Ushraf, pay less than the lower classes, or Urzal. The Ze-
mindars would of course pay the Ushraf rates.
93rd. The cause or origin of this distinction is not very clear, but
reasons may be alleged in its justification. The Ushraf are generally
Brahmins or Rajpoots, who are connected with the Zemindars by ties
of religion, family connexion, or friendship, and hence are somewhat
favored ; besides which their respectability gives better security
for payment. On the other hand, the Urzal, consist of Bhurs,
Chumars, and low caste persons, who are generally located on the
estate at some expense of capital, and are liable at any time to be
left entirely dependant on the Zemindars, who must either support
them during a season of scarcity or see his estate depopulated, and his
future sources of profit destroyed.
94th. The third class, or tenants at will, consist mostly of those who
are styled Urzal in the preceding paragraph. They neither have nor
assert in general any rights, other than the will of the Zemindar.
They take what land he gives them, and pay the utmost that they can,
either in money or in kind. Besides their direct contributions to his
reital, they render him many personal services. If Kuhars, they
carry his palankeen, merely receiving in return food to support them
during the time. Other classes bring him wood, tend his cattle,
or perform numerous other similar services for very inadequate remu-
neration. Under former Governments this power was no doubt
recognized, and permitted. They were then predial slaves, who were
beaten without mercy for misconduct, and were liable to be pursued,
and brought back if they attempted to escape. Their state is now
much improved. The power is now conventional. A Chumar can
now sue his Zemindar in the Criminal Court for an assault, and if
_ detained against his will, can bring his action for false imprisonment.
He can even recover in a Civil Court the wages of labor perform-
ed. Nothing vexes or annoys the Zemindars in our whole system, so
much as this. It has struck at the root of a power, which has long
116. : Report on the District of Arximgurh. [ Fes.
been exercised most tyrannically, and yet so strong is the force of habit
and custom, that often as the power of the Zemindar is still abused,
it is very rarely that they are brought into Court to answer for their
misconduct. |
95th. The foundation on which the right of the Zemindar now
avowedly rests, is that of pecuniary obligation. He expends capital in
locating the cultivator in the village, he builds his house, feeds him till
the harvest time, supplies him with seed, grain, and implements
of husbandry. On all these, an exorbitant interest is charged, and in
consideration of the pecuniary obligation thus incurred, the services of
the man are exacted. Hence the connexion is rather personal than re-
sulting from the tenure of the land, and various circumstances support
this view. In mortgages those rights are seldom, if ever, transferred ;
in private sales very rarely, unless specified ; in public sales by autho-
rity for arrears of revenue, never. Hence an auction purchaser never
acquires any rights over the tenants at will of a former Zemindar,
and thus the Zemindar always struggles to include all such cultiva-
tion under the term of his Seer. In the partition of an estate, each
_ Puttee keeps its own Ryots, and sometimes the most violent disputes
exist as to the right to certain Ryots.
96th. An instance may go far towards exemplifying these customs.
In the partition of a village in Nizamabad, held by Rajpoots a dis-
pute arose regarding the right to an Aheer. Each party claimed the
man as his own Assamee, and wished his name to be inserted in the
list of his own Puttee. Both claimants, and the man himself came
forward. The facts of the case were admitted by all. A’s ancestors
had first located the man in the village, given him his house, sup-
ported him, and for a long time retained his services—such as the
first day’s ploughing of the season, the first day’s use of his bullocks
in the Sugar Mill, the usual petty offerings of grain, molasses, &c.
To improve his cultivation the man had dug a well, for which pur-
pose he borrowed money from a Mahajun. A, was in reduced cir-
cumstances, and could not pay the debt. The creditor pressed for
payment, and at last B came forward, paid the debt, and subsequently
claimed the services of the man, who now left his former house, and
resided in one assigned him by B. The man himself, apparently a
respectable and sensible cultivator, never thought of denying the ob-
- ligations of his situation, but said that on A’s inability to support him
his services were transferred to B. The matter was referred to several
respectable Zemindars, who were present, and they unanimously and
at once decided that A’s right was indefeasible, except by his own
transfer to B, and that the Aheer was consequently still bound to
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 117
render as before all the usual service to A, whilst B might claim in
liquidation of the new debt, whatever else the Aheer might be able
to do. This decision was communicated to the parties ; the Aheer
was registered as A’s Assamee, and all parties went away apparently
satisfied that the case had been fully heard.
97th. There are however many varieties of this class. In propor-
tion as they are good cultivators, and raised above the menial castes,
they acquire by prescription, rights which at length become valuable.
The Keorees are an instance of this. They are by far the best cul-
tivators, and they excel in gardening. A Zemindar is always glad to
get some of them located in his village. He treats them liberally,
because they improve the ground by constantly manuring it, and
pay him high rates, and that punctually. Hence their cultivation is
never interferred with. They get as much as they like, and are allow-
ed to keep it as long as they will. The self-interest of the Zemindars
would always be sufficient to protect them, except against sallies of
passion. Lately however the independance of this class has been
established by the rapid spread of Poppy cultivation in the district.
The Keorees are the only class of people who will produce Opium.
By taking advances from the Opium Department, and putting them-
selves under the protection of that powerful establishment, they have
quite freed themselves from any dependance on the Zemindars. It is
needless to say, that nothing is consequently more odious to the
opulent and powerful Zemindars than this Department.
98th. It is clear that non-proprietary cultivators of this third class
by long prescription would rise to the second class, and acquire the right
of holding their land at fixed rates.
99th. The better to define and secure these rights, it has been one
great object of the settlement proceedings to form an accurate record of
each of these classes, according to their several designations. In the two
first classes, the extent of their cultivation and rate of payment has
been determined ; and in the third, the land actually held, and the
rate actually paid recorded ; this rental thus formed by the village
Putwaree, in the presence of as many members of the community as
may be on the spot, has been afterwards advertized for information in
the village, and at the place where it was drawn out, a time fixed for
hearing objections, and at the close of that time, the question has been
finally disposed of. Whenever the prevailing rates may have been
reduced below the fair Pergunnah average, from collusion, partiality,
by special contract, or other cause, it has been sometimes necessary to
re-adjust and fix the rates, which may be hereafter demanded.
100th. The future maintenance of those arrangements must be left to
R
118 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
the Courts of Law, but it is well to see how the present practice of the
Courts affects them. Summary suits for rent will be decided accord-
ing to these rates, unless proof be adduced that they have been set
aside by the Dewanny Courts, or altered by voluntary agreement ;
and such voluntary agreement should never be admitted on the
denial of either party, except under the clearest documentary proof,
or alteration of the rates previously made by both parties in the
register of the village. Any cultivator forcibly dispossessed of the
Jand he holds, according to the register, might sue summarily before
the Collector for re-instatement, to whatever class he might belong,
and would be re-instated accordingly. A summary process is provided
to maintain a cultivator in possession against his Zemindar, but no
summary process for ejecting a tenant at will is open to the Zemin-
dar. If any Ryot fails immediately to liquidate a demand for rent,
adjudged against him in a summary process by the revenue authori-
ties, he is liable to ejectment, and his land is then made over to the
Zemindar. Tenants at will seldom resist the requisitions of those who
are really their Zemindars, that is, who claim the supremacy which
has been before described ; but few would yield up their possession in
favor of an auction purchaser. In such cases, then, although the
Zemindar possesses legally the right of ousting the tenant at will, he
‘can only legally enforce it through a regular suit. ‘The Courts also
can of course always take cognizance of claims to be removed from
one class of cultivators to another. It is however very questionable
how far they could interfere in altering the rates fixed by the revenue
officer, unless on pleas originating subsequently to the settlement.
They could at least only take cognizance of the question as between
man and man, between the Zemindar and the Ryot, as it might be
affected by contracts existing between them. They could not posi-
tively alter any rate fixed by the Collector. If the estate were held
Kham, or farmed, or sold by the Government in consequence of
default, the settlement rates might be demanded, notwithstanding the
decree of the Court. If this were not the case, the rental might be
reduced below the Government demand, and the interference of the
Civil Courts might be thus exercised in regulating the Jumma, which
it is an established principle that they have no power to call in
question.
10\st. If it were desired to introduce the European system of
farming, or, in Indian parlance, to make the whole lands of the village
Seer, this could only be effected by purchasing up the rights of
the two first classes, and by purchasing out, or ejecting, the last class,
probably by long and expensive litigation. |The insuperable aversion
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 119
which the upper classes ( Ushraf) have to engage with their own
- hands in any agricultural operations, would render it very difficult to
persuade them to part with their rights.
102nd. It is necessary to allude here to the great number of
summary suits regarding the payment of rent, which are instituted
in this district. The number is still increasing, and the causes
Number of Suits in- which have produced so much litigation de-
stituted in the three first
quarters of 1823— 374 serve note.
ior ee First,—The operations of the Special Commis-
Ha ee sion under Regulation I, 1821, and I, 1823, for
1837-1305 the reversal of fraudulent sales, and transfers of
property ; was one of the chief causes. In the
early period of our rule the district suffered exceedingly from the
effects of our Code. This was hastily introduced, immediately on the
cession, and gave a rich harvest to numerous intriguers, who poured in
from the neighbouring districts which had been longer under our rule,
and were better accustomed to the tricks and chicanery, which an ar-
tificial system of the sort is likely to produce amongst an illiterate
people. The choice too of some of the first agents for introducing the
new system appears to have been unfortunate. The natural result
was, that extensive frauds were perpetrated both in the registration of
owners of estates at the time of the first settlement, and subsequently
in the transfer of property under forced and collusive sales. To
remedy this state of things was highly desirable, and the remedy
ought to have been promptly administered immediately the evil was
discovered. As it turned out, the attempted remedy was almost worse
than the evil.
103rd. In 1629, that is, twenty-six years after the commencement
of the evil, the Commission was called into operation in the district.
Its conduct was entrusted to Mr. R. M. Bird, the Commissioner
of Revenue and Circuit for the division, who was perfectly aware
of the necessity, and importance of the measure. The Regulations
quoted above confer an immense discretionary power, and admit
of great latitude of interpretation. Mr. Bird commenced the work
with energy, and began to act on the strong views he justly enter-
tained upon the subject. Had these views been then carried through
with promptitude and decision, great good might have resulted. An
immense number of suits were immediately instituted, but in the
mean time a change had taken place in the views of the superior
authorities on the subject of this Commission. Some of the first cases
decided by Mr. Bird gave rise to much discussion, and were reversed
in appeal. No further decisions were passed, and the time of the
120 Report on the District of Azimgurh. . (Fes.
Commissioners was speedily so completely occupied with their other
duties, that the investigations lay thus in abeyance for seven years,
till in 1835 a separate officer was appointed to close the investigations.
When this took place, the views which led to the original enactment,
had become completely altered, and all the claims which had been kept
alive for seven or eight years, were speedily thrown out. In addition
to this, the appellate authority, as well as the primary, had become
clogged and overwhelmed, till about the same period a special provision
was made for the discharge of its functions. Hence many of the claims
which had been allowed by the Special Commissioner in the early
part of the period between 1829 and 1836, and the parties put in
possession accordingly, were disallowed in appeal at the close of the
period, and the decree holders again dispossessed, and made to account
for mesne profits.
104th. Amongst a people extremely sensitive regarding their rights
in landed property, it may well be conceived what injury resulted
from operations such as these. It is unnecessary to notice here the
evil effects upon the prosperity and morals of the people. Its effect in
all estates which had been purchased at public auction for arrears of
public revenue (and very numerous they were) shewed: itself in the
refusal of the members of the old village communities to pay their
rents. Hence the proprietor of such an estate was sometimes com-
pelled to file sixty or seventy suits in a single village or Mehal.
105th. Secondly,—By far the larger number of suits were instituted
in Pergunnah Nizamabad, and many of these resulted from the fiscal
mismanagement of the Pergunnah whilst under settlement, from 1822
to 1834. It was the field where every young and inexperienced officer
began to make settlements, or to introduce a new system, and hence
was the subject of many crude and rash experiments. Amongst these
was the arbitrary fixing of rent rates, from which the Government,
demand was deducted. In proceedings under Reg. vir, 1822, this was
frequently done, and with the most injurious effect. The arbitrary
rates could often not be exacted, but they gave the Malgoozar a pretext
for demanding them, and consequently involved him in litigation.
106th. Thirdly,—The very unsettled state of the landed property
was another fruitful source of litigation. Disputes regarding boun-
daries, and between Putteedars, were constantly thrown into the
summary suit file.
107th. Fourthly,—But all these causes were ten-fold magnified by
the delay which used to occur in the decision of these suits, then
falsely called summary. ‘Till the Sudder Board of Revenue took up
the subject in 1833 with their wonted energy, suits of this sort used to
1839. ] Report on the District of dzimgurh. 12]
remain on the file ten years or more. When the Civil Courts had
the charge of the summary file, very few decisions were ever passed,
and these few were. based on no fixed principles. Contumacious cul-
tivators derided the efforts of the proprietor to compel payment by the
institution of summary suits, whilst these were still placed on the
file by the disheartened proprietors, lest failure to assert the claim
might have compelled reference to a regular suit, which seemed more
expensive and still more hopeless of speedy termination.
108th. A recourse to distress and sale of personal property of the
tenant was equally fruitless, replevin immediately took place, and
further proceeding was stopped till that could be disposed of.
109th. A very different state of things has followed close upon this.
Within the last three years.summary suits have been decided and
enforced, through the agency of the Tuhsildars, with a promptitude
never known before. A month or six weeks is the average duration
of a suit, and none lie over for more than three months, whilst the
Cutcherry of the Tuhsildar is a tribunal at the door of every man. In
the mean time, the Special Commission has nearly closed its course,
rent rates have been adjusted, and boundary and Putteedar disputes
settled. It must also be remembered that the division of property is
very minute, the number of subordinate tenures large, and that every
effort has been used to induce the Malgoozars to have recourse to
summary suits, instead of relying on the irregular and illegal inter-
ference which used to be exercised by the Tuhsildars in the adjust-
ment of their Putteedaree disputes, and collection of their rents. When
all these things are taken into consideration, it will not perhaps be
considered strange that the summary suit file is heavy. It will rather
be thought a happy proof of the efficiency of the process, and a sure
indication that regularity and legal modes of redress are rapidly taking
the place of confusion and misrule.
110th. The state of the rent free lands requires some notice. All
the claims to hold land free from the payment of revenue have been
investigated and finally disposed of. The quantity resumed and set-
tled is very large. This consisted mostly of unauthorized grants by
Amils, or Tuhsildars, or Zemindars, in which the original grantee,
however, had generally demised, and the property had devolved upon
the heir, contrary even to the terms of the grants. A large portion of
the grants had conveyed tracts of waste land which had been brought
into cultivation after the commencement of our rule.
111th. An uniform principle regulated the settlement of all these
tenures. Possession and the actual state of things was maintained so
far as it was unaffected by the assertion of the right of the Goyern-
122 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
ment to its share of the produce. If any other than the Maafeedar
was in possession of the Zemindarry, i. e. the proprietary right, the
settlement was made with him. If the Maafeedar: had obtained the
Zemindarry right by legal transfer or by prescription, the settlement
was made with him. If he had not obtained the Zemindarry, but
seemed to possess other rights as an under tenant or cultivator, those
rights were secured to him on easy terms, and he was protected from
any encroachment on the part of the Zemindar, so long as he faithfully
performed his part of the contract.
112th. A few tenures were confirmed for life, or in perpetuity. The
latter are old religious endowments, which appear to have been held
from time immemorial, and to have been respected by all.
113th. The settlement of this province for twenty years has been
formed in the seasons 1833-34 to 1856-7, and extends according to the
year in which each settlement was formed from a. F. 1241 to 1264. In
all, the settlement has been conducted professedly under the system
generally designated as that of Regulation 1x, 1833. The adjudication
and demarcation of village boundaries prior to survey, the measurement
both by Ameens and by professional Surveyors, the determination of
the Government demand from general considerations of former fiscal
history, and comparison with other neighbouring and similar villages,
without a minute scrutiny into the assets of each estate, and the sub-
sequent record of proprietary rights and rent rates, are the main
features of the system. In particular cases the system may have been
a little deviated from, as will hereafter appear, but this arose from
peculiar circumstances.
114th. The former assessment was in watleril light. The country
was imperfectly cultivated. There had been no settlement since
1220 r. and subsequent to that period much waste land has been
brought into cultivation. There was therefore less caution necessary in
fixing the Government demand than where the assessment had formerly
been overstrained, and large reductions were called for.
115th. Very few instances of recusance on the part of the Zemindars
ever occurred. It is true that the average of the assessment on the
cultivated land is not low, but it must be remembered that the land
is very valuable, and pays rates generally much higher than elsewhere.
Sugar, Indigo, and Opium are the crops which bring the greatest
pecuniary return, and it is satisfactory to bear in mind that the rates
were assumed about 1833-34, when all these products were in less
demand than general. The advances of the Government for Sugar
had ceased a little before that period, and materially deranged the
market for that article. The failure of the agency houses in Calcutta
1839. | Report on the District o) Azimgurh. 123
%
had depressed the Indigo market, and the cultivation of Opium even
now is less extended than it might be.
116th. The chief labor of the settlement consisted in the difficulty
of deciding the numerous boundary disputes, and fixing the relations
between the proprietors amongst themselves, or the proprietors on one
hand, and the numerous subordinate tenants on the other. The whole
area of 2,121 square miles is parcelled out into 5,541 villages, which
gives an average of less than 245 acres to each village. When we
advert to the former state of this district, and the rapidity with which
it has been in our hands, it is not surprizing that numerous disputes
should exist between the different villages. The adjudication of these
had never yet been attempted on any uniform plan, and it was a task
of no small difficulty, in many cases, to reconcile or give effect to the
different decisions which had been formerly given; voluntary arbitra-
tion between the parties was the means generally employed for deter-
mining the boundary, but where the parties would not arbitrate of
their own accord, persons were appointed by lot, under the established
mode, to settle the dispute.
117th. I cannot say that I contemplate with satisfaction the mode
in which this duty has been performed. Too much was left to private
arbitration, and the awards thus given were too strictly followed. The
venality of the arbitrators became at length notorious, and there were
some, who were known to have amassed large sums in this method.
When the work was nearly completed, all persons were convinced
that the preferable method was to refer as little as possible to ar-
bitration, and in the cases which were so decided, to tie down the
arbitrators within the narrowest limits, and to insist upon a prompt
decision in the immediate presence of the superintending officer. This
plan was pursued very successfully after the completion of the unsettled
portion of the district, in the permanently settled Pergunnah of Secun-
derpore.
118th. Whatever may be the defects of these operations, it is how-
ever certain that the amount of good has been enormous, and quite
throws the other into the shade. Possession has been scrupulously
upheld, so that the main injustice which could ever be inflicted was to
transfer more or less of the culturable waste between two interjacent
villages to one or the other. To this waste it was seldom that any
title could be made good. By no other plan than that prescribed by
the system of settlement could these have been ever brought to adju-
dication. They have now been all decided, marked off, and a record
of the boundary formed both by native Ameens in a rough manner,
and by professional Surveyors, on scientific principles. It is scarcely
124 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fre.
possible hereafter to conceive that any doubt should exist as to the
decision, and the real position of the boundary. One cannot but
regret that the agents employed in these operations should often have
been false and corrupt ; but there can be no doubt ; that any attempt
now to revise these proceedings, or any failure of decision in support-
ing the demarcation now made, would be attended with the greatest
possible evil, and throw the whole district into confusion.
119th. The only authority competent in any way to alter the de-
cisions already given, is the Civil Court in a regular decision. The
Courts will now have each case clearly before them, and every possible
light will be thrown on its merits. The sound rule to lay down is,
that every decision must be confirmed, unless it can be proved that
it was unjust, and the right to another boundary established. If this
rule be strictly followed, no evil will result.
120th. One great advantage of the system is, that the district is twice
visited by the revenue authorities, once before survey, to settle the
boundaries, and again after survey to fix the Government demand.
The latter is a valuable opportunity to inquire into any cases of alleged
hardship or injustice, which occurred in the former operations. This
has been always done. ‘The officer who came on the second occasion
to form the settlement, was generally of superior experience to the offi-
cers employed on the former occasion, and the opportunity seized to
examine the former decisions. I can confidently say that no cases have
been left, where the correction of apparent partiality would not have
violated some important principle, which could not, according to the
spirit of the law, or the dictates of sound policy, be shaken without very
injurious results.
121st. The adjustment of the right of co-parceners and of the rates
payable to them by non-proprietary cultivators, has also been a work
of great labor. It has been much increased by the expression of a
general wish on the part of the people, subsequently to the settlement,
to have their shares in the estate separated, both in the cultivated and
eulturable parts. This has been very generally done at their own
expense, towards which they readily contributed. In such an event,
the village has been remeasured ; the holding of each person distin-
guished by a peculiar colour; and new Khusreh Khuteonee and Teréj
formed accordingly. Nothing, I believe, has given more satisfaction
in the district, or tended more to the security of property, than the way
in which this operation has generally been performed.
122nd. The incidental advantages arising out of the present settle-
ment, and the other operations which have been conducted to a close
during its progress, may be thus enumerated :—
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 125
123rd. The formation of an accurate map of the whole district has
enabled the local authorities to fix a regular boundary with the neigh-
bouring districts, and to determine the limits of the several Pergun-
nahs, Tuhsildaries and Thannah jurisdictions. The greatest possible
efficiency has thus been given to the several establishments, and the
comfort of the people greatly consulted. The statements inserted
after paragraph 5 present a complete view of the organization of the
Mofussil establishments of Revenue and Police, which has been thus
effected. |
124th. The accounts of each village with the Government were
adjusted at the time of settlement. Arrangements were made for the
liquidation of any outstanding balance of land revenue, or feccanee, or
the remission of the demand determined. The items in deposit regarding
the village were examined, and either refunded, carried to the account
of Government, or otherwise disposed of, as was necessary. The several
items standing under the head of law charges, and arising out of
previous litigation between the Government officers and the different
villages were adjusted. ‘The confusion into which the accounts had
fallen, rendered the careful execution of a work like this, at such a
period, important in its financial results, and a great accommodation to
the people. At the same time it tended to bring more completely
before the settlement officers several considerations which were es-
sential to the formation of a right estimate of the capabilities of each
village.
125th. The arrangement of villages at the time of settlement, made
after the limits of the district and its several subdivisions had been
fixed, as shewn in the general statements furnished with the report on
each Pergunnah, has also been the basis of a system of registry and record
for the whole district. The Pergunnah number attached to each
village in the general statement, is the same that is borne by the
bundle in the Record Office, which contains all the proceedings that
have reference to that village. The lists attached to these bundles are,
in fact, registers of all the transactions that have affected each village.
126th. Having thus sketched the general operations pursued in the
district, it will be of some practical use to notice the particular degree
or method in which they were carried into execution in each Pergun-
nah. I will endeavour to do this faithfully and impartially, with all
the light which subsequent experience has thrown on the earlier ope-
rations in the district.
127th. Pergunnah Nizamabad is the largest and most important
in the district. It was first selected for settlement soon after the pass-
ing of Reg. vir, 1822, and was the field where every young officer
Ss
126 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
first attempted to make settlements, and obtained his experience. The
results, as might be expected, were very incongruous. In 1833-4-5 all
these operations were recast on the model adopted on Reg. 1x, 1833.
The professional survey was conducted by Capt. Simmonds, whilst
the field measurement, where it had not been already completed, was
conducted by the revenue authorities. One great evil of this was, that
the revenue survey, especially on its first commencement in 1833-4,
was far from correct. The interior survey, especially, was often consi-
derably in excess of the truth, as is always likely to. be the case, when
it is not checked by the native field measurements. The culturable
land was also given considerably in excess, from an opinion held by the
surveyor, that all the land which would produce any thing whatever
should be classed under this head.
128th. In estimating the settlement, advertence must always be
had to the mode in which the “ general statement in acres” was from
necessity drawn out, and the averages there exhibited.
129th. The cultivated area was always taken from the measure-
ment on which the settlement was formed. This was frequently
many years previous to the professional survey, and exhibited a much
smaller cultivated area than was found to exist at the time the settle-
ment was prolonged for the extended period from 1241 to 1262. The
prolongation of the settlement was partly thus determined on consider-
ations, which, although they may have influenced the first settlement,
were not the foundation of it. The total of the cultivated area there
exhibited in the general statement is considerably less than the sur-
vey gives, and also below the fact. This of course makes the average
rate of assessment higher than it would otherwise have been. The
total area was necessarily taken from the survey returns, which were
undoubtedly under this head correct.
130th. The diversity of plan and of persons who had conducted the
operations in this Pergunnah, produced its natural effect in great in-
equality of assessment. In the remarks I have made on the errors of
inexperienced officers, I by no means except myself from the number.
On first joining the district in 1833, with no previous revenue expe-
rience, I found the Pergunnah distracted, and almost ruined by the
mal-administration of the preceding ten years. Large balances accrued
annually, not from over-assessment, but from unadjusted rights and
disputed claims. Affrays frequently occurred, from ill-defined bounda-
ries. There were numerous unadjusted claims, and every thing point-
ed out a state of considerable disorganization. It became an object of
great importance to terminate this state of things as soon as possible.
At the close of the year the revenue survey commenced, and did
1839. ] Report on the District of Aximgurh. 127
not terminate its operations in the Pergunnah till the end of the next
season. It thus happened that this was the first part of the district
prepared for settlement, and in addition to the other causes which
urged a speedy termination of the settlement, it became necessary
at once to enter on the revision and completion of the operations here,
or to remain unoccupied. The settlement was completed and reported
in the middle of 1835. Two years’ experience since then has con-
vineed me that some of the assessments are higher than they ought to
have been. Some of the errors were those of my predecessors, which
I left uncorrected ; some my own, into which I was betrayed either
by erroneous surveys, or by the partial assumption and application
of averages. I think, however, that these cases are few. During the
two years above alluded to, a Jumma of nearly three lacs has been
collected, with a real balance of only one or two hundred rupees at
the close of the year. Even this has been realized soon after; and in
addition, large sums have been collected in each year, the balance of
former years. In one instance, a small village was sold for its arrear
and fetched a good price, and in another a farming arrangement was
made for the share of a defaulter. Both these cases were peculiar,
and with exception to them, the whole has been collected by the or-
dinary methods. Imprisonment of the person, and distress of personal
property, have been very rarely resorted to. Itis probable that so long
as the present high prices of Sugar are maintained, and the demand
for Indigo and Opium remain what they are now, little difficulty
will be experienced in collecting the revenue during ordinary seasons.
Any failure, however, of these sources of profit, or adverse seasons, will
probably throw some of the villages, for a time at least, on the hands
of Government. It was for some time a question in my own mind,
whether I should propose a reduction of the Jumma on a few estates.
The remission of 2 or 3,000 rupees on ten or eleven villages would
have been all that was required. But after consulting with the most
intelligent natives in the district, it seemed best to avoid shaking the
confidence of the people in their settlement, or to check the efforts
they were rapidly making to improve their estates by extending the
cultivation, or increasing the means of irrigation. If the opinion had
once prevailed, that default and reluctance to pay might produce a
reduction of assessment, these industrious habits would have been
checked, and many estates have been injured at a small advantage to
afew. The operation too of this principle would have probably been
felt in other Pergunnahs where no such inequality existed.
13st. The confusion in this Pergunnah was not confined to the
assessment. The demarcation of boundaries was also attended here
128 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
with far more difficulty than elsewhere; it had previously been the
custom to-measure the village before the boundaries were fixed. This
pernicious practice had given rise to endless intrigues and chicanery
on the part of the native Ameens. The lands of one village had some-
times been measured, or rather the measurement inserted in the
papers of another village, and the settlement formed on this measure-
ment. It hence became often necessary before the demarcation of a
boundary, to examine many previous proceedings, and refer to volumi-_
nous documents. This, and the habit of intrigue and] itigation, which
it had fostered amongst the people, rendered the work very tedious
and difficult. I fear that im some cases knavery and corruption ob-
tained their ends, and I know not how this could have been avoided.
But in every case, a clear decision has been given, a good demarcation
on the ground has been made, and a record of the boundary has been
formed. The value of this can only be known to those who were ac-
quainted with the previous state of things. It has already in many cases
of itselfaltered the face of the country, and saved many persons fromruin.
132nd. The imperfections of the boundary work in some degree affect
the value of the survey, at least in the eastern and southern portions of
the Pergunnah, which were surveyed in the first season. The profes-
sional survey cannot be there taken as an infallible indication of the
boundary, but references must also be had to other documents put up
with the proceedings in each case. In the western and northern parts,
which were surveyed in the second season, there is little or no fear
of error.
133rd. The same imperfections which adhered to the other parts of
this settlement, exist also in the record of the fractional shares of pro-
prietors, and in the adjustment of the rent rates. In the previous
settlements it had been usual to express the hereditary rights of the
proprietors in fractions of a rupee, without ascertaining whether their
actual interests in the State did, or ought to correspond with them.
Arbitrary rates were also frequently fixed, which never could be paid.
Great progress was made by myself in correcting these irregularities,
and amending the records. Mr. Montgomery has since been actively
employed in the same way, and I trust that all material defects have
already been remedied, or will be soon.
134th. The circumstances of Cheriakote and Keriat Mittoo are so
similar, that they may be considered together. These were surveyed
by Captain Simmonds, and settled by Mr. Montgomery in the season —
of 1834-5. The culturable area has been often overstated. There is no
reason, however, to think that the defects of this survey have produced.
any evil consequences.
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 129
135th. The assessment is light. It has been collected now for two
years without any balance, or the smallest difficulty. In June of each
year, the whole demand for the Fussly year, beginning on the Ist of -
October, has been collected.
136th. There is no reason to believe that the boundary work has
been otherwise than well done, and that thoroughly. A few cases
about which doubts existed, have since been examined and put to
rights.
137th. The rights of proprietors and rent rates have been generally
recorded, but the complete form, subsequently introduced, was not
then in use. Voluntary agreements were not then entered into by
the proprietors, and the partition of the waste land in each village
amongst the several co-parceners has not been so thoroughly done here
as elsewhere. The rule of partition has always been fixed, but that
rule has not yet been universally carried into effect.
138th. The survey and settlement of Pergunnah Belhabans were
completed in the same season of 1834-5. The survey was conducted
under the immediate superintendence of Lieut. Fordyce, then an
Assistant to Capt. Simmonds, and was executed in a superior manner.
The Pergunnah is held by one large brotherhood of Bais Rajpoots, who
agreed to their Jumma in the gross, and distributed it themselves
equally on every beegah of cultivation throughout. This singular
proceeding was prevented from falling unequally on the several
members of the communities, from the circumstance of the property of
each being scattered about different Mouzahs, and in the mode generally
known as khet khut, so that every man had land of each sort. It
must however be borne in mind, that this measure has produced a
very unequal village assessment, as those which have poor lands are
taxed equally with those that contain good lands. Each Mehal must
always be held responsible for its Jumma, not each Mouzah.
139th. The assessment is light, but some difficulty will always be
experienced in collecting it, for the people are very unruly, and beara
bad reputation in the district. They are said, it is to be feared with
reason, to harbour thieves and bad characters of all descriptions, and
no doubt to participate in their gains.
140th. Something is wanting in the Pergunnah in working out the
principle laid down at the time of settlement regarding the division of
the waste land in each village amongst the several Puttees. This has
not been regularly enforced, and no doubt cases exist, where an actual
partition is necessary, and ought to be immediately carried through.
141st. Pergunnah Deogaon was surveyed by Mr. Tertaneau in the
season of 1834-5, and settled by myself in 1835-36.
130 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
142nd. The boundaries were very well laid down by the Native
Deputy Collector, Seyud Nawazish Ali, and the very respectable Tuh-
sildar, Meer Muxood Ali. .The villages were so much broken and
intermixed, that this was a work of no ordinary difficulty. It was
done not only completely, but with the fewest possible complaints,
either on the score of partiality or unnecessary expense.
143rd. This Pergunnah was unfortunately chosen as the one in
which a new survey party commenced its operations. The villages
often consisted of broken fragments of land, some larger, some smaller,
some mere fields, others tracts of cultivated and uncultivated Jand,
scattered about at considerable distances from each other. The only
way to survey those villages satisfactorily would have been to make
certain defined circuits in different directions, of the ordinary size of vil-
lages, and corresponding as nearly as convenient with existing bound-
aries, to have surveyed the same circuits professionally, and by native
Ameens, and after thus testing the accuracy of the latter, to have taken
out from the native field maps the several fields or parcels of land
constituting each village, and to have added these up as giving the
total area. This however was seldom attempted, and where it was
tried, was done so incorrectly as to be nugatory. The native measure-
ments were frequently approved, and passed as agreeing with the
professional, when the areas surveyed were totally different. The
professional survey itself is often grossly incorrect, both in its repre-
sentation of the cultivation, and its delineation of the boundaries. The
native maps have received scarcely any check, several of them are scarce-
ly intelligible, and in many fields belonging to different persons,
different Puttees, and even different Mehals, have been grouped toge-
ther in one number.
144th. I have done what I could to remedy this state of things, by
examining the boundaries, making additional native maps where ne-
cessary, distributing the fields and holdings afresh. Such inaccuracies
in the professional maps as I happened to meet with, were noted on
their face, but I well know that there are many which must have
escaped me. ‘he total areas were taken from the professional survey,
so that the total of the Pergunnah, according to the survey, and ac-
cording to the settlement papers will agree, but the areas of the
several villages will often differ considerably, owing to the adjust-
ments which were found necessary.
145th. This Pergunnah was the highest assessed in the district, and
very little increase on the former settlement could be anticipated.
Not only was the rate of the former Jumma on the land high, but
the land itself is inferior in quality to that of other parts of the dis-
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 131
trict, yielding mostly very uncertain rice crops, and the Zemindars are
numerous, each holding a small portion of Seer land on which he sub-
sists, whilst from being Rajpoots of high caste, they are unthrifty
cultivators. The main object in the settlement was to equalize the
assessment, and much has been done towards this. The settlement
has perhaps given more satisfaction than any other in the district, and
this result was mainly attributable to the impartial, upright, and very
conciliatory conduct of the Tuhsildar.
146th. In estimating the character of the settlement by the averages,
it must be borne in mind that the cultivated area has certainly been
under-measured, and that no land has been put down by the profes-
sional survey under the head of culturable. Whatever was not under
_ the plough, or had not evidently been so within the two or three pre-
ceding years, was classed as barren waste.
147th. The record of proprietary rights has been earetily. and well
done by the Tuhsildar. The Persian papers are very complete, though
the English statements have not been as yet drawn out in the form
best adapted to elucidate the peculiar tenures of the Pergunnah. These »
however are now in a course of preparation, on a plan prescribed by
the Sudder Board of Revenue subsequently to the conclusion of the
proceedings. No difficulty will be experienced in giving the materials
any form which may be thought most expedient.
148th. Pergunnah Mahol was surveyed by Lieutenant Fordyce, in
the seasons 1634-5 and 1835-6, and settled by Mr. Montgomery, in the
latter year.
149th. The boundaries were mostly laid down by the Native Deputy
Collector, and by the Tuhsildar, Buksish Ally Khan. The work was
not satisfactorily performed. The people are low, and litigious. The
Tuhsildar had little experience in the Pergunnah.
150th. The survey was very well conducted, and may be relied
upon.
151st. The settlement though showing a high average, is very light,
for the land is exceedingly valuable. The finest Sugar land, perhaps,
in all India is to be found here.
152. The tenures are simple, being mostly Zemindarry, where the
co-parceners held jointly or severally according to their hereditary
shares. The point of greatest importance was the formation of good
rent rolls to show the rights, holding, and rates of all the non-proprie-
tary cultivators. This has been carefully done by Mr. Montgomery,
and these relations are now placed on the best footing. The rent rolls,
or Jummabundee, were formed after the settlement, drawn up in the
common Nagree character, published to those concerned in every possi-
132 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [ Fes.
ble way, by personal explanation to as many as were present, and by
suspension in the village before the eyes of all ; objections against any
parts of these were afterwards heard, and orders passed as each case
required.
153rd. Pergunnahs Mahomedabad, Gohna, and Mhow were sur-
veyed in the years 1834-5, and 1835-6, and settled by myself in the
latter year.
154th. The boundaries were decided and marked off by two Tuh-
sildars, Ahmed-oolah Khan, and Zuheer-ool-huk, who were there suc-
cessively under the personal superintendence, first of Mr. Montgomery
and Mr. Chester, and latterly of myself. These proceedings were —
unnecessarily protracted, rendered very expensive to the people, and
sometimes in the final result unfair. Great exertions have however
been used to render them complete, and to correct any errors that may
have been committed. The undertaking was of vital importance to
the prosperity of the district, for there is much waste land, the title to
which was greatly disputed, of great capability, and now covered with
wood, which is in high demand at the Sugar factories scattered all
over the district.
155th. The boundaries were often ariaatsty’ laid down, and little
pains taken to reconcile the professional and Ahusreh- maps. The
important point to be borne in mind is, that the professional map can-
not always in itself, and alone, be held conclusive on the form of a
boundary. Before a certain conclusion can be arrived at, the maps
of the two continuous Mouzahs must be compared, the proceeding
held on the adjudication of the boundaries examined, and reference
had to the KAusreh maps, and any other sketches of the boundary
there may be. If the process be carefully conducted, on the occur-
rence of any dispute it will be impossible to fall into any great
error.
156th. The assessment is light, more so than is shown by the
averages, for there is good reason to believe that the cultivated land
was much under-measured, and the culturable land was avowedly
shown as barren waste. :
157th. Great exertions were used to make the records of proprietary
rights and rent rates as perfect as could be, and sanguine hopes may be
entertained, that these are placed on a satisfactory footing.
158th. The Pergunnahs of Gopalpore, Kowreeah, and Atrowleeah
Tilhenee were surveyed by Lieut. Fordyce in 1835-6, and settled by
Mr. Montgomery in 1836-7. Three large Talookahs had however
been previously settled by the late Mr. George Bird, in 1831-2, and
the arrangement confirmed by the Government. These were incor-
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. ~ 133
porated into the present settlement, with no further change than the
extension of the period of the lease.
159th. The boundary work was done almost entirely by the Tuh-
sildar, Sheikh Waheedooz-zuman, with constant supervision and
- occasional assistance from the Native Deputy Collector, or the Euro-
pean functionaries. It appears to have been very well performed.
160th. The survey was well conducted. ‘These Pergunnahs are
undoubtedly the best surveyed in the district.
16lst. The assessment is fair and equable. Adverting to the nature
and capabilities of the soil, it is low ; but if the character of the people
and the nature of the tenures is borne in mind, it is quite as high as it
ought to be. In comparing the averages of this assessment with those
in other Pergunnahs, it must be remembered that here the survey is a
very faithful representation of the extent and character of the land,
and that therefore the rate of assessment is not actually as much below
that of the rest as it appears to be. The Zemindars are high caste,
pugnacious Rajpoots, and their tenures bhyachara. There are also
many Brahmins who hold lands at low rates as under-tenants, and
exercise a powerful religious influence over their superstitious land-
lords. The revenue administration of this district has always been
most difficult. The late operations will materially facilitate the col-
lections, but still difficulties must be anticipated. It is only some
years of firm and consistent rule, which will suffice to bring the tur-
bulent inhabitants to industrious and regular habits.
162nd. The settlement of Pergunnah Suggree occupied a long
period, and was not finally completed till the year 1836-7. Some few
settlements were made by Mr. Barlow, under Regulation vi1, 1822,
but the greatest bulk by Mr. Montgomery, who also recast the prior
settlements. ‘The work was completed and reported in 1834, before the
introduction of the new system, but the Commissioner judiciously
declined forwarding the report then, and desired the whole to be
reviewed under the new rule. This was admirably done by Mr.
Montgomery.
163rd. The Kishwaree survey was long ago completed by the
revenue authorities, so that the Surveyor was relieved from this duty,
and desired merely to survey the boundaries, sketching on the geo-
graphical features of the country and omitting the interior survey, or
that part of the operations which was designed to distinguish the cul-
tivated from the uncultivated lands.
164th. The adjustment of boundaries had formerly, as in Pergun-
nah Nizamabad, been much mismanaged, but before the approach of
the survey these were all definitely settled, and well marked off, so
“
134 Report on the District of Azimgurh. (Fen.
that no difficulty was experienced. Some of the decisions may, as in
other cases, have been unfair, but the survey is now a faithful record of
what the decision was. There can never be any doubt hereafter on
that score. The professional operations afforded also a complete and
very satisfactory proof of the correctness of the former Khusrey survey.
165th. The assessment is light and equable, and has now for
three years been collected without any balance. The record of proprie-
tary rights, &c. has been completed on the plan prescribed, and the set-
tlement is now as perfect as of any other of the district ; though it has
only been brought to this state at a great expense to the people, and
with much personal vexation to them. :
166th. Pergunnahs Ghosee and Nuthoopoor were surveyed by Mr.
Terraneau in 1835-6, and settled in 1836-7 partly by myself and part-
ly by Mr. Montgomery. The boundary work had been slowly ad-
vancing for the preceding year or two, but it was completed by the
Native Deputy Collector just previous to the survey. The work was
ill done. The large quantity of rich land lying waste about different
parts of the Pergunnahs rendered it certainly a task of some difficulty,
whilst the wealth and intriguing character of some powerful men in
the Pergunnahs added to the difficulty of executing the work with
fairness to all parties. The evil, instead of being detected and exposed
by the survey, was concealed and aggravated by its operations. Not
only were the defects of the demarcation concealed, but where the de-
marcation was plain and evident, and no dispute whaéever existed, errors
of the most fatal nature were committed in the survey. Had the pro-
fessional maps been received and recorded without question, the greatest —
confusion would have ensued. As it was, the assistance of a pro-
fessional surveyor was obtained. All the maps were carefully review.
ed, compared with each other, with the record of the adjudication of
the boundary, and with the Ameen’s map. Whenever any doubt
existed, a personal examination of the boundary and renewal of the
demarcation took place. This was superintended either by myself or
by Mr. Montgomery. We always found that adequate decisions had
been passed, but that these decisions had not always been clearly
marked off. The whole has been now carefully corrected, and no
future doubts can well arise, as to the position and direction of the
boundary. I am however bound to say, that owing to various causes,
which it is needless to enumerate here, the decisions have been more
influenced by corrupt motives, and are more unfair, than in any other
part of the district.
167th. The assessment is light, and will be easily paid, as the soil
is very rich, and there is much fine culturable land, which will
1839. ] Report on the District of Azimgurh. 135
rapidly be brought into cultivation. It must also be borne in mind that
the cultivation has been under-measured. The rights, &c. of the pro-
prietors have been well recorded, and the subsequent separation of shares
generally completed.
168th. The settlement of each Pergunnah has been thus reviewed.
Under ordinary seasons, and with good management, I have little
doubt of the stability of the whole, with the exception of a few vil-
lages in Nizamabad.
169th. If the present demand for the staples of the district, Sugar,
Opium, and Indigo, continues undiminished for a few years, the ad-
vance of the district in wealth and prosperity will be more than re-
paid. Its welfare will however depend much for the few first years
on the firmness of the civil administration. If the arrangements
made at the settlement are disregarded, the boundaries violated, the
rights of proprietors and cultivators neglected, and misrule allowed to
prevail, great confusion will ensue, industry will be checked, and
improvement stopped. The effect also will immediately be felt in
the collections of the Government revenue. The number of persons
from whom these eollections are to be made are numerous, and their
rights nicely balanced. Each man now knows what he has to
pay, and it will be difficult to make the redundancy of one com-
pensate for the deficiency of another. If rights are usurped, the injur-
ed party will be deprived of the power of meeting the demand against
him, and a balance will accrue. If hereafter balances should arise in
the district, it must be remembered that this may be occasioned by
mal-administration as well as by other causes, and is more likely
perhaps to do so here than in many other parts of the country.
170th. The Tuhsildaree establishment should not be diminished.
It is now strong and well disposed, but this is necessary on account of
the minute division of property, and the numerous persons from whom
the collections have to be made.
17\st. Much increase must not be expected to the present demand.
The Pergunnah of Deogaon is settled fully as high as it can ever bear.
Much good would arise from its being declared perpetual. The same
is the case in Gopalpoor, Kororeeah, and Atroleeah Tilhenee. In
Mahol, Cheriakote, Belhabans, and Suggree, the assessment has
reached its maximum, or so nearly, that further investigation would not
be repaid. In Nizamabad there is still much valuable uncultivated
land. The total demand from this Pergunnah will probably never be
increased, but its readjustment and fresh distribution after the expira-
tion of the present period of settlement would be a great advantage.
In Mahomedabad, Mhow, Ghoosee, and Nuthopoor there is still much
136 Report on the District of Azimgurh. [Frs.
valuable waste land, which will probably be made productive in the
course of the present lease. Fifty thousand rupees might thus very
probably be added to the rent roll of Government on the renewal of the
settlement.
‘ (Signed) J. THOMASON,
Collector of Azimgurh.
Offy. Secy. to the Lt. Govr., N. W. P.
Agra, December 16th, 1837.
Art. Il.—Mr. Hopeson, on Cuculus.
To the Editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.
Sir,—Amongst the numerous new birds forwarded by me to London,
some years back, when I was young enough to imagine that learned
Societies existed solely for the disinterested promotion of science, was
a very singular form combining all the essential internal and external
characters of Cuculus with the entire aspect of Dicrurus.
Unceremoniously as many others of my novelties have been appro-
priated, this one still, I believe, remains undescribed, and I therefore
beg to present to you a description and sketch of it.
SCANSORES,
Cuculide,
Genus Pseudornis nob, |
Generic character, essential characters of Cuculus with the entire aspect
of Dicrurus. Tail 10, forked. Type Pseudornis Dicruroides nob.
Habitat. The mountains exclusively. Specific character, Black, with
a changeable blue or green gloss. Inner wing and tail coverts, and pair
of extreme tail feathers, cross barred with white. An oblique white bar
across the wings internally, and high up. Bill black. Iris hoary brown.
Palate red. Legs and feet blue. 10 to 104 inches long, whereof the bill
is ln and the tail 55 to 53. Tarsus = Long anteal toe ae Long
posteal toe iz Weight 14 oz. Sexes alike. General manners of
Cuculus, but exclusively monticulous and a forester.
Remark.—The bill, tongue, feet, and wings are precisely those of
Cuculus canorus, with these trivial diversities —if such they can be
reckoned—that the wing is hardly so elongated, and the bill is less
rounded on the culmen.
The tail consists of ten feathers, and is both in relative size and in
form like that of the genus Dicrurus; that is to say, it has ten
feathers, and is divaricated and forked, though the fork be not deep.
“eyMITeED “Ss i i : wiry Srpetsyy ‘32 PLE
eS 48N% “GON SINNOGOAHSd SAND 70
‘ON SHCIOYRAMOIG sSINYOaCAaASd
7%
adr,
1839. ] Mr. Hodgson on Cuculus. 137
There is this difference, however, as compared with the Dicrurine tail,
that in our bird the two extreme feathers are much smaller than any
of the rest; whence the fork of the tail becomes lessened in depth,
these plumes not contributing to it.
The singular assumption of the entire aspect of so remote a genus
as Dicrurus on the part of this strictly Cuculine bird will, I fancy, be
generally considered extraordinary; and has suggested the generic name
of Pseudornis (Wevdoo falsus) The Cuculus lugubris, although des-
cribed as having a wedged tail, will, I think, be found to have a fork-
ed one, and to constitute a second species of our proposed new genus,
which will be, in that event, placed on a firm basis.
If it be remarked, that supposing Lugubris to have really a forked
tail, it is, in fact, specifically identical with our bird, why then the
specific name Dicuroides will merge in that of Lugubris, but the new
type of form may still claim to be recognised, and surely will do so.
The green glossed black plumage and the forked tail, are as univer-
sally the marks of the Dicrurine sub-family as they are, I believe,
‘universally excluded from the Cuculide.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
W. B. HODGSON.
Nepal, March, 1839.
Art. IIIl.—Report on the Coal and Iron Mines of Tdlcheer and
Ungool, also remarks on the country through which tt was necessary
to travel in search of those minerals, the produce, inhabitants,
nature of the soil, roads, &c. &c. By Mr. M. Kirror, Curator
and Librarian Asiatic Society’s Museum.
March 31st, 1838.
All necessary preparations having been made, and assistance receiv-
ed from the superintendent tributary Mehauls, I left Cuttack on
the 14th March, in company with Mr. R. Beetson, (contractor for the
transport of salt from the coast to Calcutta) and proceeded by regular
marches through Dhenkennal, direct from Kuckur on the Mahanud-
dee to the Brahmenee at Atturva, encamping first at Kuckur Govind-
poor, and secondly at Deogaon, under the famous hill of Kuppilas, near
to the summit of which, at an elevation of 1000 or 1200 feet, is a fine
spring of fresh water, round which are several ancient temples built
by Pertaub Rudr Deo, king of Kalinga, in the sixteenth century of
the Christian era.
138 On the Coal & Iron Mines of Talcheer 5 Ungool, &c. (Fs.
From Atturva we proceeded up the south bank of the Brahmenee
to Talcheergurh, where we arrived on the seventh day, encamping at
Nadurra. and Kumalung, the distance travelled being 30 Ooriya coss
of 24 miles to the coss on an average.
We halted one day at Talcheer, and interchanged ve with the
Raja (who is a very intelligent man, and has travelled all over India)
likewise his eldest son. I presented the old gentleman with a musical
snuff-box, with which he was much delighted.
After duly examining the coal beds I proceeded to Mungulperséd,
a stockaded village on the borders of Ungool, the distance seven coss in a
westerly direction, over an undulating country, with, generally speak-
ing, indifferent soil and much shingle.
We remained one day at this place, and having inspected the coal |
beds, &e. returned by a more direct (though crooked enough) route
through the states of Talcheer and Ungool, to the bank of the river (at
Mungulpoor) along which we proceeded, via Nadurra, Nagnath, Chund-
pal, Kapeepoor, to Kewatbund, near to which place the river enters the
plains, throwing off that branch called the Kursooa, which is the only
navigable channel to the sea. We reached this place on the 26th, thir-
teen days from the date of our leaving Cuttack.
The country is neither so mountainous nor jungly as it is represent-
ed to be, but for the most part, much neglected ; although the soil
appears generally good, and productive.
The lands in the immediate vicinity of the Brahmenee are very
rich. Great quantities of cotton, sugar-cane, castor-oil plant, lin-
seed, &c. &c. are grown for home consumption, as well as for expor-
tation ; the chief profits of which are monopolized by the Mukhteears
and Survurakars of the states, who farm the villages from the Raja,
and make the most of their bargain by extorting the utmost fraction
from the cultivators, who are in fact mere slaves ; indeed so are all
the inhabitants of these hill provinces; they nevertheless seem happy
in their poverty and degraded state.
A great deal of very fine tobacco is grown along the banks and
on the muddy deposits of the river, and such lands fetch an exceeding
high rent ; notwithstanding which the profits on this article of com-
merce are very great.
Wheat and barley are cultivated in small quantities, and what
little I saw appeared to grow most luxuriantly; maize, &c. is also
grown on the high lands by the meaner classes, but rice is the chief
article of food.
The land in Télcheer and in Ungool is not so good as in Dher-
- kuomé] ; and the trees are stunted in growth owing to the shingle,
n
1839.] On the Coal 5 Iron Mines of Talcheer 5 Ungool, Sc. 189
laterite, and sandstone rocks which are near the surface. There is more
jungle and waste land on the opposite side of the river.
From the third march from Atturva to the plains (commencing at
Kewatbund) the level lands vary much in extent, the hills in some
places coming within 3 or 400 yards of the river, and in others, receding
for two or three miles, forming no connected chain, but all more or less
isolated {apparently of voleanic origin), the land between them being
perfectly level, except where ravines or beds of laterite and kunker
occur to interrupt it. At Atturva the hills recede gradually, till at
Kurugpursdd they branch off in a south-westerly direction, through
the state of Hindole into Ungool, towards the Mahanudde ; the hills
on the opposite side of the river also recede in a north westerly
direction towards Keonjur and Bounnaragurh.
Shortly before reaching Kurugpursad the country commences to be
undulating, and extensive beds of shingle occur, with red marl. Sand-
stone rocks are met with at Mungulpoor, protruding through the soil,
which are very close grained and white; granite also sometimes occurs
in huge detached masses, which have a very singular appearance, parti-
eularly at Kukurdung, in Ungool, where they rise in detached blocks
of sixteen and eighteen feet in height, and of most fantastic shapes,
somewhat resembling the Stonehenge. The land on the north bank of
the river is likewise undulating, with rocks. No hills of any magnitude
are to be found within twenty or thirty miles of Talcheer and the coal
localities visited by me.
From Talcheergurh to Mungulpersad, a distance of sixteen miles
or more, I saw much shingle and rising ground, on which there is
iron ore and laterite, also kunker (calcarious nodules) and sand-
stone rocks. I observed near the different villages much scattered
cultivation beneath the sal and other jungle trees, the underwood
having been cleared away ; this is the consequence of overtaxing the
arable and clear lands, and taking nothing for cultivation of this kind,
which is little inferior to the best.
There are no wells, and but few tanks throughout the country.
Except in the low lands, in the vicinity of the river, water is very
scarce, and what little there is, is of bad quality, particularly in
Ungool, where some of the wells and tanks contain naphtha.
There is much waste land overgrown with long grass, which affords
excellent pasturage for buffaloes and cows; there are consequently
_ very fine herds of both descriptions of cattle, which are far superior to
those of the Mogulbundee (or plains). There are but few goats and
sheep.
The people of these states are more artful than even the inhabi-
r
140 On the Coal & Iron Mines of Talcheer 5 Ungool, Sc. (Fun.
tants of the plains of Oorissa, who are bad enough. ‘Their craftiness
is beyond any thing credible. I have travelled a great deal during my
residence in India, and had much intercourse with the different
classes of natives, but never did I meet with such provoking knaves
as the people of the Gurhjat (hill states). It is next to impossible to
obtain any correct information even on the most trivial subjects.
Every question put by a stranger is considered and re-consider-
ed, ere a reply is given, and that, too, is an interrogation as to the
object you have in asking it. And should you ask the distance from
one place to another, you will be answered at random, or told,
“TI don’t know; I have never been there; I was born in this village ;
so was my father,” and such like ;—this is to prevent your asking them
to go with you and show the path, and if you take them, they will lead
you by the most tortuous route. .
I was informed that it is more than any ryot’s head is worth to
give information regarding the internal economy of the state, or
about its resources, or, indeed, onany subject. With such people to deal
with, it is not surprising that very little information has been
gained by me during such a hurried trip. What I have obtained
regarding the Hingolae mines, was from an ascetic, to whom I made a,
suitable present. I also heard of coal and iron mines in Bumurra-
gurh, from a merchant of Cuttack, and accordingly despatched an
intelligent peon to examine them, and to bring specimens, &c.
There is no road along the banks of the Brahmenee, but an ir-
regular and narrow footpath ; indeed there are no hackery roads at
all. The only road of any consequence is that leading from Cuttack
through Dhenkennalgurh, past Kurugpursdd and Mungulpoor, and on
to Boad ; it is tolerably wide and smooth, and is much frequented by
Bunjaruhs, who bring cotton, iron, and turmeric in return for salt
and tobacco. From Mungulpoor, onwards, the road is nearly due east
and west.
Remarks on the Water Carriage for Coal, &e. &c.
The Brahmenee is navigable for good sized boats from the end of
June to the middle of December, and sometimes later. Coal could be |
laden in small canoes and conveyed to Kurugpursad at most seasons
of the year indeed. The Dhenkennal boatmen assert that small boats
only can navigate the river above that place at any season owing to |
the numerous rocks ; this is however not to be relied upon, for there
are but few, which could be removed at a trifling expense.
1839.] On the Coal § Iron Mines of Talcheer § Ungool, Sc. (141
From Kewatbund (at the edge of the plains) boats and rafts are
floated down that branch called the Kursooa.
The furthest point towards the sea to which the coal could be taken is
Hunsooagola, where large sloops anchor. It would be preferable to
make this place a depot, Auligurh being many miles further up the
river. It is to these places that Messrs. Beetson’s sloops come for salt.
There is a bankshall belonging to them at Aul, where sloops are built
and repaired. The timber is cut and purchased in Dhenkennal, where
it is very cheap, and may be had of any size and quality, viz. sal, sissoo,
bijesal, kurimb, girahu, &c. A native contractor offered to carry
the coal from Talcheer to Hunsooagola, at the rate of twenty-five
rupees per 100 maunds, or four annas per maund ; the boats making
three trips each season. The lading is included in this amount. Mr.
Beetson however informs me that it could be done for one anna per
maund, or, at the utmost, two annas.
From Hunsooa Mr. Beetson would contract to carry the coal to
Calcutta, or to any port lower down the coast ; and from his experience
of the natives of Oorissa, and his industrious habits, I should venture
to recommend any contract for the working of the mines, or transport
of the mineral, to be offered to him.
The iron mines are worked by the different traders, who give grain,
tobacco, and salt, to the value of one rupee per maund of metal. Should
the coal mines be worked eventually, it would be necessary to pay
for the labour in like manner, for money is unknown to the lower
orders ; cowries alone are current, and there is a great scarcity of them
even. Although there are but few inhabitants, many poor people from
the surrounding states would flock to earn food, if proper protection be
afforded them. Some difficulty would be experienced at the outset, but
that would soon subside.
On the Talcheer Coal.
That which I shall distinguish by the appellation of ‘“ Talcheer
Coal,” is found near the town and gurh of that name ; the town gives
name to the whole district, which is 14 Ooreya coss in circumference,
or forty-two English miles, more or less.
Talcheergurh (the Réja’s stockaded palace) and town (called
Patna) are situated on the south bank of the river Brahmenee, on
a sandstone rock, rising to the height of 20 or 30 feet from the level
of the water. The surrounding country is undulating, with a thin
stratum of soil resting on shingle, composed of the debris of primitive
U
142 On the Coal &§ Iron Mines of Talcheer § Ungool, §c. (Fes.
rocks, iron clay, jasper, &c. Half a mile or less above the gurh,
is a small nulla called, ‘‘ Billaijooree,’ about fifteen yards wide,
with a sandy bed, and dry except in the rainy season after heavy
falls in the interior, where it takes its rise, and winding considerably,
joins ultimately with the Brahmenee at this place. :
About 400 yards from the mouth of the nulld, coal seams are expos-
ed to view for some distance along the banks, alternately, on either
side; these seams vary in quality and thickness, and are curved
parallel with the undulations of the superstrata. In almost every
place where the coal seams cease abruptly, they will be found to rest
against the sandstone.
The superstrata generally consist of alluvial soil, shingle, marl,
blue clay passing into peat, mixing with shale and coal of inferior
quality, beneath which the good coal is found; this again rests on
indurated blue clay containing particles of coal, mica, and fossil plants.
The stratum is about 13 foot thick, beneath which a stiff grey clay
mixed with sand and, mica, is found.
I made a perpendicular cut in the north bank, at a spot where
inferior specimens had been collected by workmen sent some years ago
by Mr. G. Becher, executive officer of the division. Having dug down
for two or three feet below the surface of the bed of the nulla, I met
with a hard blue rock containing particles of coal and fossil plants, in
this I bored a hole 13 foot deep, and blasted it with one pound of
country powder, which enabled me to ascertain the thickness, viz.
15 foot, as before said.
The section thus afforded, gave
Shingle and clay, averaging, ...... 10 ft. .
Blue clay passing into peat, ........ 12 ft.
Shale, or slaty coal and lignite, .... 12 ft.
Good glistening.coal ia ips soca ae 1 to 12 ft.
Grey rock with fossils and coal, .... 1 ft.
Ditto: ditta,. with mica, .°: Go 2cssee 6 inches,
Stiff grey clay with mica and sand (?)
Digging a few feet apart from this spot, in the bed of the nulla, the
coal was three feet below the surface, without the peat and clay, &c. and
under the opposite bank the coal is several feet deeper still. —
I burnt a heap consisting of several maunds of the different kinds
mixed together, the whole was consumed, leaving fine white ashes, but
no cinder or coke. The glistening or good qualities emitted much gas,
and burnt with a bright flame; the remainder soon attained a red
heat with less gas—the whole gave out an intense heat.
The bed of coal thus examined is (as will have appeared) very thin,
1839.] On the Coal § Iron Mines of Talcheer & Ungool, §c. 143
but I should think that on mining, any quantity could be obtained,
and at little cost, from its being so near the surface, and labor cheap
in the extreme. It possesses, further, great advantages in being so near
to a navigable river.
I shall treat hereafter on the method of working the mines, and of
transporting the coal, &c. in a separate paper at the close of my
report.
oe
Coal fields of the Hingolat Tacooranee at Mungulpersad.
Of the two coal fields exposed to view, and which were visited by
me, that which I have called the ‘‘ Tacooranee” is the more extensive.
It is laid bare by a broad nulla passing through it, called the “ Sungur-
ra,’ it comes from the hills in Ungool, in a south-westerly direction,
and is about thirty yards wide, having a sandy bed. The coal appears
on either side alternately, for a distance of upwards of a mile, the beds
averaging from five to fifteen feet and more in height from the level of
the sand. This coal (like that at Talcheer) rests against the sandstone,
and in some places passes into it, apparently mixing with it. The
quality of the mineral varies very considerably, as will be seen by the
numerous specimens presented to the Committee.
In one spot the coal has apparently been reduced to ash by volcanic
action for a space of fifty yards, and upheaved above the common level
of the contiguous beds; it is bounded at each extremity by dykes
of white rock.
The superstrata vary in kind and thickness ; in some places there is
blue clay, above which is mar! and shingle; in others, simply marl
and iron ore, laterite, and shingle, and frequently but a thin stratum
of clay. At the spot where the ‘‘ Tacooranee” (goddess) called ‘‘ Hin-
golai” is supposed to preside, the coal is entirely bare for a space of
1000 or 1200 yards (superficial) with an undulating surface. It is
at this place that at the full of the moon of Chat-Byesk, the priest-
hood set fire to a heap of coal, which they keep burning for three
successive days, commencing the day preceding the full of the moon,
when hundreds of deluded creatures flock from the surrounding coun-
try to worship the goddess of destruction, who is supposed thus to
shew her presence in the burning rock. I was unable to ascertain
how far up the null4 the coal is exposed to view, as the inhabitants of
one state will say nothing about their own country, and still less
about that of another Raja ; and as the Ungool territory is only half a
mile distant, without any ‘alteration in the general appearance of
the country, which is undulating, I did not deem it necessary
44 On the Coal & Iron Mines of Talcheer & Ungool. [(Fxs.
to proceed further. There was sufficient coal at this place to afford an
ample supply for the next century.
The cost here of working either the coal or iron mines would be the
same as at T'dlcheer, it would, however, be necessary to construct a road
(perhaps a rail road) to the river side, a distance of sixteen or eighteen
miles, but perhaps less in a direct line. The nulla is not navigable at
any season, however from the tolerably level nature of the country it
might be rendered so for two or three months, by constructing dams
and locks at convenient distances. At all seasons water is found from
one to three feet below the surface of the sand; this prevented my
ascertaining the actual depth of the coal measures and the quality of
the lower veins.
Note on the Iron Mines.
Iron ore is found in great abundance both in Talcheer and in the
adjacent states of Ungool and Dhenkennal. There are iron works in
each, and the Cuttack and Berhampoor markets are supplied by
them. Some of the iron is of a superior and malleable quantity, but
much of it is very coarse-grained and brittle, the prices vary accord-
ingly.
I saw the remains of several iron works on the road between Tal-
cheer and Mungulpersdéd, the ‘‘ Lohoras,” or iron workers, having for-
saken them last year in consequence of the famine, and subsequent
pestilence (cholera) which almost depopulated the country.
The process of smelting the ore is the same as that pursued in other
parts of India, and which therefore it will be superfluous for me to
describe.
Had I met with any iron workers I would have tried to smelt
the ore with coal, as it isabundant on the surface at the coal mines, as I
have before mentioned.
A great quantity of iron is made in the Sumbulpoor state also.
1839.) Objects of Research in Affghanistan. 145
Arr. 1V.—Objects of Research in Affghanistan. By PRroressor
Lassen, of Bonn.
[We have the pleasure to insert the following article by Professor Lassen, and
which in order that no time should be lost in its circulation, we have already caused to
be published in the Newspapers of this Presidency. Such communications as Pro-
fessor Lassen’s queries may elicit we shall be happy to publish without delay.—Ebs. |
1. A country which has hitherto not been explored, is Kandahar
and its neighbourhood ; the capital of Demetrius, called by his name
Demetrias, was situated in Arachosia, and it seems probable, that
coins of Demetrius wil] be found most numerously in that part of Af-
ghanistan, if Mr. Masson should have means for sending some qualifi-
ed person there: Another class of coins might also be chiefly expected
from Kandahar. Arachosia belonged, at least generally, to the empire
of the Arsacide, who can only be supposed to have occasionally pos-
sessed parts of Kabul ; Parthian coins bearing a Greek legend on one
side and a Bactrian on the other, will probably have been struck only
by such kings, as ruled in Kabul and its neighbourhood. Vonones
(or by the native legend his son Vologases) is the only known Parthi-
an king, from whom we have as yet coins of the above description ;
another name found on a coin published by Swinton is not legible ; a
new coin was lately edited by Mr. Millingan, having no Greek, only a
Bactrian legend, evidently an Arsacidan one, though not legible. It
would be of great importance to complete this Parthian series, because
the chronology of the Arsacide might then be brought to bear on that
of the Indo-Scythians.
2. From the country to the westward of Kabul and the sources of
the Kabul river, which the Chinese call by the name of Kissin, coins
of the first dynasty of Indo-Scythians may be expected chiefly, if the
researches could be extended to the neighbourhood of the Lake Yarah.
Segistan still bears the names of the first Indo-Scythians, who were
properly called Sace, and their capital must have been somewhere in
Drangiana. Also the Greek king Artimachus appears from one of his
coins to have reigned near the Lake Yarah, and it would not be un-
reasonable to expect coins of him and his successors, (perhaps even
Greek monuments of other kinds, ) from those tracts, if made accessible.
3. The town Nagara, mentioned by Ptolemeus, with the Greek
surname of Dionysopolis, must have been the capital of some Greek
kingdom, probably of Agathocles and Pantalcon, who exhibit the
symbols of Dionysos on their coins. The Chinese mention Nakoloho
which is the same name, as the site of the flourishing Buddhist
establishment, about 400 years of our era in the Chinese place
146 Objects of Research in Affghanistan. [ Fes.
Nakoloho on the river Hilo, which must be the Hir found on
D’Anville’s maps. It would be of importance to determine the exact
situation of Nagara, and to ascertain, whether the name both of the
river and the ancient town are not still traceable. I suppose the Hir
to be Surshud. The ruin of Nagara may be expected to yield a new
harvest of Greek coins, and its neighbourhood might perhaps furnish
us with Greek inscriptions.
4. Sultan Baber mentions a monument in *ipawaneen which the
Mahomedans supposed tobe the grave of Lamech; the Chinese travellers
passed through this country, called by them Larpho, on the road
to Peshawer, from which it may be concluded, that they went to see
some Buddhist monument there. Would it not be possible to get some
further information of what remains still to be found in Lawghan?
5. Pliny mentions a town Copissa, ‘destroyed by Cyrus,’ in the
country of the Paropomaside ; by the accounts of the Chinese travellers
Kapisa is the valley of the Gurbad river. Are no remains to be found
along that river? and is the name at present quite unknown? It
would be of some interest, because it might be conjectured that
the name of Kapisa has some relation to the name of the king
Kadphises, who on his coins spells his name in the native legend
Kapissa.
6. The Chinese speak of a flourishing Buddhist kingdom Udjana,
or Ujjana, which was situated on the western bank of the Indus and
on the Sewad river, the capital was not far from the last mentioned
one, and was called Mangala. As far as I know, this country has not
been explored at all, and might be expected to yield coins of the
dynasty ruling for several centuries there: topes might also be sought
for in that neighbourhood.
7. Jan Messon, as well as Sultan Baber, speaks often of a river,
which he calls Baran, without giving any more definite description of
its course. Is this river different from the lower part of the Penjhir ?
or is it only the name for a part of that river ?
8. A theory has lately been set forth respecting the topes, aia they
are to be regarded as dehgops, and contain relics of Buddhist saints ;
moreover, that the coins found in them have been placed there at dif-
ferent times as offerings, and consequently that the date of coins found
in a tope, affords no clue to the period of its erection. Now, this theory
supposes that the topes had entrances and openings, by which the coins
might be inserted, and the relics taken out at certain festivals to be
shown to the people, as is mentioned by the Chinese travellers of
dehgops. Are there any traces of such entrances or openings in any of
the topes of Kabulistan ?
1839.] Objects of Research in Afghanistan. 147
9. Is the dialect of the Kohistanis of Kabulistan a peculiar one, or
related to the Lawghans, or that of the inhabitants of Kaferstan ?
10. The Kirdhkis mentioned by Mr. Elphinstone as forming part of
the population of Eastern Kabulistan, speak an Indian dialect ; is this
dialect nearly related to Punjab? and are the Kirdhkis to be regarded
as emigrants from India in comparatively modern times, or remains
of the ancient Hindu population? As far down as to the times of
Mahmud of Ghazna it may be shown, that the inhabitants of Kabul-
istan were Indians, and most probably direct descendants of the Gur-
ves, Ascadars and Gandars spoken of by the ancients.
Art. V.—On the detection of Arsenical Poisons by Marsn’s process—
its inapplicability to the Sulphurets of Arsenic—and the mode of
obviating the fallacy occasioned by Antimonial Compounds. By
W. B. O’SHavucungssy, M. D. Acting Joint-Secretary to the Asiatic
Society.
In December, 1836, I exhibited to a large party at Government
House the very beautiful process invented by Mr. Marsn of Woolwich, ©
for the detection of minute quantities of arsenical poisons. The me-
thod consists in placing the suspected substance in very dilute sul-
phurie acid, and introducing a slip of pure zinc. The hydrogen is
evolved in combination with the metallic arsenic, and on examination
presents most distinct and remarkable phenomena. If ignited, the
flame is of a leaden blue color, and diffuses a powerful odour of garlic,
and a dense white smoke. If the flame be reduced to the size of a
pea, and applied to the interior of a thin glass tube, a crust of metallic
arsenic is formed on the tube, surrounded by a white ring of arsenious
acid. To this, by a little dexterous management, the several tests for’
arsenic may be applied, namely the ammoniacal-nitrates of silver and
copper, and the sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
A few months after the meeting referred to, I had occasion to apply
the process to the examination of the contents of the stomach of the
Munshi of the Coroner’s Office, who had been poisoned by arsenic con-
tained in a ball of sweetmeat. The results were quite conclusive, and
were, moreover, checked by the performance of the common process on
a portion of the large quantity of arsenic adherent to the mucous mem-
brane of the stomach.
Up to the time of this occurrence, and indeed for some months later,
I participated in Marsn’s opinion, that this admirable process was
applicable to all the arsenical poisons—to those not dissolved by water
148 On the detection of Arsenical Poisons, ec. (Fes.
as well as those soluble in that liquid; but on the occasion of a second
death by one of these poisons, which came under investigation before
the Police in 1838, I had proof that this opinion was erroneous.
The deceased was a young female, to whom a large quantity of crys-
tallized yellow orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic) had been administered
- in curry, and in consequence of which she died after a few hours’ illness.
On examination of the body a quantity of yellow powder was readily
separated from the contents of the stomach, and the mucous membrane
of that organ was observed to be sprinkled all over with shining gold-
like crystals.
On applying Marsu’s process to a portion of the yellow matter, no in-
. dications whatever of arsenic were obtained. _
A quantity of the powder was then dissolved in liquid ammonia, and
Marsn’s process applied, still with negative results.
I then tried the effect of converting the sulphuret into arsenious acid,
which was done by boiling the yellow matter with a few drops of
nitric acid. On diluting the solution with water, it was found that a
single drop tested by Marsu’s method gave a most distinct metallic
crust, which was readily proved to be arsenic by the application of the
silver, copper, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
These facts are of much practical importance, especially in this coun-
try, where orpiment is commonly used asa poison. They shew that
in all cases where arsenic may have been employed, we must, in the
event of Marsn’s process proving negative, apply a modification of the
experiment I have related, so as to bring the sulphuret of arsenic
into the state of an oxide. For this purpose the insoluble parts of the
contents of the stomach should be boiled in a capsule of glass or porcelain,
with small quantities of nitric acid, until red fumes are no longer given
off. The mass should then be diluted with water, neutralized with
carbonate of potash or soda, and, lastly, examined by Marsn’s method.
To shew the delicacy of this process, I may state, that I have applied
it to the one-tenth part of a grain of orpiment mixed with four ounces
of solid and fluid animal matter. By boiling with nitric acid, diluting
with water and neutralizing, ten ounces of a liquid mixture were obtain-
ed, from half a fluid ounce of which the metal was reduced, although
the quantity could not have been quite the 200th part of a grain.
I have next to notice the only serious fallacy to which this most
ingenious method is liable, and which was first pointed out by Mr.
Thomson in the Philosophical Magazine for May, 1837. It consists
in the indications given by the soluble antimonial compounds, several
of which are employed in medicine, one especially as an emetic in the
treatment of cases of suspected poisoning.
1839.] On the detection of Arsenical Poisons, §c. 149
By repeating Marsn’s process on a mixture containing tartarized an-
timony, it will be seen that the gas evolved burns with nearly the same
color, and deposits a similar crust on the glass tube.
On examining closely the distinguishing characters of this crust, it is
very possible for an experienced eye to distinguish it from one produced by
arsenic. The eye however must be experienced indeed, and that to a
degree which very few observers can be supposed to lay claim to. Again,
the sulphuretted hydrogen produces with crusts of arsenic and antimony
yellow stains so faintly differing in tint as to lend even a practised
experimentalist but little assistance in his research. The sulphate of
copper, again, gives only such indications as are too faint to be relied
on individually, though of some value as corroborating evidence.
Nevertheless the silver test can be readily applied so as to give unques-
tionable evidence of the nature of the crust of metal and of oxide
obtained by Marsn’s process. This may be accomplished by a method
which differs slightly from one pointed out by Mr. Thomson in the
paper alluded to. The tube on cooling should be moistened with a
‘solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water, and then held over the
mouth of a bottle containing strong ammonia, so that the vapor may
traverse the tube. If the crust be arsenical, it instantaneously assumes
a vivid canary color, owing to the formation of the arsenite of silver.
No approach to such an effect is produced by the antimonial com-
pounds, so that this test affords a simple, but most conclusive check on
Marsu’s invaluable method
It is right to repeat a precaution as to the zinc employed. That
found in the bazar often contains traces of arsenic, and should always
be tested itself by Marsn’s process before being employed in pursuit of
any legal investigation. Secondly, the zine by which arsenic has been
once detected should never be used again, as the surface often unites
with and retains as much of that metal as may falsify a further
experiment.
150 Asiatic Society. [Fes.
Arr. VI.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
Wednesday Evening, the 6th February, 1839.
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
Messrs. A. Porteous and J. Cowrs, proposed at the last Meeting, were ballotted
for, and duly elected Members of the Society.
Mr. Wm. Jameson proposed by the President, seconded by MroH er. PRINsEP.
The Honorable Sir H. Seron proposed by the et is seconded by the Lorp
Bisuop of Calcutta.
The Rev. JoHn Henry Pratt, of Caius panes Cambridge, M. A- proposed by
the President, seconded by the Lorp Bisuop of Calcutta.
Mr. Epw. Tuomas proposed by Capt. Forses, seconded by Dr. O‘SHauGHNEssyY.
Mr. J. W. Laipty proposed by Mr. W. Srorm, seconded by Dr. O‘SHauGu-
NESSY.
Mr. A. C. Duntop proposed by Mr. Hare, seconded by Dr. GoopEve.
Read a letter from C. G. MansEx, Esa. stating that in consequence of his pro-
ceeding to England for a sort time he was obliged to withdraw from the Society,
which he hoped to rejoin on his return to India.
Read the following letter from Government sanctioning the purchase of 100 copies
of the Latin and Anamitan part of the Cochin-Chinese Dictionary, prepared by
the Right Rev. the Bisuop of Isauropolis, for 1000 rupees, in addition to the payments
already made for the first part of the work in question.
‘No. 16.
‘To W. B. O‘Suavucunessy, Esa. M. D. Officiating Secretary Asiatic Society.
‘ Genl. Dept.
‘Sir,—I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter, dated the 22d ultimo,
and in reply to state, that his Honor in Council has heretofore refused to incur the
expense of 2000 rupees towards executing the revised Latin Anamitan Dictionary, ne-
vertheless rather than the 100 copies subscribed for by Government should be mutilated,
and imperfect, his Honor the President in Council consents to addl000 rupees to
the payments already made by Government, under the condition of obtaining 100 com-
plete sets of the work, besides the separate vocabularies. |
‘ I have the honor to be, Sir,
‘ Your most obedient servant,
‘ Council Chamber, the 2d Jan. 1839.’ ‘H. T. PRINSEP,
‘ Secy. to the Govt. of India.’
Library.
The following books were presented :
Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. vol. 51, part 2nd—by the Society.
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles decouverts en Angleterre par L. Agassiz, Neucha-
tel, 1835—by the Author.
Actes de la Societe Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles—by the Society.
Map of the Eastern Frontier of British India, with the adjacent countries extending
to Yunan in China, by Capt, R. B. Pemperton—by the Government af India.
The following books were received from the booksellers :
Georgii Wilhelmi Freytagii Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, Tome 4th.
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia— Literary Men of France, vol. Ist.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 15]
Museum.
King and Queen of White Ants, presented by W. Srorm, Esa.
Physical.
The Secretary read the following correspondence which took place with Govern-
ment regarding Major Hay’s collection of Natural History Specimens.
Copy of the letter addressed to Government, pursuant to the recommendation of the
Committee of Papers.
Toh. To PRINSEP, Esq;
i Secretary to the Government of India, General Department.
be) A
‘I am directed by the Asiatic Society to request that you will submit to his Honor
the President the accompanying copies, Ist, of a letter from Major Hay, relative to his
Museum of objects of Natural History ; 2d, of a report by a Special Committee of the
Asiatic Society appointed to examine that collection.
‘In submitting these documents to the notice of his Honor in Council, the Asiatic
Society direct me to add a statement of their views on the several subjects referred to
by Major Hay and the Sub-Committee.
‘in the opinion of the Asiatic Society, the collection imported by Major Hay is of
the highest value, in a scientific point of view. It not only affords to the naturalists
of India standard specimens for reference in pursuit of their numerous researches, but it
possesses the still greater value of being available for the introduction of the systematic
study of Natural History among the Natives of Bengal, a study impracticable without
the aid of such a collection, and indispensable as a preliminary measure to the full in-
vestigation of the Zoology and Natural History of our Indian possessions.
‘ The duplicates contained in Major Hay’s collection would, moreover, serve the two-
fold end of completing the Museum of the Court of Directors in London, and of procur-
ing for India exchanges of valuable objects neither tae in Major Hay’s collec-
tion, nor indigenous in this country.
‘The Buciety while thus fully aware of the valuable opportunity now afforded for the
promotion of the study of Natural History in India, are not insensible to the difficulties
which oppose themselves to the procural of Major Hay’s Museum. The estimate of its
pecuniary value, submitted by the proprietor, far exceeds the resources of the Society,
or any subscriptions which might be collected among individuals anxious to promote
the object in view.
‘It seems possible still that were the Government to extend its patronage and pecuni-
ary aid to the Museum, that the current efforts of the Society and of individual sub-
seribers might lead to the accomplishment of some arrangement which Le secure the
acquisition of this Museum for Bengal.
‘In the event of such measures being adopted, the Society will gladly apply their es-
tablishment to the custody of the Museum, and they pledge themselves at all times to
facilitate the application thereof to the furtherance of the chief end of its acquisition,
namely, the instruction of the Natives of Bengal in the several subjects, such collec-
tions are capable of illustrating. For this purpose the Museum might be held available
for the illustration of lectures in Natural History, delivered at any Government Institu-
tion in Calcutta, such precautions being taken as would secure it from injury or loss.
‘I am directed finally to refer to your letter of the 26th July, 1838, in which
you state “that the Governor General of India in Council will be ready to receive
from the Society recommendations for the purchase or other procurement of objects of
more than common interest, of which the Society may receive information, and for
the obtainment of which it may want the necessary funds.”
‘The Society most respectfully represent the present occasion as one eminently de-
serving of the patronage of the Government, in the spirit of the views expressed in the
* preceding extract.’ I have, &c.
‘7th Jan. 1838.’ o W. B. O’SHAUGHNESSY.
nee
Gr
bo
Asiatic Soci: ty. [Fes.
‘ To the Secretary of the Asiatie Society, &c. &c. Calcutta.
‘Sir, Agra, December 2nd, 1838.
‘I beg to forward for the consideration of the President and members of the
Asiatic Society some papers connected with a collection of natural curiosities lately
accumulated by myself on a visit to the Cape of Good Hope, and Islands in the Eastern
Archipelago.
‘In the first instance, I will briefly state my views in forming it; and afterwards
proceed, as far as I am able, to give details. Until the publication of Swainson’s vo-
lumes on the Classification of Animals, and afterwards of the Quadrupeds and Birds, I
never prosecuted the science with that ardour which these books enticed me to, His
distinctions, however, appearing so beautifully clear, it occurred to me that a Museum
classified from these books, upon one uniform principle, could not fail to prove interest-
ing; and that such was much wanting in Calcutta, I had not a doubt. I was then at
the Cape of Good Hope for the benefit of my health, and having much leisure time, I
took the thing in hand. My first care was to get the specimens in the yicinity of the
Cape, selecting chiefly those in illustration of genera. I then became acquainted
with that unexceptionable, practical naturalist and taxidermist, Monsieur Verreaux,
who had been extolled for his art by his master Cuvier; had been the personal friend
of Leyaillant; the intimate associate of Ruppell and Lesson; and well known to seve- ~
ral other naturalists of note. In such a person how could I fail to be interested ?
Through this individual I procured the only duplicate skins existing of the large col-
lection formed by that zealous naturalist, Dr. A. Smith, who had just returned from
the scientific expedition into the interior of Africa, and whose work of African Zoology
is only now in course of publication. My original purchase was limited to one hundred
pounds, adding for this sum only twenty genera, and a few new species. Finding
however my little stock, by the addition of new discoveries, increase in interest, I deter-
mined to endeavour to procure from South America those gorgeous specimens for —
which that country is so celebrated, to add to the beauty of the whole. With this view
I made a list of the most interesting genera, and wrote to Rio Janeiro, where I knew |
Dr. Natterer, the German naturalist, had been collecting for the Emperor of Austria.
From that country I procured many rare and interesting birds, and a vast collection of
insects. Monsieur Verreaux hearing of the illness of his father in Paris, determined —
upon a hasty return to his own country, and wishing to go immediately, unincumbered, —
offered me the whole of his remaining specimens then at the Cape, mounted and in
skin. I had now become the purchaser of animals, birds, &c. to the amount of fifteen
hundred pounds. The remainder of my purchases at the Cape from different natu-
ralists being about five hundred more. I shortly determined upon leaving the Cape and
proceeding to Java, with the intention of returning to India vid the Eastern Archipe-
lago, for the purpose of adding largly to (what I shall now denominate) the Museum.
On this tour I was obliged to content myself with skins, obtaining large numbers, and
curing them myself. From the Buggecese I was fortunate enough to procure some rare
and interesting specimens from the Moluccas and Borneo: in fact I left no part of the
Eastern Archipelago untouched, and have now brought to Calcutta the whole of my
labours.
‘Here, however, my difficulties commence. Upon my arrival I find my circum-
stances changed, and that independent of the whole of my private means expended in*
the forming this Museum, when my accounts are closed, I shall have a balance against ~
me of about twenty thousand rupees, to meet which I supposed I had resources, but
sundry misfortunes have left me none.
‘ My return to Calcutta had been so arranged that I should have had three months
remaining of unexpired leave to devote to the arrangement of all I had gathered toge-
ther ; instead of which I found myself hampered by the most unforeseen difficulties,
With no immediate funds to defray the expenses Obliged to hurry to the Upper Pro-
|
:
|
1839. Asiatic Society. 153
vinces to join my regiment, forming a portion of the army of the Indus, it now became
a serious consideration what was to become of all I had with so much labour and anxi-
ety amassed together.
‘ With only ten days to remain in Calcutta, honor pointed out tome but one course,
which was to expose the whole for inspection, and eventual sale in satisfaction of my
creditors. This I have done, and the greater portion is now to be seen at the rooms of
Moore, Hickey, and Co. Up to the time of my leaving, I had however found it impos-
sible to unpack, and expose for view in a secure place, the valuable portion of skins ;
but, although I have no list of the whole, I beg to forward a list of those now exposed for
sale, the remainder are in various boxes in the godowns of Moore, Hickey, and Co. and
at my own agent’s, John Lowe and Co.
‘ My great desire is, that if this Museum is sold, it should be disposed of to some
Public Society, or to any number of persons who would allow it to remain as a Museum
for public reference.
‘I have estimated the expense of the whole at thirty thousand rupees: but my sole
wish is to realise a suffice to pay my debt, and with this view I offer it to the Asiatic
Society.
* My original intention was to have exhibited it, and have demanded one rupee for
the entrance of each person to defray its expenses, after which I should have handed
it over to one of the Public Societies gratis.
‘ From the published proceedings of your Society, I glean that you are notin the habit
of expending large sums of money on specimens, but nevertheless you might probably
do me the honor at an early meeting of your Society to bring the matter forward ; and a
discussion on your part might bring it to the notice of Government, or it might assist
me in disposing of what may be on my return from Cabul a mere wreck, from want of
a little care.
‘I beg also to notice, that just one year ago I despatched from Cape Town into the
Namaqua country an intelligent man, furnished with a waggon and oxen, and every
necessary for the purpose of collecting. Up to the latest accounts he had not returned.
The expense incurred in fitting out the expedition amounted to nearly four hundred
pounds, and upon his return I am entitled, without paying any thing more, to the half
of every thing, which I will add free of expense to any Society or parties who may
purchase the whole Museum; and asthe man deputed was formerly with Captain Alex-
ander on his travels, and at the same time an experienced person in preparing skins, &c.
it is probable that he will return with many of great interest and value.
“I shall now proceed to forward catalogues of the specimens in Calcutta, forming the
Museum. ‘ T have the honor to be, Sir,
‘ Your most obedient servant,
CW PAM Bo AY ,?
*P.S. I have succeeded in getting lists of the mounted specimens printed, but not of
the skins, which must be forwarded hereafter. I have added one sheet of the skins, but
time will not admit of more.’
Report of a Special Committee of the Asiatic Society on the Zoological Collection re-
cently introduced to India by Major W. i. Uay.
“In estimating the value of this collection, your Committee beg to state that they
must be guided by different considerations from those by which they would be in-
fluenced were the objects comprising it indigenous to India.
‘The collection has been made in Africa, South America, and the Straits composing
the Molucca islands; many of the objects it contains are the result of Dr. A. Smith’s
mission to the interior of South Africa, other parts of it were collected under the
direction of M. Verreaux, and the rest by Major Hay himself, aided by M. Verreaux in
154 Asiatic Society. [Frs.
determining most of the species ; so that the collection comprises many of the most
remarkable forms from quarters of the world from which the Society have hitherto
received no contributions, and with which persons residing in India could only be-
come acquainted through the medium of books.
‘ The value of a collection that places it in our power here, to become acquainted
with several hundred animals which otherwise we should only know by their published
descriptions, must obviously be great; for so long as this country remains without such
collections in every department of Natural History, so long must we be deficient in one
of the first requisites for advancement in the higher branches of natural science.
‘Major Hay’s collection has yet another peculiar recommendation to us in this coun-
try, which elsewhere, perhaps, would be of less importance; namely, that most of its
contents have been identified by Dr. Smith and M. Verreaux, so that the species it
contains would be so many land-marks to which we could safely refer in the classifica-
tion of the animals of this country—an object which still in a great measure remains to
be accomplished.
‘ Such being our views of the importance of Major Hay’s Zoological Collection, we
are of opinion that the pecuniary estimate of its value, referred to in Major Hay’s
letter to the Society, is not over-rated; but we regret that in the present condition of
the Society in regard to disposable funds, we cannot recommend so great an outlay.
‘As, however, the safety of this valuable collection is an object worthy of our solici-
tude, we beg to recommend that the rooms of the Society be offered for its reception,
that it might be at once safely and economically exhibited on the part of Major Hay,
or those into whose hands it may have fallen.
‘ Were such an offer to be accepted, instead of being exposed to injury in a public
sale room, without the necessary attention from persons accustomed to such a charge,
the collection might be much augmented in value by the exchange of duplicates with
the Society. In recommending this course, we are guided equally by all interests
concerned, for while we form the very highest estimate of the value of the collection, in
a scientific point of view, we cannot but regret to think that ifit were put up for sale, it
would barely realise the expenses which have been perhaps already incurred by its ex-
hibition.
*D. M LEOD,
“© W. CRACROFT,
‘J. M‘CLELLAND,
‘GEO, EVANS:
No. 72.
The Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
‘ Genl. Dept.
‘ Sir,—I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated the 7th instant,
forwarding copies of a letter from Major Hay, relative to his Museum of objects of
Natural History, and of a report by a Special Committee of the Asiatic Society,
appointed to examine that collection.
‘2nd. In reply, I am direcied to state, that the President in Council cannot regard
a collection of prepared Birds, and other animals, as falling within the class of objects
which the Government of India expressed its readiness to receive from the Society
recommendations to purchase, or otherwise procure. Such preparations have always
appeared to Government to be too perishable to be made objects of collection in a
climate like that of Bengal, and fall within the exception referred to in the last para-
graph of my letter, dated the 26th July, 1837. His Honor in Council cannot therefore
entertain the proposition that the Government should purchase Major Hay’s extensive
collection of objects of Natural History, but would suggest that the specimens are better
adapted for the Museums of Europe, where the climate is less destructive.
‘Iam, Sir, your obedient servant,
; ‘H:. T. PRINSERF;
‘ Council Chamber, the 6th Jan, 1839.’ ‘Secy. to the Govt. of India.’
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 155
Read a letter from Dr. Lorn, dated Peshawar, 4th November 1838, forwarding two
boxes of specimens of Natural History, collected by him while he was attached to
Capt. BuRNES’s mission.
Read a letter from J. G. Matcotmson, Esa. regarding M. AGassiz’ opinions on
the erratic blocks of the Jura, &c. &c.
Read a letter from Mr. Pricuarp to Mr. J. W. Grant, onthe microscopic exami-
nation of lignite from Sandway.
Notes on the dissection of the Arctonix Collaris, by Dr. Gzo. Evans.
A paper on Artificial Hatching in Egypt, by M. Dremas.
Notes on a new genus of the Fissirostres, Todide, Vigors, by Mr. B. H. Hopeson.
On the conclusion of the business, the Officiating Secretary read the following report
from Col. D. M‘Lerop, Chief Engineer, on the best and most economical mode of ex-
tending the accommodation of the Society’s House, with the view of having carried into
effect any additions and improvements that may be determined on, simultaneously
with the general repairs of the building, now become absolutely necessary for its pre-
servation. .
Col. D. M‘Leop, also forwarded two plans, No. | and 2, with his report, and an
estimate from Messrs. SHrerriFF and Co., the builders, amounting torupees 10,664-15.
‘ To the Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
* Sir,—In compliance with the desire expressed at the last meeting of the Society, that
I would examine and report on the best and most economical means of extending the
accommodation of the Society’s House, with the view of having carried into effect any
additions and improvements that may be determined on, simultaneously with the
general repairs of the building, now become absolutely necessary for its preservation,
I beg leave tostate to you, for communication to the next meeting of our Society, that I
have repeatedly, and carefully examined the building in communication with Mr.
Rowe, the builder, and with reference to the extent of additional accommodation which
Lam led to understand will soon be found desirable, if not indispensable, for the Society’s
rapidly increasing collections in all departments. I have the honor to report my opinion
as follows:
‘2nd. In addition to the ordinary repairs of cleaning up the interior and exterior of
the building, and painting, it has been ascertained that the decayed state of the stair-
case roof is such as to demand its immediate removal, and renewal; and it is, I believe,
generally agreed that a skylight in that apartment, or in the passage between it and
the Hall is indispensable, as the effect of the valuable collection of pictures placed there
is quite lost, from the absence of a proper or sufficient light. The roof of the staircase,
however, being about three feet higher than that of the passage, the light from the
former would in a great measure be intercepted by the architrave over the colonnade,
and would consequently be so far defective. I would therefore recommend its being
placed on the roof of the passage, in its centre, on a design (a drawing of which accom-
panies) now of general adoption inthe Department of Public Works, and which I have
always found to answer the purpose extremely well, and to continue water proof. The
cost of such a skylight, measuring eight feet by six feet, as appears by Mr. Rown’s
estimate, will only amount to Rs. 150.
“3rd. It was also I believe admitted, that a small staircase leading to the roof, such
as is appended to almost every dwelling house here, is much needed, in lieu of the
very inconvenient ladder, with trap door, now existing for that purpose ; this deficiency
I propose to supply in connection with the extension of the building, which I have now
‘to suggest.
‘4th. Two different modes of effecting this object have occurred to me, in both of
Which, however, is included the erection of a large room, in two floors of thirty-six feet
by twenty-four feet, on either side of the staircase room to the east and west.
‘Oth. The first, as represented in both floors of plan No. 1, would leave the present
156 Asiatic Society. [Frp
staircase (which is in substantial condition) precisely as it now stands, and the pro-
posed new side rooms free and entire, with the exception of having the northern part
of one side cut off for the purpose of adding a small back stairs, and a retiring closet
attached thereto. The: cost of this arrangement, including the sky light, exclusive
of the removal of the decayed roof, and of other repairs, is shewn in Mr. Rown’s esti-
mate No. 1, to be rupees 8485-10, and if interior new doors are not judged requisite
to the new rooms in the upper floor, this estimate will be reduced to rupees 7861-10, as
there exist old ones which may be applied to the lower floor.
‘6th. The second, as represented in plan No. 2, would remove entirely the present
double staircase, and introduce it as a handsome single one into the curtailed new side
room. ‘The very thick walls now existing in the basement on each side of the flight of
stairs, as well as the colonnades over them, would in this case become quite unneces-
sary, and ought to be removed, so as to leave the whole of that apartment from wall to
wall, in the line of east and west, free, and uninterrupted both above and below. The
extra accommodation thus to be obtained, would be about equal with that of the first
proposal, and the effect produced on the general appearance of the rooms, on entering
from the new staircase, would certainly be more grand and imposing; but on proceed.
ing to arrange all matters necessarily involved in carrying this measure into effect,
I find, that as shewn in Mr. Rowe’s estimate No. 2, it is unavoidably more expensive
than the first by rupees 3178-3-6, and as the advantage is only in appearance, I fear it
must, as matter of course, be rejected in favor of plan No. 1.
‘7th. Should the latter also be found too expensive to be met by the available
funds of the Society, the only alteration I have at present to propose, is to reduce
the size of the new side rooms, so as that the walls shall be in a line with the other
walls of the house—leaving them I believe about 26 X 18 feet, which would of course
diminish the charge considerably. But the Plan No. 1, if practicable, I would recom-
mend, as it would be the means, I think, of preventing all future patching of the build-
ing—it provides at once two rooms of 36 X 24 feet and two rooms of 26 X 24 feet, witha .
suitable back stairs and closet in two floors, while it cannot be said to affect injuriously
the light or the ventilation of the present apartments.
‘8th, I would further beg leave to bring to the notice of the Meeting, that the dampness
of the lower, or basement, floor is greatly complained of as a serious evil. I observe that
this defect cannot conveniently be remedied by raising and new fluing, besides which
that process would be attended with a heavy expenditure I would therefore recom-
mend that an expedient now successfully adopted, of laying the floor in a composition
of tar and sand, (a specimen of which may be seen in the Society’s House, executed I
understand about two years ago by Mr. Rowe,) be resorted to in the lower apartments, to
correct this evil. Its cost, as shewn, in Mr. Rowz’s estimate No. 3 will be Rs. 1007.
‘9th. It only remains to show in abstract the total expense in which the Society will
be involved by the adoption of plan No. 1, for extending the accommodation, in addi-
tion to the requisite general repairs. The following is the abstract:
For the ordinary repairs, as per Mr. Rown’s estimate, .._ Rs. 854 8 0
For the new Roof to the Staircase, 2 Nie an erate me 771 13 0
For new laying the floor of the Basement, .. .. os ce 1007 00
For the proposed Skylight, ., ae f 150 00
For the proposed 4 additional Rooms cit all rhonaered
with them, Wd ein 40) RIOT we “ldsseie hee Pa ee f 7861 10 0
Grand Total of Expenditure, « 10,644 15 0
‘10th In conclusion, I have to observe in reference to Mr. Rown’s estimates, that
the rates are very fair and moderate throughout.
‘I have the honor to be, Sir,
‘Your most obedient servant,
‘ Fort William, February 6, 1839.’ ‘D. M‘LEOD.’
n
1839. ] Astatic Society.
INO; 2.
157
‘Estimate for building two additional Rooms, Back Stairs, and Closet; also remov-
ing the Staircase, &c. and fixing a new Staircase in the Western Room, as per Plan
No. 2.
Building two Rooms, &c. as particularized in
Estimate No. 1. ere 5S a
Alterations in the Staircase Room, | wall,
53 & 3 X 185 a ate ~- 29691
One Architrave, 534 X 2 XK 3 aH oo. oat
Fixing Beams, 1035 XK 1, X 1! .. os sons
Ditto ditto 2nd Story, 1034 14 x 2! 2» 308
Roof and Floor, 534 & 23 & 2 aA .. 2461
Balustrade, 534 & 14 X 33 oe ~» 3002
8 Pillars, each 20 feet, Lo a a
Inside Cornice, 153 feet, ae are
Outside ditie: S4ditto,° 3... 0 7 ou eo
WOOD WORK.
34 Beams, each 28 feet, 14% 8@ 1/8 ve
60 feet Architrave,.... 18 X 10 @ 1/ sic
2500 feet Rafter...... 3X 2@ /6 oH
Principal Staircase, including landing to be
fixed in the New Western Room, a
Deduct the renewal of the decayed Roof, ..
ee ee 8485 10 0
6372 @ 13/8 86036
13/8 4080
2/ 32000
j8 7680
ly) 5400
1428 0 0
120 0 0
150 0 0
90000 3949 3 6
_ Co’s. Rs. 12,434 13 6
771 0 4
11,661 13 6
N. B. The above includes changing the old roof of Staircase Room.
Resolved,—That the Society approve of Col. M‘LEop’s Plan No. 1, and sanction the
sum estimated for the construction of four additional rooms, and repairs of the pre-
mises, and that the Secretary be requested to communicate the resolution of the
meeting to the Builders, with orders to commence the work, with as little delay as
possible.
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 87.—MARCH, 1839.
Art. I.—WNotice of an Inscription on a Slab discovered in February,
1838, by Capt. T. S. Burt, Bengal Engineers, in Bundelkhund,
near Chhatarpur.—By the Editors.
Captain Burr will have imputed, to the right causes, (Mr. PrinsEp’s
illness, and absence) the delay, with which we notice the impression
of the above inscription, so obligingly forwarded by him. This com-
munication, has added to the obligations which antiquarian science
owes to him. The legend of the inscription is now presented to our
readers with a translation—a relevant extract from Captain Burt’s
Journal*—some explanatory notes,—and a prosodial key to the in-
scribed verses, or rather Poem. A facsimile of the inscription is not
added, because the character resembles the specimen published in our
number for April, 1837 ; and Captain Burt describes it as No. 3,
Allahabad pillar.
This slab, it will be seen, was found detached at one of several temples
at Khajrao, nine coss from Chhatarpur, which is on the high road
connecting Saugar and Hamirpur. Khajrao is described by Captain
Burr as near Rajgarhy, which we assume to be the Rajgarh of the
maps—a fortified town on the right bank of the Cane river S. E. from
Chhatarpur. The place abounds with remains of temples, statuary,
and monuments of ancient times. The slab was found in the temple
dedicated to “ Lauaser.” This name, (unknown to the Sanscrit
theogonies) is probably the appellation locally current of some divinity
whose alias we cannot conjecture. It may however be assumed, that
* Captain Burt’s letter covering the inscription has been mislaid. We hope we
have not taken a liberty in making an extract from a Journal of his Travels, in the
hands of Thacker & Co., for the press. —Eps.
Bg
160 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [Manrcu,
the slab does not belong to this edifice ; and that that, celebrated in
the polished verses now presented, has yielded to the mouldering hand of
time. We may also assume, that its site, was the consecrated spot,
described by Captain Burt, and that it gives us the genealogy. of Rajas
who formerly ruled in that part of the country.
We learn that Raja Banaa erected a lofty temple for the reception
of an emerald emblem of Siva, and a stone image of the god. On the
death of this Raja, seemingly by voluntary immersion in the confluence
of the Yamuna and Ganga, his territory was administered by the
priest YASONHARA,—perhaps, during the minority of his heir Jaya
Varma Deva. The original inscription, of sixty stanzas, was engraved
and put up in 1019 Sambat, or 962 a. p.—that is about 877 years ago.
From the two last, or supplementary, stanzas we learn, that it was
engraved by order of Raja Jaya VarMA Deva in “irregular” letters.
He afterwards had it re-engraved in clear character: then because
effaced, he again, at the distance of fifty-four years, had the poem re-
engraved in the AKakuda character on the slab, from which Captain
Burt has taken a faithful impression. It bears the date Friday, Vaz-
sakh 30, Sudi Sambat 1173, a. p. 1016. The poet was Sri Ram, who
has not failed to give his own genealogy, and the caligraphist was
“that Gaup’a’ KayasTua.”
The pious Banea appears to have been of the Lunar race. The
pedigree given by the slab is this
NANNUKA
|
VaG-YATI
|
VIJAYA
|
VIHALA
SrimArsa,+Kunkarr his wife of the Gangetic race.
|
Yaso-Duarms Deva+Narma Deva his wife.
|
Banea.
BaANnGA appears to have been succeeded by JayA VarMA Deva, who
may have been his son.
In the 12th vol. of the Asiatic Researches there is copy of an im-
perfect inscription taken from a slab translated by Capt. Price, who
found it near Mow, a town ten miles from Chhatarpur. A place of that
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 16}
name, in a North Westerly direction, appears on the maj near the left
bank of the Dassaun river. The name of Jaya Varma Deva is in the
royal genealogy recorded on this slab; of which the date is effaced.
This genealogy has also its Visaya ; but it cannot be identified with that
of Banca. It appears however that when ANantTa, the Brahmin
minister of his father and grandfather, drowned himself in the Yamuna,
some other (probably a Brahmin) was appointed to the administration
by JayA VARMA,—because, as Capt. Price infers from words used in
the inscription, he had abandoned worldly concerns.
In the Khajrao slab it is not stated that Jaya Varma Deva was the
son of BAnGa, but we learn that the priest YASonDHARA administered
after the pious suicide of BAanca.* These circumstances afford some
grounds, though weak, to identity the Jaya Varma Deva of both slabs.
In case of identity, we may suppose that the two genealogies exhibit
distinct branches of one family, and that Jaya Varma Deva succeed-
ed collaterally. No doubt local inquiry would fling light on ae history
of the Kings or Chieftains here recorded.
The poet elevates Banca into a great monarch and conqueror.
Kings of Oude and even Ceylon attend to do him homage, and his cap-
tives are the wives of the kings of Andra, Radha, and Anga. All
this of course is the exaggeration and fancy of the poet. But the 19th
stanza seems however to indicate the actual conquest by Visaya of .
southern territory.
Banaa’s piety was not limited to the erection of the shrine. He
also built mansions for seven Brahmins who officiated at the temple,
which he endowed with lands. “ Two yavas at Sri Brahma kalpa; one
in the vicinity. Kalpa gram, on the south of the snowy mountains, was
another.” This obscure sloka introduces a new land measure. The
yava, or barley corn, is the lowest linear measure,—and suits, neither
royal munificence, nor priestly expectation. We have Kalpi on the
right bank of the Yamuna ; but unless to fill up the verse it would hardly
be described as south of the snowy mountains. Is any Sri Brahma
kalpa known in the vicinity ?
We should be much gratified if this, and other points connected with
this inscription receive the attention of Captain Burt, or any other
_ intelligent correspondent who may have the opportunity of local inqui-
ry. We will not dismiss the temple, without noticing Xiccua “the
carpenter,” the Christopher Wren who built the “ cloud-capt” fabric. No
Indian name approaching to this is now known. ‘Was he foreigner ?
* In the 9th verse of the Mow slab the name of Jaya Varma’s father is incomplete.
But Banca would not suit the metre, and would make an incongruous compound.
162 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [ Marcu,
Of the character of the Poem a few words remain to be said. _It is
composed in an ambitious style by an accomplished scholar. His
verses are polished and elaborate ; some however are obscure, and the
quaint pedantry of Sanscrit Poetry here abounds. But in spite of
these defects, many of the verses may be justly commended as contain-
ing much of truly poetical imagery, conveyed in lofty and polished
diction. But we must leave space for Captain Burt’s narrative.
Extract from the Journal.
I reached Chatterpore at 9 o'clock at night, (which was an ear-
lier hour than I had stipulated for by twelve or thirteen hours),
but my reason for pushing on was in order to have time to pay a visit
to Khajrao, a place situated about nine pukka (full) koss (eighteen
English miles) from Chatterpore, to the right of my road, and lying
not far from Rajpore, or Ragurhy, or I think it is more correctly call-
ed Rajnuggur. The natives at a distance sometimes call Chatterpore
Chatpore. It was whilst I was on my return trip from Eraw to
Saugor that I heard, from a palky bearer, of the wonders of this
place—Khajrao, near Chatpore, as he called it ; and which he stated
to be situated from Saugor seven munzels, or daily stages, for native
pedestrians, which, at fifteen miles per day, is about the thing, Chat-
terpore being distant from Herrapore fifty miles, or one hundred from
Saugor. I may as well now employ my twelve or thirteen hours spare
time in taking a look at Khajrao along with the reader.
Immediately on my arrival at Chatterpore, at 9 o'clock at night, I
told the dawk moonshee, (baboo, or writer) to procure a double set
of sixteen bearers, and two spare men for a bangie, containing my
food and printing materials, to start as soon as possible for Khajrao.
I wished to arrive there before sunrise in the morning, and it lay at
a distance of eighteen or twenty miles thence by an indifferent road.
I left a pair of trunks and a pair of patarahs (tin boxes) under the
care of the baboo, as I should not require them until my return, and
in about an hour started for Khajrao, vid Rajnuggur, and reached the
temples of the former at seven or eight o’clock in the morning. The
ruins which I went to see lie at some distance from the village, which
lies beyond them, and this place I did not see, as a quantity of jungle
intercepts the view of it. I was much delighted at the venerable, and
picturesque appearance these several old temples presented, as I got
within view of them. They reared their sun-burnt tops above the
huge trees by which they are surrounded, with all the pride of supe-
1839. ] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 163
rior height and age. But the chances are, the trees (or jungle rather)
will eventually have the best of it. My first inquiry, after taking
breakfast, was for ancient inscriptions, and a temple close by was im-
mediately pointed out as the possessor of one. I went there, and sure
enough there was an inscription in the No. 3 Sanscrit character of the
Allahabad pillar, in the most perfect and beautiful state of preserva-
tion, engraved on a stone slab which measured about five feet by four,
and was completely covered on the upper side with writing ; the stone
was laying at a slope against a step in the side wall of the temple.
It was the largest, the finest, and the most legible inscription of any I
had yet met with, and it was with absolute delight that I set to work
to transfer its contents to paper. I took two copies, one on a plain
white paper, without ink, by pressing it in a wet state with towels
into the hollows formed by the letters, and another reversed with
ink, which I spread upon the stone. The facsimile, or impression, ob-
tained was the most beautiful specimen I have by me, and I regretted
that the surface of the stone twenty square feet, was too large for me
to spare time to make a duplicate with ink. The date of it is 1123,*
Sunbat, or 771 vears ago, as was distinctly pointed out in the lower-
most line of the inscription ; having done this I took a look around,—
“ Si monumentum queris, circumspice,’—and could not help ex-
pressing a feeling of wonder at these splendid monuments of antiquity
having been erected by a people who have continued to live in such a
state of barbarous ignorance. It is a proof that some of these men must
then have been of a more superior caste of human beings than the rest.
Khajrao is situated one koss distant from Rajnuggur, the Rajah
of which sent to express a hope I would pay him a visit on my return :
and as I was in his dominions, I thought it was as well to do so in the
evening. I found in the ruins of Khajrao seven large Diwaillas, or
Hindoo temples, most beautifully and exquisitely carved as to work-
manship, but the sculptor had at times allowed his subject to grow
rather warmer than there was any absolute necessity for his doing ; in-
deed, some of the sculptures here were extremely indecent and offensive ;
which I was at first much surprised to find in temples that are pro-
fessed to be erected for good purposes, and on account of religion. But
the religion of the ancient Hindoos could not have been very chaste if
it induced people under the cloak of religion, to design the most dis-
graceful representations to desecrate their ecclesiastical erections. The
_palky bearers, however, appeared to take great delight at the sight of
those to them very agreeable novelties, which they took good care
to point out to all present. I was much struck with the beauty of the
* The impression gives 1173 Sambat.
164 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [ Marcu,
inner roofs of the temples, which were circular, and carved in a most
elaborate,style.
I told one of the bearers to try and find out whether there were
any passage or steps leading to the roof inside or outside the building :
as if there were, I intended to pay a visit to it. After searching about
for some time, he reported that there was a way; so I went to
look at it, and found that the only means which presented itself of
access to the upper story, existed on the inside, and from one of the
side passages (dark as Erebus), and that it was requisite to ascend
by climbing up the sacred images.
From the side wall, which was perpendicular, I first sent up one of
the bearers, and then by laying hold of the leg of one god, and the
arm of another, the head of a third, and so on, I was luckily enabled,
not however without inconvenience, to attain the top of the wall;
where, on the roof, I found an aperture, just large enough for me tocreep
in at. On entering upon the roof, I found that my sole predecessors there
for several years before had been evidently the bat and the monkey,
and the place was not for that reason the most odoriferous of all
places in the world. However, it was necessary that I should see and
inspect the nature and formation of these upper stories. The circular
roofs, before referred to, were formed by the overlapping of huge
long blocks of stone, which stretched from the capital of one pillar to
that of another, and upon both of which they are supported. The
others are placed so as to fill up the corners of the square (or other an-
gular figure of which the plan of the roof was formed) by -other huge
long blocks laid across these interstices diagonally, from the centre of
one face to centre of another. The same occurred above them, smaller
blocks being used as the circle contracted, and as the roof tended towards
a point. Here a square stone was laid on, resting upon the superincum-
bent ones. There was no masonry, I mean no plaster of any kind, used
for the purpose of cementing these slabs to one another, their own weight
and position alone being sufficient to give them permanence—a per-
manence which has lasted forages, and which would, unless disturbed
by the growing of trees or other disturbing cause, sempiternally exist.
I saw nothing else worthy of notice, only here and there, immense
parallelopipedons of stone, in some of which, the presence of holes ap-
parently drilled for the intrusion of the lever for raising them was
indicated. There appeared to be no way of returning excepting that
by which I had effected my ascent, so I set about my descent as well
as I could, for this was more difficult than the ascent; but after
resting first one foot, then another, upon any projection I could meet
with, I managed to effect, without loss of limb my perilous descent. I
1839. | Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 165
noticed a vast quantity of beautiful sculptures of all kinds, to attempt
to describe which would exceed the limits of this work, even if I
possessed the means of doing so; but as I do not, and have made no
sketches there, I must per force be excused from inserting any. Having
visited several temples, in all seven, of which the names are as follow, I
went to take a look at the rest of the wonders of the place. One temple
was dedicated to Mahadeo; a second to Parmwatti; a third to Kun-
dart ; a fourth to Lalaji ;(1) in which I found the large inscription ; a
fifth to Nandeo, or the Mahadeo bullock god ; opposite to which and
facing it, in an outer building, contemporaneously erected, is a
splendid figure of the largest baz/, (or ox) I have ever seen; the
animal was sitting upright upon the ground, and in this state mea-
sures seven feet long, five feet high, and three and quarter feet
broad, and weighs by my old way of calculating 683 tons, or
18724 maunds. I had not sufficient time to make a drawing of
him, being obliged to notice more interesting matters. The sixth
temple is consecrated (may I use this term?) to Chatterbhoj ; and the
seventh (what think ye of that reader) to our fourth friend of the Hog
species—to Barao,(2) and in which there is, without exception, the
finest, (and last) but not largest, specimen of this animal I have
as yet seen ; and I don’t think there are many others in India, except-
ing one of which I know the locality, but have not visited it. The
dimensions of this interesting object are as follow—His height is
five and three quarter feet, his length eight feet, breadth three and quar-
ter feet ; all these dimensions are approximations, made by means of
my walking stick, which measures rather more than a yard in length:
so that each of them may be perhaps increased by about one inch ; his
weight will be, according to our method, ninety tons, or about 2461
maunds. This is pretty well for the weight of the gentleman just
after breakfast. What the deuce would it be after luncheon? Iam
happy to say we have in this specimen unequivocal proof of the pre-
sence of a complete and well formed snake which is lying under him, (*)
partly in an incurvated position, but evidently subdued ; the female
figure, that should be here has been taken away (confound the
rascally despoilers), and nothing remaining of her beautiful form (for
I am sure it must have been beautiful, judging from the rest) but two
feet, and her hand, which is posited upon the left throat or neck of the
__ 1. Divinities by the name of Kunpari and Laxagr are not found in the Sanscrit
theogonies, they may be familiar designations locally current,
2. The Vardha Avatdr of Visunu is well known.
3. The snake AnanTa or SEsHA, which upholds the earth. The child is the infant
Hari described as reposing on this snake.
166 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur: [Mancu,
animal. One additional circumstance occurs too in this specimen,
which is the remains of a child resting upon the snake’s neck. I should
conceive that this figure of a child is meant to represent the child of
Prithei, viz. mankind, born of earth (or Prithec), and of whom the
fable represents Hvan, the snake, to have been the enemy or destroyer,
but who has here triumphed, and is resting upon the serpent’s neck—
‘Thou shalt bruise his head, and he shall bruise thy heel.” Another
very extraordinary fact is, that the tail of the Barao, though broken
off, (as indeed is that of each of the other specimens) must evidently
have joined on to the tail of the reptile ; this would seem to convey the
idea that the tail was either part of the enemy, or the enemy itself;
but this discussion I must leave to the learned, being unable to grapple
with it myself. The tusks of the Hog are curved in the finest and most
determined manner. I do not recollect in what direction the woman’s
feet are turned in this specimen, whether towards the animal, or
sideways from him. I would willingly have given a hundred rupees
(102.) to have had a good sight of the “ Prithee” creature, (who has been
taken away,) and that in a mutilated state too, as they have left her
feet and one arm. The Barao stands on a fine thick slab raised on
a high chabutra, which is accessible by steps formed of red granite,
(mind that). The roof is well formed, strong, and likely to last for
ages; as is also the Hog. I think he was covered with parallel rows of
human figures, like unto the others, but upon this fact I beg to say I
do not feel justified in speaking decidedly.
Let us now look in at the little Mahadeo, or lingam, which is to
be seen in another temple, situated not far from this one. In order to
arrive at it, it is necessary to ascend a considerable number of steps, at
the top of which is situated the representation of the vital principle.
Let us now measure the height of the gentleman. The natives ob-
jected to my going inside, without taking off my boots, which would
have been inconvenient ; so standing at the door way, I saw a bearer
measure the height with my walking stick, it amounted to 22 of its
height, or eight feet, and its diameter about 11, or four feet. Its weight
will be about 74 tons, or 207 maunds. It was erected in a receptacle,
which was raised from the ground about four feet, and twenty-five
feet in diameter. That of the room exceeded it by perhaps three or four
feet on each side,—there being a passage all round it. I under-
stand a light is regularly kept burning there during the night time, and
it was considered by far the largest lingam in India, and is consequently
much venerated. The dimensions of the stone slab from which I
ore the inscriptions in the other temple, were 51 feet length;
2 feet breadth, and 3 foot thickness—its weight is therefore about
1839. ] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 167
12} hundred weight, or 17 maunds. This stone lies detached from
some part of the building (from whence I cannot say) and rests inside
one of the temples before mentioned. I must return to state a pecu-
liarity I met with in this Bavao. His two left legs were both placed
foremost ; perhaps this was intended to add to his strength or durability,
by giving him what they might have considered greater base ; but I
should doubt whether the base would not have diminished instead of
increased by this arrangement. In the other specimens, I think the legs
of none were advanced, but as if the animal were standing still. A large
tank exists within fifty yards of this Hog, but there was not much
water in it at the time I was there. A great deal of jungle surrounds
these ruins. Near the water entrance to one temple I found a lion or
two (stone ones, not living animals) ; one of whom seemed to be seizing
a wrestler by the left arm, with one paw up and mouth open ready to
destroy him. Was this Narsing, again, and Heran kussup ?(4) Ihada
desperate hunt here (not after a hare) but after my pencil, with which
I intended to have “ knocked off” the last named figure, but I was ob-
liged to “ knock of,” altogether (as the sailors say) or leave work, be-
cause I could not find it. After sending two or three men to two or
three places to hunt for it, I was obliged to depart without making the
intended drawing, and after I had progressed about, a mile from the
place, when it was too late to return, lo, and behold, I found the pencil
upon my palanquin drawer. I soon after got to Rajnuggur, but before
finally taking leave of the seven temples, I shall state my opinion, that
they are most probably the finest aggregate number of temples congre-
gated in one place to be met with in all India, and all are within a
stone’s throw of one another.
Ns
Saaz FLATT 1
fram faaz ALTATASATAATATS STHATATA |
eras: weafeaarae fatemaratte 1.
aw gufa a wafwafecy: aTTaay
Bare fraaattcrtfee Hay aya tera
watery HIATT ATTA: marae
wienite: Waneaweatafy: a: faatareqa: URN
4. Hiranya Kasrpv, Gold-clad, or Daitya or Titan; for whose destruction VisHNU
took the form of the man-lion.
Z
168 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. | Marcu,
med arte fesse: HIWH REATTARTATS ST
ala wae furrqufaty TETRAT ETAT |
ai afife aewat waz fag aeears feata:
warean afceredt frafen: weep Prarareqa: 131i
wuafrrgaaaia aaa: TAT TT aT |
wafer PraaURaT THT ATTAT FA 13h
fafcufacfe apa seafareet: HATA
qaraqurarsiagy: famed |
qafafaqaagrars Peaweqsr
feacafragerttattedt aaee: 14H
aria faa Fred gafad wareaaagy ya
wet Fea fewaat Tee RIA AT: |
TAA TASH TAY ASHI TATA S TAT
ssaTeratia facend wegueed faatagT: neti
aqqisusauspat waa faza fuar |
Ta TAHT Ta ACT ATA FATT W011
wey AT WeAAHAT AAA AaTAT
sfatafa: sfaaafear aaaTs: waa it
req satfauzaafed Huse Ty fat
args: wasfa afr ga: fas: ue
RUM A TAMA a a fa aea AAA SSTS
AAT Aaa Haare eaTTT ea:
waar area afer: ara Tere:
WC ATAARAAAA TT: AAT ASFA WA! Nit
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 169
fim fart faarece: anraapyad
faafea: saarraraaTt: waeraa feafa:
arya ufadts afrafraqaqerfeerattaat
a eaifa afta: WATT ATAATEA RA: liXel
aaeg aegraadasn: fates: fafa NU
a va qufateatataran: darcraeatie:
WAT AA LAA AATT: TEITAACTAAT: |
fafacg feng fara Taal aaa a arat
waa wads fara fees TA: NVM
ATAAE TCS ALATHAC MATA |
qartutes araqarearerata: (i.e
aa famaaaa ufeaat aaa afraara fafeura |
yeaa aq fusaaaa enrfeatfefa fraraarfaa: (23h)
ABTTTICA MCA TATA CAT: STATA |
aaa faaafauta ataufatea avafatafaa: uu
frgraiaagaa afararaTaagTgaas feafaaae
aaa witaraadeaagt THAT: TARAS AA
AAT: elt
Te cafes cafes: a fehraayata:
a are fast gata jret TA ATA TA:
aealeraaa: wa fereaa werat atest fae:
Ae CCM cay feat: TATHT: GH! ULI
170 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. LMarcu,
faatifachaa vuedraaer faa ws |
ATRAAHAA AAT LACT MAA TTAATSSTS AW LT
faaaaca faratacaeraiteatte:
mace cater: ATT TaTT EL:
aequatacal efwurai fatty:
yacfarmaey wea © qeaarert NYU
aATA TAT IgSUfe ALL TFAT: |
wena: wafer frsaaat afeeateegqgy: Roll
Wawa aa qTITeI qacfaaataa: |
qiaaafaararan: wae faeqeraan: RU
AMTAA TIT CA aa AAT TATATETTT |
“~
WITATATY ATC HTC AT TET AATAT: URI
TATA AMATHSSTATHA TAL AAT AT AT ITT
CT SHAZATUTAATTUAMASHA: MATT |
asrearewasacTcMae: raf weTeT:
wales WHat fat fron aT ATE URS
jogs qualms ga
AAT ATT TA TAT ATA A AAT
Sea eeTea: © HUTA AAT: ATMA
feng: MeTeTATA ATTA: WLTT AAT URI
~ ~ in ~ c
aaa WaT ATW HATH |
n~
eae aca Fest TOY We CPATAT WRU
5. Sic in Orig. : but it seems an error of the engraver.
6. Sicin Orig. There appears an error of the engraver, the words wtsdhohadayardra-
tah give no intelligible sense, and are omitted in the translation.
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 171
ATTUACAT ITOH: TSI TATA FART: |
Patra gaya eI AMAT Rel
A 6 A
SMATIMA HATA Cg CA MATS
¢ r~ ®
Fuca: aufe facat waa urcafz: |
aee aife feqeugiaereereiigarai
a A ° A
Saree: WaATCA Tae AAI: R911
Ge_SIATUT TSAR CLAFAT |
wrcraetts TeaTA aaa fa HAT ACT NRE
am: equefefadiaaa Ae TaegieTs
aife: tinafag fa: eaCUT eaTee AEA:
eqiiataqaa laa ay aaa:
PCa AA ATUAT ATA AAA REI
qeeaey cacufafeariafaedaarant:
adiaanfagaaten: waa: gers:
uearare: faate eaci aryfeg erat
Heals SAAMI PAM AFATT: 1130}|
aeq fanquuyuias tfaa facta afsad cae: |
SPIrAaIaataa TH TeaaaHAaAAR SU
was aaatata fears wae: fafa:
aragfasa area aifeatfeneryy: WR
te ufafanfaar aia set Waatfad
TY TATU GU: wate watfafera
aq strsatfent ahaa ae fatarata
wdhaqiafa cae ofafa areried afar 1881)
172 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [Mancu,
eaiferequamfurara fea
aafeeHeeHgs WTATFU AT |
aarg azeafad awerauita
aagrfud faaqursad afcs azn
ft
waatqafenqed: TATRA ATT
aq Wafcerey ATA WATATITTT: FBT sll
TTY ama aeeUaarearafwat wast
TATA TRUST ea ACT VASAT |
ageanVaaaifaasat Aeafa sore
ARIAT YACIEGAT AHA faataterga izel
awa sieaeeafchicay Beqsy Ua AA
eared age: afeafrcreaitfercrarea:
Talat CATT are farataracdael war |
CUTATAUTA PIA TIVITASTATT [19
aaags WISez TfaachaqryuMaArawns
Taare te aCfy: TATA: |
TAHT: wiagereg fea fart farce fa faearars
Hae TAat qenacforisnsgeat: TEAL
HUAI Wearafaaraayy |
AFASTATSAT TM TW ALTA: 118A
warren fafaatreorarzasudt sftfaararearfear |
ayy azted Waar far feat ACMAUHATA: HFTA 13 ell
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur.
aieat ateareaiiuae: asia Tales |
| aeATSaT Tai AAAI AFAFAT WBN
qWUigtaeeat TH TaaTaTCUfHat |
aray qfoaqa aafLa saat ALTA: BRU
aMATSA aM A eaTAIa TA: |
faceranfariesi wa a RAFAT sel
satay AAA Aaea WaTRUAT
Hien: quate feeaued aeat afe: eraat |
of famres aureegied eral aToaraet
aaa sfatafefa ay WA TT: Bsi
Al ea aisttqutaraiaat aieraeutrerat
aled Cerafcqsay: AT AAG egIAT |
A °
Saran: aacafaal sea afcfwatat
ATRIA CHAAAACTTTIUT AAT? BU
Al ed Hey faa sHNady ATT WATHISSTAT
CHIT -TIGEed qUagez: agi: |
arent fasaraaaiaaraady cara ATA
SATA AAA EA acess Nhay wel
acaaad way fay azfaaasat
faguafan ceataci weer fattest |
agafaad cathe afafecatad
swafa sata aga nuse faafad iss
3
174 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [Marcn,
aware waa what fea: |
fatal aa Fa: AMITTST BT sei
aaa weeameafaat: aK TETya
Ware faeanaTaTsa: Wea: AA SAT: |
Se Se ae
He APRA HAT aaa FrATAATTET: ei
TAF HT GT MET WOLY Fr: FATS: |
waag fawaral MeUCaaTaAat WH ell
aafea faazadireizanciera qafaeat |
vaqfad qarqea: aM fasihwaaTT YAH
agearfacaay wefan MI_gaw gat:
TCATETET F YAITT AAT AA ATT: |
SE CEC RICE! Aer oes datfaat:
aay enfearfeqefras aC haat aTEAT: WRI
SAAT TREAT aaa ufaatfag |
qhawa qarefy aera aepraa ea
cfareat Pafaaequfaceat a aaTaaeaata
sieat wei wi aaa Pragyediafa:
ag afgretaa: erage aaa TST
alfargy: wfaa aaacafeearienttaata 148i
YRaTUAAAMIA es Wears
fas wai eafcautafa wsrasy
Raguerywcafe agi
fafg aaa saetafranthater yu
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur.
PITA CHAITATACT AS FAT
racer: afacye afaaaaiy |
TRITHT: CAM YTATCS AT
SATA ATA TAATFATAT yeti
aq aqantrrnfon ager Tea,
yarety frafeeartgeae: arferrcaras: |
areal Cau facaaT age yee: Heat
aaa fafeat wafercqat ware afaat iyo
a duraar: afafee aT UTTER TAT:
feqan: area afoaqattaissraraar |
wiaeate fafearefaga fafa:
HULA GSAT: TAFMAATTILATH: WUE
famfasaaat FaTatU GaUIRT |
faserfta face arate: WATATIET Yell
| ara qadt wyedtacaacaa eras eas
qagifeumeugfacanyaeres: WAT SA: |
| aTagasasteqiataaga Arad eqtasta:
;
'
’
{
'
|
WTATSEATAST FHT ACTATAAATT RTT: Neel
fatimafafaaa ara qeeufeat |
(RG ageattth wathrqranfa neu PTT Lore
Seas FS ICSa MIATA
aafeafagt
Aa
176 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [Marcn,
Sqaraaeyaray faar aafeaatae Sat: |
‘ayeaqa_efeyqa MARE: eR
NN AN
fererht waar: Murata
WaTafes Tar AUATTALITAL: BAYS |
fagigararra weaaculaeatecra feel
its: ofaaewefu aagrarcita TMTGT West
~ C0,
RAAT TITAS TTIAT TET SATA
aifecaia fun: aagaaaleararreag fa: | Ca 1X98
A ~
TUTE Tet 3 FR
Translated by J. C. C. SurHERLAND.
SALUTATION ‘TO SIVA.
1. With internal joy be there reverence, to the unborn God, the
cause of those vast holy fig trees, which approach the moon: who
himself devoid of action, is the preserver and destroyer.
2. For your welfare (sazva) be the mystic dance of the god, which
occurs at periods of annihilation ; in which rapidly whirl the summits
of all the crested mountains, and in which, that mount (affixing as it
were the earth shaken to the seventh sea), becoming like a headless
but yet panting corse, falls a prostrate image,—trembling and whining
by the voices of its elephants.
3. “ Who art thou on the threshold, naked and abject? How
“unreasonably dost thou bear a trident in thy left hand. Fie on this
“warlike shew. ‘Truly those peacock’s feathers become thee!’ Thus
gibed by his beloved, the god with a smile replies, ‘‘ Know me to be
Maunesvara.” “It is clear indeed, (she adds) and the confirmation
is in your want of clothes.” May that god Samsuu be for your
welfare.
4. This beautiful Bra’rari(’) too excels, resplendent as pearl; she
who ever dwells in her lotus abode on the face of Pasu-patt.(8)
7. Sarasvati—eloquence personified.
8. Name of Siva as lord of the animate world.
1839. ] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 177
5. Excellent is that young elephant, who in his immature age,
eager to snatch the tender filaments of the lotus, thrusts his proboscis
on the section of the moon, fixed on the brow of Stva, and who is
struck by Mrip’a’n1’ (smiling in her anger) with the agitated lotus
sprout on her head (9)
6. Truly, in the beginning of the kalpa, the universe proceeded
from Brauma wishing to create, when he had perceived the eternal
void, enveloped in darkness and merely atmosphere. From him, when
he had finished, proceeded the air. In that was produced fire; from
fire proceeded water ; from that prolific cause proceeded Brauma’s
vast golden egg, streaked with rays of light.
7. By his wisdom, from the two segments of that egg BraHmMa
created his sons, the seven Munis (Maricui and the rest) the abode
of holiness.
&. Amongst these dark-dispelling, intelligent Mzmzs, was the illus-
trious Arri of celebrated greatness ; in the cavity of whose eye, was
produced the orb of the moon, whose abundant light radiates like
luxuriant hair. From him was born his pure son CHANDRATREYA.
9. Who can measure the glory and greatness of that holy man, the
beloved image of the Omniscient, pure in soul ; of him, who hath assured
heaven and beatitude to the whole world, illumined with light, sur-
passed by his excessive splendor, dispelling all doubt and illusion ?
. 10. From him sprung the wonderful Vayvarvama—faultless—na-
turally upright—of excellent disposition—eminent—unprejudiced —
symmetrical from his large upper extremities—not slightly observant
of fasts—fruitful to the root,—and never wasted by the spontaneous
fire of cruel foes, the votaries of misfortune.(!0)
11. As long as the moon (endures) the sovereigns of the race of
Chandratreya illuminate the earth. [ The rest of this sloka is wanting. |
12. Reverence to those ancient monarchs through whom the surface
of the earth was encompassed by kings, who were friendly to the faith
which has descended down—unvexed even when their Hhves were
begged—strictly adhering to truth—who robbed of vermilion tint, the
coronal streaks(!!) of the wives of the powerful but rebellious chief-
tains.
9. Durea’ is described as fondling a young Elephant. One of Siva’s names is
Mrip4a’, or delighted; whence his consort is called Mrip‘a/N1.
10. A double meaning pervades this verse ; the epithets have a twofold sense, one
applieable to the saint, and one toa tree. It would be impossible to preserve the
double entendre in the translation.
A The Hindu wife stains the line on the head made by the partition of the hair
with red lead. The widow abstains from this and other ornaments.
178 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [Marcu, |
13. In process of time in this great race the illustrious NanNuKA
became sovereign ; exalted in panegeric, and radiant with splendor,—
like a gem amongst pearls.
14. The chariot-borne denizens of the sky were reminded of etige:
by that stalwart bowman, rushing on to destroy his foes and brandish-
ing his strung bow.
15. From him sprang an illustrious son, the sovereign VaG-yATT,
of excellent fame—celebrated by the happiness of mankind, and like
Vaxrarti(!2) in the observance of courtesy.
16. By that matchless warrior—whose eye was bright like the
snake’s—and who was kind to those eminent for learning—the shreds of
anecdotes of PrirHuxka and Kunpa were put to shame, when he had
dispelled the keen fear of his poet subjects.(/3)
17. Of him, (the ornament of the earth) was born a grateful son the
illustrious Visaya, renowned for victory ; on the birth of which
magnanimous treasure of greatness, holy garlands with parched corn,
(laja) (4) were scattered down by the delighted wives of the im-
mortals.
' 18. By divine choristers, joined by their earthly companions, was
melodiously warbled the bright and exalted glory of the sovereign
VIJAYA.
19. Like that snake, who is bent in humility, when made to uphold
[the earth] by the son of Sumrrra’ (5)—rich in his extended verdant
plains—conqueror throughout the world—that lord (skilled to reward
his friends) about to subdue the southern quarters, once again in no
mimic war, sounds his martial musick.
20. From that monarch, resembling as it were the ocean, was born -
the amiable king Vaurxa, the moon of men; by whom, darkness was
dispelled, and who bade pour forth the stream of poet’s praise.
21. Innumerable houses became pervaded by brilliant light when
the king was pleased ; so also the mansions of his enemies, when he was
angered. (16)
22. In regard to gems and the wealth of the people Kosa pana in
its sense of ordeal, was not known ; but in its sense of adhering to the
scabbard, was familiar to their swords. Pazxapdta, in the sense of
12. A name of Vacnaspati the Guru of the Gods.
13. These are Pauranik Heroes, to whom various feats of valor and generosity are
attributed.
14. Laja, vulgarly called Khoi.
15. LAxMANa.
16. A double entendre or pun (the rhetorical figure sesh) pervades this Sloka.
Indeed an epithet is construed with each of the antithetic members. It is said to be
a stalk with two flowers.
1839.] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 179
loss of plumage, did exist in his capital in respect to arrows ; but in the
sense of partiality was not obtained by his friendly courtiers.(/7) «
23. From him, by the blaze of whose intense glory, great kings were
consumed like cotton—from him, graced with every eminent virtue,
who robbed of their renown wide spreading trees—was born, for the
delight of mankind, that Srr Harsua,—a gem dispelling (as it were a
fever)(8) the joy of his enemies, who (exempt from every sin) by his
own right arm, subdued capricious glory.
24. Unconquered in war—armed with a sword—with his face dilated
by the frown above the petals of his lotus-like eyes inflamed with
anger—whom, having seen, the glories of his enemies gradually receded
from all quarters, with faces quailing as if under the palm of his hand,
and with bodies now trembling with fear.
25. The sea-girt world like a citadel was preserved by that mailed
hero, by means of his unerring and terrific arm.
26. Skilled to counteract his enemies, he soon reproached the sea ; for
he was unaddicted to partiality (apava dharma), and was averse to
association with the evil minded (dosha kara), and inimical to vile
and cruel detractors (bhwjanga).(19) - ¢
27. Kings (who by their hands were able to push aside strong
horses) cheerfully submitting to his dominion, would eat at the thres-
hold of that hero—stained as it was by the mud caused by the exuda-
tions from the heads of elephants. ,
28. His most beloved wife was Kanxuta, like a necklace, being
bright as the lustre of the moon; inestimable, and heart penetrating.
29. She, who longed for his society, was the ornament of women—
the sole grace of the world. For her colour shone like gold--her eyes were
like the dark lotus, which expands before the moon—her hand was
ruby-red—grace was in her steps--her lips were of coral--and her mind
was pure like the pearl itself, just emancipated from its parent shell.
30. Of him and her (the offspring of the celestial Ganga(2°) of
pure renown, the remembrance of whom destroys a multitude of sins
17, This Verse is in the true vein of Sanscrit pedantry. The words explanatory of
the double sense of the words (on which the poet puns) are of course wanting in the
original.
18. There is a fabulous gem by contact with which fire loses its combustive virtue.
It is here alluded to.
19. The influence of the moon on the tides has been long known to the Indians, and
-is often alluded to in Sanscrit poetry. According to the pawa, or semi-lunation, the tides
increase or decrease ; the sea is thus said to be affected by the pava. It is likewise not
indifferent to the Doshdkara, the moon, or night-maker. It abounds also with
Bhujunga, Serpents. It is probable that the pedantic author of these verses, some of
which are in the true poetic vein, considered the puns of this stanza as his chef d’ auwvre.
20. It is indicated that Kanxura was of the Gangetic race.
180 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [ Marcu,
and abounds in holy shrines) the son was Yaso-DHarma Deva,
the abode of virtue, naturally obedient to his father, of great prowess,
and creating a doubt whether he was Buisuma or Upenpra.(2!)
31. Though shewing like premature grey hairs, still the brilliantly
white dust on his head (received in prostration to the feet of Brahmins)
obtained increased beauty.
32. Srvi1 only gavea piece of his flesh (pa?) to a single bird (dudja) (22)
who begged it ; but that king bestowed millions on all who asked.
33. Through awe of that victorious monarch, kings conceived these
notions ;— when prostrating their foreheads on the ground, that he was
an animated gem ;—when preceding his equipage, that to march on foot
was an Office distinguished by dignity ;—that to speak to him, was as
if on every side there were life and triumph ;—and that to make every
sort of obeisance, was a graceful attitude.
34. His brilliant conduct covered with glory, as if overspread by a
coat of white plaster, now placed him on a level with these miracles,—
the mansion of the king of snakes, ever illuminated by the moon—
and the expanse of the atmosphere strewed with jasmine flowers.(23)
35. Though in greatness rivalling the luminary borne by seven
horses, and capable of seeing beyond the seven seas, no man in this
world could scan the ocean of his mind...
36. When his power was annihilated, dominion (Dhréta-rashtra)
and prosperity were denied to the enemy—who poured forth those
plaintive notes (Gandhar?) grateful as the warbling of abird (Sakunz) ;
who fainted at hearing the mangling by terrific (bh¢éshma) crows
(Drona) of the ears (Karna) and faces (Asya) of men (Nara)
—and who was now conscious of that hero’s valor and prowess
(Dharma prabhava). This was strange.(2#)
21. Bui’sHma was the son of Ganea ; his father was SanTANUu: he was general of
Duryopuana, the opponent of his consin YuDHISTHARA. UPENDRaA is a name of
KRISHNA.
22. A passage in the Mahabharat is alluded to. Sivi was celebrated for his generosi-
ty; a bird demanded surrender of his prey which had taken refuge with Sivr. His
offer of other food is rejected, and the victim or a piece of Sivi’s own flesh insisted
on. The justand generous king complies with the latter alternative. Puns again are
perpetrated on the words pal and dwija, which signify a weight and a Brahman
respectively, besides the senses taken in the translation, The partakers of Yaso
Duarma Deva’s liberality were Brahmans.
23. These are impossible events, something like Virgil’s leaves inscribed with king’s
names.
24. A play on the words runs through this Sloka—Durita-RasutTra was husband
of GANDHARI, the sisterof Sakuni1. Buisma, Drona, Kurna, and Narasya, are
generals of Durista-RasntTra and his son DuryopHana. DxHaRMA-PRABHA-
va isaname of YuDHIsHTARA, nephew of Durira-Rasutra. See Sri Bhagavat
Purana. The ambiguity is lost in the translation, Buisma and the rest might be |
taken as the CLoanrui and GyaanreEs of the enemy’s army with less outrage to com-
mon sense.
1839. ] Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 181
37. What boots it that a ditch was dug by the sixty thousand royal
sons of Sacar who devoted their lives; and that it was filled with
water by his grandson and two other descendants in the first and second
degree? Hearing the narrative of the origin of the sea (Sagar), he idly
emulous made a vast undulating lake greater than the sea itself.(29)
38. Resplendent as the autumnal moon, as soon as that palace,
which had bruised the horses’ hoofs and shattered the chariot wheels,
was seen by the charioteer of the sun, he swerved his car from its path,
—that palace of which the golden ball, gave the idea of the solar disc
kissing the summits of the snowy mountains, and constituted the
delight of the household image of VayKuntTa, the foe of demons.
39. Of that great king the chaste queen was Narma Deva, high-born,
happy, and beloved on earth.
40. Even when injured she was always unresenting ; but when
benefited, lavish of her life ; forgiving the arrogant, but never addicted
to pride herself.
41. The queen bore to that god amongst men a virtuous and pure son,
BanGa ;—just as Sacur bore Jayanta to the Ruler of the Gods
(INDRA).
42. That best of men (Naroftama) born in the race of VrisHNI,
the cleaver of the skulls of his foe, surnamed pure (PuTA NAMA)
imparted gladness to his encomiasts, (Yasodd ’nandata) and adhered
to peaceful pursuits.(26)
43. By that lion-like man, resistless in his anger, safety of life was
never allowed to the robber of gold (Hiranya Kasipw).(27)
44, “ May it please your Majesty from this place to listen to the
“lord of Kosala (Oude)?” “Lord of Kratha let the mandate be
“ quickly heard.” “ Oh Ruler of Sevhala (Ceylon) prostrate yourself,
“and stand outside.” ‘‘ Speak chief of Kun/éala, first putting up your
“cloth to your mouth.” Such were the words spoken by the door-
25. Allusion to the Puranic origin of the Ocean is made. SacGur had determined
to reap the fruit of an Aswa-Meddha: The first stage of this is the release of the vic-
tim horse with a label. When fairly caught after battle with rivals he is slain, and the
sacrificer obtains his vow. Inpra alarmed for his throne had the labelled horse
picketted in Patd/a, in the centre of the earth, before the Muni Kapita. Sacar’s
sons baffled in their chase dug for the victim. Finding him, they abused the Muni, by
whose curse they became ashes. By the successive austerities of ANSUMAN, Diuipa,
and Buaciratua, grandson, great grandson, and great great grandson of SaGar,
_ the celestial Ganges was brought on earth, and filling the excavation, reanimated
the ashes of their progenitors who: ascended to heaven. The poet indicates that
YasopuurMa Deva dug a great Tank.
26. A play on words pervades this stanza. It may refer to Krisuna or Naror-
TAMA, also called Putanama, who was the delight of Yasopa, his adoptive mother.
27. The same Jeu de mots is kept up.
1&2 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. [ Maren,
keepers to dismiss attending kings when he had retired into the female
apartments.
45. © Who art thou?” ‘ The beloved of Ka’su1’s lord ;” and thou?
“ The wife of the king of Axdhra;” and thou? “ The spouse of the chief
“of Radha ;” and thou? “ The bride of the prince of Anga.”—Such
were the colloquies with the wives of his enemies detained as cap-
tives, while their lotus-like eyes were suffused with tears.
46. “ Who art thou? of whom? and for what object art thou
“come ; thou who art resplendent as the luminary whose emblem is
“ the hare?” “ I am gleaming fame; and wandering over the universe,
“Tam come, fervently anxious to behold the glory of the monarch
“* BanGA, the sole friend of the learned, which has reached the crest of
“ the vast mountain of Lokdlok.” 28)
47. Placed by Banea, after prostration made, that divine symme-
trical Lénga made of emerald, is victorious in this world. Worshipped
by InpRa, it was obtained from him by Arsuna, who had pleased him
and brought by him on earth, and adored by YupuiIsuTaRa.
48. In the fane, a stone god put up by that king shews a second
Hara, the remover of the bonds of pain.
49. By that King Banea was erected this fane of the lord Samsuu,
the chief of the gods, with its summit, bright like the autumnal clouds ;
of which, by gliding near the golden cupola, (furrowing as it were the
sky) Aruna, rendered radiant, abashed the crest of MEru.(29)
50. For the nice construction of its spire the skill of no mortal could
have availed; Viswa Karma(¥) himself must have turned this arch.
51. How this vast Vata tree surpasses!—A hundred times were
given by him crores of golden coins, in quantities equiponderous with
his body, by which they were weighed.
52. Enthusiastic in the true faith, and delighting to benefit others,
seven high born Brahmins were located in palaces, reverenced by gifts
of wealth, grain, and lands ;—perfectly pure, though their bodies were
tinged by smoke from ever-enduring sacrifice.
53. Two yavas at Sri-Brahma Kalpa; one in the vicinity. On
the south of the snowy mountain, Kalpa gram was another.
54. Having ruled this earth, girt with waters as if by a girdle, and
unsubjected to any other; when he had lived 109 autumns, with
eyes closed, and (as ordained) fervently reciting the name of RupRa,
the royal Banea obtained final beatitude by abandoning this mortal
coil in the conflux of the Yamuna and Ganges.
28. The Sun never reaches this mountain.
29. Aruna is the Dawn, the charioteer of the Sun,
30. The celestial architect.
1839.) Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. 183
55. Then did this glory of the world’s lord attain perfection, when
the wise priest Yasonpuara, skilled in the vedas, and the friend of
the gods, here administered—according to law—scattering light on
jurisprudence.
56. Born in the tribe of Twaxara, and in the family of Savara,
was a poet called Srr Nanpana, the prince of bards. To him was
born a son, the illustrious Ban Buapra, who had read through revealed
law, and was powerful by the observance of religious austerities.
57. Of that Bau Buapra, Sri Rama was the son ; great as it were
like a vast mountain,—of pleasing speech,—whose feet earthly kings
adored,—exempt from sin,—and celebrated as the ocean of literature,
—and skilled in elegant composition. By him composed, this incom-
parable panegyric was published in the temple.
58. Who had learned the science of words,—by the sensible Kayas-
THA PasaMPALA, distinguished by his race and disposition, the tran-
script of this panegyric was arranged. Here are no confused letters
nor any obscure from rivalry.(3))
59. This temple of PRramaTHA Natu was constructed by the architect
XiccHA, virtuous, and a Viswa Karma in science.
60. As long as this world with its mountains, cities, forests, its histo-
ries, memorials, and seas [shall remain]; as long as this sun shall
shine ; as long as water shall ooze from the luminary whose rays are
cool; as long as the segment of the divine egg shall be fixed, that
is expanded ; so long let this temple, dedicated by the monarch to
Siva endure,—mocking as it does mount Kadlasa.
61. By the wise, and gifted Sinewa skilled in the science of iauees
was this specimen of calligraphy engraved. Sambat 1019.
In the reign of Raja Banea, lord of the earth, this PANEGYRIC OF
THE EMERALD ImaGe was finished.—
62. Afflicting even infuriated elephants,—by the abundant tears of
the children and wives of his enemies (broken in the conflict of war)
_ of that great king these lines became obliterated.
: 63. The king Jayavarma Deva (like an elephant supporting the
| uNiverse) rewrote in clear letters the above verses, which he had before
| written in irregular letters (A27ma). These letters, in the Kakuda form
_ that Gaupa Kayasraa, aided by the learned, inscribed by the hand of
| Jaya Pan,—that Kayastha of untarnished lustre, having a numerous
| progeny, the radiant moon of the king’s race, who, the dispeller of
| gloom, had risen from the ocean of polished literature.
Sambat 1173. Friday 3 Vaisakh (Sudt) bright half.
31. The distinction of nearly uniform is preserved.
Bb
|
|
184 Inscribed Slab found near Chhatarpur. | Marcu,
Prosodial Key.
A sloka, or stanza, consists of four padas, lines, or quarter slokas.
They are generally, but not always, identical. Metre is Jati, or mea-
sured by maéras, or instants. In this, one long syllable and two short
syllables are equivalent. Or it is Vretéa, scanned by defined feet.
The following slokas are Jat of the Arya species. First and third
padas have 12 matras : second has 18 ; and fourth has 15 matras.
1. 4. 15. 20. 85. 41. 50. 51. 59. 62.
The other slokas are in the following metres, in which all four pada
are identical.
Slokas.
apse ¢ 2. 3. 6-9. 10. 12. 17.
Sarddula Vikriditam |---~j ov | v-v| vo~ | --v [ --v]-) 524. 29. 33. 36. 37. 44.
246. 49. 52. 54. 57. 63.
Malini .seeseeees eee | voy | vvy | --- | v-- | v-- | o. 19.
Mundacranta ........ | - =- {| -vv | vu | --0 | --v | -- || 8. 27. 30. 45.
Rathoddhuta ........ | -v— | ow | -0- | v- | 14. 18. 22. 31
Vasantatilakam ...... |] --v | vo | veu.| v=o [| 16. 55. 34. 56.
Srugdhata .osceve ve | === | 6-200] ove | Ch [ives | 23. 38. 60.
Vansasthavilam.. .... | u-v | --v | o-v | -0- | 26. 40.
Hurini..scsccsscevee | O00 | vv. |---| -0- | gu | o- | 47.
SIKHUPINIG eonseceseds [tOee | 2 2 ose | ov. | oo [eae | 08.
Anush-tup.—This is a very common measure. Each Pada
consists of four dissyllabic feet: the third foot must be an &@ 7 13 9] 95. 98 39
Iambic, and the first syllable of the last foot is alternately ~3¢ 49 43 48 53. 61.
long and short. The syllables of the remaining feet may be § ‘Ak ee pa |e
either long or short. eaee sees eee osee
Art. I.—Account of a Journey to Beylah, and Memovr on the Pro-
vince of Lus. By Lieut. Carross, Indian Navy.
On the 10th of January, having received an answer to a letter
I had written to the chief of Lus, announcing my arrival at Soonmemy
with a letter and some presents from the Bombay Government, I
commenced my journey to Beylah. Two chiefs with a small party of
_——as eS, ee eee Oe ee eee
followers had been sent to accompany me to the capital, but as they —
were not ready to proceed, and I did not wish to delay my journey, I
started, accompanied by Dr. Hardy, without them.
The road for some distance led over a confused mass of low hillocks
covered with loose sand, or across the low swampy hollows between
them, and the country had every where a most barren and desolate
appearance, there not being a tree or a bush to be seen. About five
miles from Soonmemy we arrived at a ridge of sand hills, about 150
feet high, from the stmmit of which the Poorally river was visible to
the W. N. W., with an extensive tract of thick mangrove jungle
stretching along the left bank ; at this place we halted for a short time
1839. | Account of a Journey to Beylah. 185
until the chiefs who were to accompany us made their appearance,
and then continued our journey across a low flat plain, covered with
saline bushes. About an hour after sunset having reached a spot where
the land was higher, and water procurable, halted for the night.
In the course of the evening many travellers had collected at this spot,
and by the time we arrived forty or fifty had encamped about the
wells, which are merely small holes dug at the foot of a high bank,
yielding a scanty supply of brackish water. There was a Syud
amongst them, a noted story-teller, who continued to entertain a large
audience with his tales until the night was far advanced, and as he
possessed a deep and melodious voice, the effect of the kind of recitative
style in which they were chaunted was extremelypleasing.
On the following morning started for Layaree, a small town six
miles distant, which we reached early in the afternoon. The level
plain between the sand hills and Layaree is scored throughout with
marks made by the passage of water, and overrun with saline bushes,
intermixed here and there with patches of stunted tamarisk trees. Our
attendants told us that the Poorally flows through this plain during
the inundation, and pointed out the beds of two deep water courses
through which the water escapes in the latter part of the season. The
river, they said, had no decided bed from Layaree, where there is
a bund thrown across it, to its mouth, a distance of about twelve
miles, but discharges itself into the bay and harbour of Soonmemy
by several outlets, through the low grounds near the sea coast.
Layaree is a small town, containing about fifty mud built houses,
prettily situated in a grove of large baubool trees; there is a large
tank near it filled by a canal from the river, and half a mile to
the N. E. is seen the small village of Charro, which is the residence of
the darogah, or collector of taxes. At least a third of the population
is composed of African slaves, who perform all the out-door labor.
In my walks about the place I met several who complained bitterly
of the treatment they received, and earnestly begged me to receive
them on board the vessel, for they had determined to escape from their
masters on the first opportunity. In the immediate vicinity of the
town the country is open, and the ground laid out in fields, in which
wheat, jowaree, cotton, and oil seed are cultivated. Farther off the
Jand is overrun with high thick jungle, but in the small open spaces
that occur here and there, is covered with grass, which although of a
coarse kind, affords excellent pasturage for the flocks and herds.
Shortly after our arrival at Layaree, and before the baggage camels
had come up, word was brought that a chief had just arrived from
Beylah with Teernthdass, the Jam’s dewan, and wished to see me.
As soon as a place had been prepared to receive them, by spreading
186 Account of a Journey to Beylah. | Marcu,
mats and carpets under the shade of a large tree, he came attended
by a few armed followers, and delivered a complimentary message from
the Jam, expressing his satisfaction at my visit. The chief was a
little old man, with a strongly marked Arab countenance.
In the course of the conversation that ensued, I found they wanted
me to remain at Layaree until they received further instructions from
Beylah respecting my journey; but as this would have delayed me
many days, I told them decidedly I should take it ill, if any objec-
tions were made to my proceeding immediately, and that on the fol-
lowing morning I should either continue my journey, or return to the
ship. This seemed to puzzle them extremely, and they at last begged
I would stop only one day, when they would be ready to accompany
me, to which Iagreed. In the course of the evening one of their atten-
dants brought a quantity of rice flour, ghee, &c. for the use of the party.
13th. On sending to the chief to tell him I was ready to proceed, he
said he should be detained a short time at Layaree to settle a dispute
that had occurred there, and would join me at the next stage. At 10
started. For about three miles passed through cultivated grounds in
which nothing but the oil seed plant was apparent, and then turning to
the N. E. pursued a track leading along the bank of a deep dry nullah,
running through thick tamarisk jungle: it extended several miles, and
the trees were every where leafless and withered, with the exception of
the small patches of undergrowth springing from their roots. As soon
as we had got clear of the jungle we came upon an extensive tract of
cultivated ground, watered by canals from the river, and dotted here
and there with huts; at this place, where we halted for half an hour,
the soil being good yields abundant crops of oil seed and cotton, and
game is plentiful.
On resuming our journey, crossed a level plain thinly overspread
with withered saline bushes, and extending as far as the eye could
reach, apparently to the foot of the mountains on either side. We tra-
versed it for a distance of eight miles, and after passing through an
open jungle of tamarisk and mimosa trees, about five miles beyond it
reached the Poorally river, and halted for the night. The distance
from Layaree to this place is about eighteen miles. Here the Poorally
is about 400 yards broad, and flows from east to west, which is a
proof that we must have crossed its course before we arrived at Layaree,
as our attendants asserted ; the banks on both sides rise perpendicular-
ly to a height of fourteen or fifteen feet, and a stream of water twenty
yards broad and two feet deep pursues a winding course through the
centre of its bed.
The morning of the fourteenth was extremely cold, the thermo-
meter having fallen to 35° at day light. During the night the camels
1639. ] Account of a Journey to Beylah. 187
had strayed some distance into the jungle, and the drivers being un-
willing to go after them in the cold, became sulky and intractable when
ordered to do so. This brought on a quarrel between them and one of
the chiefs who attended us, which did not terminate until he drew his
sword, and threatened to slay them on the spot if they did not imme-
diately bring them in; frightened at his meances, they departed in
haste to look for their beasts, but so much time elapsed before they
could be found, that we were not ready to start until near noon.
Having proceeded four or five miles across a level plain, thickly
covered with low salt bushes, we came again upon the river, which at
this place is joined by the Rahto, a stream of some magnitude, flowing
from the mountains to the eastward ; at the point of junction the bed of
the Poorally is nearly a mile wide, and when full must form a fine
sheet of water. The greater part of it is overrun with jungle, and the
water meanders through it in two streams, about fifteen yards wide
and as many inches deep. The soil is covered in many places with
a thin saline incrustation, which from the taste appears to be natron.
Two alligators were lying asleep on the bank a short distance from the
place where we crossed.
On the opposite side of the river we met a fine-looking young man,
mounted on a camel and attended by a few soldiers, who civilly stop-
ped to salute us. He was a son of Arab Oosmanany, the chief of the
Arab Gudoor tribe, and when he had been told that we did not under-
stand the language, endeavoured to find out from the interpreter
the object of my visit to Lus.
Late in the afternoon we reached Oot, two small villages about five
miles from Beylah. During this day’s journey the road gradually inclin-
ed toward the western range of mountains, and we had passed through
a level country, alternately overrun with saline bushes or thick jungle.
We were now not far from the head of the valley, which is encircled
by high mountains, and numerous thin columns of sand were visible
in every direction, caused by the eddying currents of wind sweeping
out of their recesses. They moved over the plain with great rapidity,
and whenever one came near us, I could hear the chief who guided
my camel mutter to himself; ‘“ Pass away from the road good demon,
and do us no harm ; I am only going to Beylah with the English gen-
tlemen who have brought presents for the Jam.” Amused with this
odd request, I asked him the meaning of it, when he told me with
great gravity that we were now in the territory belonging to the an-
cient city Shuhr Roghun, once the favorite residence of the fairy Bad-
dul Jamaut, and that these columns were demons who had since taken
possession of it, to whom it was necessary to speak sweetly to prevent
them from playing us any tricks.
ss Account of a Journey to Beylah. — [Marcu,
Oot consists of two small villages belonging to Arab Oosmanany,
the chief of the Arab Gudoor tribe, one containing about 50 and the
other 25 houses. The baggage not having come up, the carpets were
spread under the shade of a large tree, and we were quickly surrounded
by the whole population, to whom our dress and appearance seemed to
afford considerable amusement. Arab Oosmanany, the chief, was at the
village waiting to conduct us to Beylah; and being informed of our
arrival came to pay us a visit, the whole of the villagers having been
previously summoned to compose his retinue. In the course of conver-
sation, I told him that amongst the presents there was one for him,
which he begged might be delivered in the presence of the Jam. In
the evening he sent us a sheep, with a quantity of flour, rice, ghee, &c.,
and requested we would let him know if we wanted any thing else.
At noon next day the Kossid who had been dispatched to Beylah
the night before, to announce our approach, having returned, we left
Oot accompanied by Arab Oosmanany and a small party of military
followers. For the whole distance the road passed through a succes-
sion of cultivated ground, interspersed with small thickets composed of
a high bushy tree which appears something like the willow. As we left
Oot we met ten or twelve hideous looking beings dressed as women, and
mounted on donkeys, who saluted us as they passed ; from their pecu-
liarly disgusting appearance and bold manners, I was induced to |
inquire of my companion who they were: he laughed, and said they —
were eunuchs. Descending by a deep irregular water course into the dry
bed of a river flowing from the N. E. and about 700 yards broad, we _
crossed it and entered Beylah. Onapproaching the town the housetops |
were seen literally covered, and the streets thronged with people: as
we entered it the crowd set up a wild shout, shrieking and hallooing
with all their might, and created such a dust that I was almost suf-
focated. The ladies also favoured us with a shrill scream, but whether
of welcome, admiration, or disgust, I could not exactly make out. The
young Jam, we were told, was amongst the spectators. Arab Oosma-
nany turned off to the palace to report our arrival, and we were con-
ducted to a house which had been prepared for our reception ; it was a
most wretched dwelling, but with the exception of the palace, as good
as any other in the town. The people crowded into the outer room
without ceremony, and although the Jam had sent six soldiers to keep
them out, they found it impossible to do so, and I was at last obliged to
turn every one out myself and fasten the door: whenever it was opened
a general rush was made, and some hard fighting took place between
the guard and the mob before the latter could be driven back. Some
of the principal inhabitants confiding in their rank, rudely walked into
1839. ] Account of a Journey to Beylah. 189
the inner apartment where we were sitting, but they were soon made
sensible of their mistake by being immediately turned out of the
house, and told that whoever wished to see us, must first ask and
obtain permission.
About two hours after our arrival one of the chiefs brought a com-
plimentary message from the Jam, but the real object of his visit it
appeared was to ascertain precisely my rank, which having done, he
departed ; shortly after Arab Oosmanany came alone, and informed
me that the Jam would give me a public audience next day.
Late in the afternoon a chief came to conduct us to the house where
the Jam was waiting to receive us, but no horses having been sent I
requested him to go back and get three, which in a few minutes made
their appearance. Preceded by the presents, and attended by a party
_of soldiers, we proceeded through the town, and after having passed
with some difficulty through several narrow streets, filled with a
crowd of people, shouting as if they were mad, alighted at the door
of the Kutchery, which, from the dense mass collected round it, was
hardly approachable ; on entering the court-yard we were received by
one of the chiefs, who taking me by the hand led me towards a
eovered veranda, or room open in front, where the Jam was seated in
state ; although the hall of audience was merely a rude mud building,
without ornament or furniture of any kind, the coup d’ el was rather
imposing, the group drawn up inside being arranged so as to produce
the best possible effect. In the centre sat the young chief, on a square
platform raised about a foot high, and covered with a carpet and
cushions of silk richly embroidered. His relations and chiefs were
disposed on either side according to their rank, Ularacky, his chief
confidential adviser being seated on his right hand a little in advance,
and his tutor, the Hadgi Hafiz, on his left, and the back ground was
filled up by a body of well dressed, fine looking military retainers. My
conductor having led me up to the musnud, the Jam desired me to
sit down on a carpet laid in front of it, and the usual complimentary
speeches and inquiries were made by the minister Ularacky, who
conducted the whole business. During the time the interview lasted,
the young chief, who I imagine had been well tutored for the occasion,
sat without uttering a word, with a vacant incurious expression of
countenance which was no doubt assumed. He is a handsome lad, of
thirteen or fourteen years of age, with fine expressive eyes, rather fair
complexion, and a profusion of long jet black ringlets falling on each
side his face. At present his countenance is rather feminine, and
when we saw him in his state robes, which from their peculiar fashion
aided the resemblance, he appeared more like a young Indian queen
190 Account of a Journey to Beylah. [Marcu,
than the chief of a wild tribe of Noomrees. He wore an under dress
of crimson and gold kincaub, with trowsers of striped silk, and over
this a mantle of pale blue satin richly embroidered with gold and
silver thread, colored silk, &c., in the pattern peculiar to the Cashmere
shawls. His turban formed of splendid kincaub was extremely large,
and adorned with a feather of open gold work, set with emeralds,
sapphires, rubies, &c. and another ornament richly set with jewels,
similar to what I believe is called in Europe a sevigni, from which
hung several strings of large pearls. A gold-hilted sword, with a
shield ornamented with chased gold knobs lay before him, and com-
pleted his equipment. ‘After the presents had been exhibited, which
appeared to excite the admiration of all present, I took leave, and
attended as before by a party of soldiers, amongst whom I distributed
a few rupees, as is customary on these occasions, returned to the house.
During the week I remained at Beylah I had several long conversa-
tions with Ularacky, the Jam’s minister. Ularacky is the second chief of
the Jamootry, the particular tribe to which the Jam belongs, and
has been chosen by the Jam’s mother in consequence to conduct
the government of the province under her superintendence ; he is
a fine intelligent old man, without any of the prejudices against
Europeans which generally exist in the minds of those natives of
India who have had no intercourse with them; but being surrounded
by chiefs belonging to the other tribes, who are jealous of his influence
with the reigning family, he is obliged to act with the greatest caution.
Beylah contains about 800 houses constructed of sticks and mud,
and between four and five thousand inhabitants ; it covers a small piece
of elevated ground rising above the banks of a river of some size,
flowing from the N. E. which joins the Poorally about a mile farther
to the westward, and with the exception of the N. E. quarter, which
is surrounded by a ruinous mud wall, is entirely undefended. The —
palace of the Jam is within the walls, and is the only brick building in
the place. About Beylah a large portion of the land is under cultivation ;
and the face of the country presents a pleasing succession of grassy
plains and small woods, which with the advantage of being placed
nearly at the junction of two rivers, and at an equal distance from the
mountains on either side, renders it the best spot in the province that
could have been selected for the site of the capital. The Poorally passes
about a mile to the westward of it, and spreading over a large extent
of surface forms several swamps, which are fed by numerous springs ;
in some of them rice is cultivated, and the ground about their banks
is every where much broken by deep gullies worn by the water
flowing into them in the rainy season.
1839.] Account of a Journey to Beylah. 191
Ularacky having communicated to me the decision of the durbar
respecting the survey of Soonmemy, and finding the Jam’s answer to
the Government letter would not be ready for two days, I determined
to employ the interval in visiting Shuhr Roghan, an ancient excavated
city, situated amongst the mountains to the northward ; on stating my
wish to Ularacky, he at last obtained the requisite permission from the
Jam’s mother ; who as a compliment, sent one of her confidential at-
tendants with her son’s state-matchlock to accompany me.
Beyond the town the road for some distance wound through a thick
wood occupying the bed of a deserted river ; here and there it opened
out into small but picturesque glades, but in general the underwood
was so dense, that we had some difficulty in making our way through
it: the bushes were full of birds, amongst which I noticed several
parrots, and a very pretty little bird with green and golden plumage:
it was decidedly the most beautiful spot I had seen in the pro-
vince. On ascending from the bed of the river we came upon an open
plain thickly covered with large rounded stones, and cut up in every
direction by deep water courses, and about four miles from the town
crossed the dry bed of a river about 500 yards wide; a short distance
beyond it is situated the small. village of Momadary surrounded by
fields, and to the eastward a grove of lofty trees was visible, where my
attendants said the Jam had a large garden. From Momadary to the
head of the valley the stony plain is thinly dotted with bushes, and
every where deeply furrowed by channels; this part of the valley rises
slightly to the foot of the hills, and from its appearance, must have
water flowing over its surface in the rainy season, towards the Poorally,
from one range of mountains to the other.
About nine miles to the northward of Beylah, a range of low hills
sweeps in a semicircle from one side of the valley to the other, and
forms its head. The Poorally river issues from a deep ravine on the
western side, and is about 200 yards broad ; it is bounded on one side
by steep cliffs, forty or fifty feet high, on the summit of which there is
an ancient burying ground, and the water runs bubbling along it in
two or three small rivulets, amongst heaps of stones and patches of
tamarisk jungle. Having crossed the stream we pursued our way up its
bed amongst the bushes, until we gained the narrow ravine through
which it flows, and then turning into one of the lateral branches
entered Shuhr Roghan. The scene was singular ; on either side of a
wild broken ravine the rocks rise perpendicularly to the height of four
or five hundred feet, and are excavated as far as can be seen ; in some
places where there is footing to ascend, up to the summit; these ex-
cavations are most numerous along the lower part of the hills, and
CC
192 Account of a Journey to Beylah. [ Marcu,
form distinct houses, most of which are uninjured by time; they con-
sist in general of a room fifteen feet square, forming a kind of open
veranda, with an interior chamber of the same dimensions, to which
you gain admittance by a door; there are niches for lamps in many,
and a place built up and covered in, apparently intended to hold
grain. Most of them had once been plastered with clay, and in
a few, when the form of the rock allowed of its being done, the
interior apartment is lighted by small windows. The houses at
the summit of the cliffs are now inaccessible, from the narrow pre-
cipitous paths by which they were approached having been worn
away; and those at the base appear to have been occupied by the
poorer class of inhabitants, for many of them are merely irregular
shaped holes, with a rudely constructed door. The rock in which these
excavations have been made, is what I believe is called by geologists —
Conglomerate, being composed of a mass of rounded stones of almost
every variety of rock, embedded in hard clay ; it contains a large quan-
tity of salt (1 think natron), which is seen in a thin film on the walls
of all the chambers, and at two or three spots in the upper part of the
ravine, where water drops from the overhanging crags.
It would be singular if such a place as Shuhr Roghan existed |
amongst a people so superstitious as the Noomrees without a legend of
some kind being attached to it, and they accordingly relate the follow- |
ing story: In the reign of Solomon the excavated city was governed
by a king celebrated all over the East for his wisdom, and the great
beauty of his only daughter Buddul Tumaul ; she was beloved by —
seven young men, who from the great friendship existing among —
them, were called by way of distinction “ the seven friends,” but they —
perished one after the other in defending the object of their adoration
from the designs of half a dozen demons, who, attracted by her surpass-
ing beauty, made repeated attempts to carry her off. At this interesting
period of her history Syful Mullik, son of the king of Egypt, arrived at
Shuhr Roghan, who being the handsomest man of his time, and —
as brave as he was handsome, had been dispatched by his father on
his travels, in the hope that by the way he might conquer a few king-
doms for himself. The princess, as a matter of course, fell in love
with him; the demon lovers were in despair, and made a desperate
effort to carry her off when at her devotions, but were all slain
in the attempt by the prince. The father of the fair princess
rewarded him for his gallantry with the hand of his daughter, and the
happy couple lived to reign for many years in peace and security over
the excavated city. Such was the tale related to me by my attend-
ants, which forms the groundwork of a story written in the Persian
1889. | Account of a Journey to Beylah. 193
language, entitled, “The Adventures of Syful Mullik with the Fairy
Buddul Tumaul.” I obtained a copy of the work at Kurachee.
A short distance above the entrance of the city, the broken precipi-
tous ravine in which it is situated decreases in width to ten or twelve
yards, and forms a deep natural channel in the rock. For about half a
mile the cliffs are excavated on both sides to a considerable height, and
taking the remains of houses into account, I think there cannot be less
altogether than 1500. In one place a row of seven, in very good preserva-
tion, was pointed out by theguides as the residence of “the seven friends,”
and further on we came to the grandest of all, the palace of Buddul
Tumaul. At this part, the hill, by the abrupt turning of the ravine, juts
out in a narrow point, and towards the extremity forms a natural wall
of rock about 300 feet high, and twenty feet thick ; half way up it had
been cut through, and a chamber constructed, about twenty feet
square, with the two opposite sides open; it is entered by a passage
leading through a mass of rock partly overhanging the ravine, and on
the other side of the apartment two doors give admittance to two
spacious rooms ; the whole had once been plastered over, and from its
situation must have formed a safe, commodious retreat. At the summit
of the hill near it there is another building, which my attendants said
was the mosque where the princess was rescued by Syfal Mullik, when
the demons attempted to carry her off. Having seen every thing
worthy of notice in this troglodytic city, we quitted it, and returned to
Beylah.
On the 21st the letter and presents for Government having been
delivered to me by Ularacky, I left Beylah late in the afternoon,
and on the evening of the 24th arrived at Soonmemy. On the road we
met a party of fakeers proceeding to Hinglaj: they presented a
most grotesque appearance, their faces besmeared with paint, and their
ragged garments decorated with tufts of feathers, and a variety of
irregular ornaments. Their agwa, or chief, who was a portly, well-
dressed personage, marched at their head, and carried a Jong white
wand as the badge of his office. These poor wretches had collected
from all parts of India, and as we approached them they set up
a loud shout, exclaiming ‘‘ Hurrah for the holy saint of Hinglaj—we
are going to visit our good grandmother—praises to Kalee, the holy
goddess! hurrah, hurrah.”
Hinglaj, the shrine to which they were proceeding, is situated
about a day’s journey from the sea-coast, at the extremity of the
range of mountains dividing Lus from Mukran, and is said to be
of great antiquity. The temple is merely a small building erected on
one of the mountain peaks, and is held in great veneration by ‘both
194 Account of a Journey to Beylah. | Maren,
Hindoos and Mussulmen. It is dedicated to Kalee, the goddess
of fate, and there is a large circular tank or well near it, which
the natives say has been sounded to a very great depth, without
bottom having been obtained’; they relate that one of the priests
employed himself for a whole year in twisting a rope for the purpose,
but it was not long enough. Those who can swim, jump into the tank
from an overhanging rock, and proceed through a subterranean
passage to another part of the mountain, which is believed to purify
them from their sins. There is also a species of divination practised
by throwing a cocoanut forcibly into the water, and aceording as the
bubbles rise in a larger or less quantity, the individual will be happy
or miserable. This account of the place, which is celebrated all
over India, was furnished by people who had been there several
times.
Memoir on the Province of Lus.
The small province of Lus is about 100 miles long by 80 broad, and
.is bounded to the south by the sea, to the north by the Jahlawan
hills, and to the east and west by ranges of high mountains, which
descend from the great mass occupying Beloochistan, and separate it
from Sinde.and Mukran. Besides these, which terminate on the sea-
coast (one at Rus Mooaree, and the other 100 miles further to the
westward, near Rus Arubah) there is another spur sent off from the
Jahlawan hills, ealled Jebbal Hahro, which runs down the centre of
the province nearly to the coast, and divides it into two unequal por- —
tions. These three ranges are all of the same formation, principally
coarse sandstone, and of the same average altitude, each being about
3000 feet high.
The climate of Lus is subject to considerable variation ; in the winter
season it is delightful, the atmosphere being clear, dry, and cool, but in
the summer months it is as disagreeable from the excessive heat. During -
my journey to Beylah, in the month of January, the thermometer
stood at 35° for three mornings running, and it did-not rise higher
than 67° even in the hottest part of the day. Situated just without
the limits of the south west monsoon, and nearly encircled by high
mountains, which not only reflect the sun’s rays, but exclude the wind,
the heat in the summer season is intense ; and although the atmosphere
is occasionally cooled by refreshing showers, it is severely felt by the
inhabitants. . |
The western division of the province, lying between the Hahro and |
Hinglaj mountains, is the smallest and least productive of the two. |
1839. ] Memoir on the Province of Lus. 195
The greater part is occupied by a mass of barren hills, with small
valleys between them ; and the remainder forms a level sandy district
near the sea, which in most places is barren and almost destitute of
inhabitants.
The eastern division of the province is watered by the Poorally and
its numerous tributaries, and the only productive part of it is the
valley or plain through which that river takes its course. From the
sea to the Jahlawan hills it measures about sixty-five miles in length,
and in width decreases gradually from thirty-five miles ; its breadth on
the coast as you approach its upper extremity, where it terminates in a
semicircle of hills, is eight or nine miles across. With the exception
of a belt of low broken hillocks on the sea coast, about eight miles
broad, the whole face of the valley is perfectly flat, and it is to this
circumstance the province owes its name of Lus, and which in the
language of the country signifies a level plain. On looking down it
from the upper extremity, where the ground rises slightly at the foot
of the hills, the horizon appears of a misty blue color, and is as level
and well defined as it is at sea: the only elevated spot I saw, was the
rising ground on which Beylah is built, and that is not more than ten
or twelve feet high. ‘There is a tradition amongst the natives, that at a
remote period the valley was an inlet of the sea, and from its extreme
flatness, alluvial formation, and small elevation above the level of the
ocean, there is reason for believing it was once the case.
The soil is every where alluvial, and is composed of a light loose
elay mixed in a greater or less proportion with fine sand; in some
places it preserves a hard smooth surface, and contains a portion of
saline ingredients, but in others crumbles into fine dust, which is blown
in clouds by the lightest breeze, and renders travelling very disagreeable;
it is also in many parts encumbered with large rounded stones, and at
the head of the valley above Beylah, where there are numerous streams
and water courses, they are so thickly strewed over the surface, that
the whole plain, from one range of hills to the other, appears like the
bed of a large river. Near the coast there is scarcely a tree or a bush to
be seen, and the country has a most barren and desolate aspect. A
confused mass of undulating hillocks, 80 or 100 feet high, covered to
some depth with loose sand and thinly overrun with creeping plants,
extends about eight miles inland, and in the small hollows and plains
between them, which are so low as to become saturated at high tide by
the sea, the land produces nothing but saline shrubs or coarse reeds.
Beyond the sand hills the level plains commence, and small patches of
stunted tamarisk trees appear here and there ; but as you approach Lay-
aree they attain a greater height, and the jungle becomes dense.
196 Memoir on the Province of Lus. [ Marcu,
From that village to Beylah the face of the country every where pre-
sents the same appearance in its general features, and in the vicinity of
the different streams a large portion of the land is under cultivation ;
but beyond these spots it is either covered with saline bushes or thick
tamarisk jungle, and from the poverty of the soil would not yield
sufficient to repay the cultivator for his toil in clearing it. In some of
the jungles the baubool (s¢mmosa) is abundant, and in others the trees
are withered and leafless for miles, and there is no sign of vegetation,
save in the undergrowth beneath them. About and above Beylah the
tamarisk and baubool almost entirely disappear, and are succeeded by
a tree which from a short distance appears like a species of willow, and
is so high and bushy, that at those places where it abounds it forms
thick and extensive woods ; game is every where plentiful, but particu-
larly so on the eastern side of the valley ; herds of antelopes and
spotted deer are frequently seen in the open country, and the wild hog
is sometimes found in the thickets; the jungles are full of hares and
partridges, and the lakes and swamps swarm with water fowl of every
description. -
On the banks of the Poorally and its tributary streams a large
portion of the land is under cultivation ; and this is also the case along
the eastern side of the valley, where there are several small lakes left
by the waters of the inundation: at these spots the soil is a rich
mould, and yields abundant crops of wheat, jowaree, oil seed, cotton,
and esculent vegetables. In the dry season most of the fields are
irrigated by cuts from the rivers, but some depend entirely upon
the rains for a supply of water;—on the former a tax is levied of
one-third, and on the latter of one-fifth of the produce.
The principal river of Lus is the Poorally, which rises to the
northward amongst the Jahlawan mountains, and issues upon the
valley through a deep ravine about nine miles to the N. W. of Beylah ;
on leaving the hills it flows in several rivulets along a bed 300
yards wide, but near Beylah it increases to nearly a mile in breadth,
and the water spreading over a large extent of ground forms a succes-
sion of swamps; amongst these there are many small springs, and
part of the land is turned to account in the cultivation of rice. Above
Beylah the plain up to the foot of the hills is every where deeply
scored with the beds of rivulets and water courses, but they are
only filled during the inundation months, and then empty themselves
into the Poorally. The first tributary stream of any size flows
from the mountains to the N. E., and passing close along the elevated
ground on which the capital is built, joins the river below the
swamps ; opposite the town it is 700 yards broad, and when I crossed
1839. ] Memoir on the Province of Lus. 197
it in the month of January its bed was perfectly dry. From the
junction of this stream the river pursues a winding course to the
southward, and has an average breadth of 400 yards; at some
places however it is much wider, especially at the confluence of the
Khato, a large stream descending from the eastern range of mountains,
where it is nearly a mile across, and when full, must form a fine sheet
of water: here its bed is overrun with jungle, and the stream winds
through the centre in two small rivulets, 15 yards broad, and 15 inches
deep. The Khato is from three to five hundred yards broad, and
is only filled in the rains. Four miles to the N. E. of Layaree the
Poorally receives the water of the Hubbe, a river of some size flowing
from the eastward, and below the point of junction is confined by
a dam or bund, to retain its waters in the dry season for agricultural
purposes. From this spot to its mouth 7 has no bed; as the river
fills during the rains the bund is swept away, and the water escapes
through a level plain covered with bushes, about five miles broad,
which it inundates to a depth of two or three feet. This plain is
bounded by the sand hills on the coast, and extends in a winding
direction to the mouth of the river, which is situated at the head
of the harbour of Soonmemy, and only runs four or five miles into the
land. ‘The water also finds another outlet through a line of lakes and
swamps on the eastern side of the valley, where the ground is very
low, and reaches the sea at a large lagoon on the shores of the bay,
a few miles below the harbor. Serundo, the largest of the swamps, is
several miles in length and very irregular in shape ; its width in some
places exceeding a mile, and at others contracting to four or five
hundred yards. In the dry season, when it has a depth of four or five
feet, the water is salt and charged with vegetable matter from the
thick mangrove jungle growing along its banks, but during the
inundation it is perfectly fresh, and the swamp then assumes the
appearance of an extensive lake. Water fowl of all kinds resort to it
in incredible numbers, and alligators are almost equally abundant.
The water of the Poorally holds in solution a large quantity of sa-
line ingredients, and every stone in its bed that is at all exposed to the
influence of the sun ‘is covered with a thin incrustation. As far as
I could judge from the taste it is natron, and the flavor of the water is
searcely affected by it. In the swampy parts of the river near Beylah
alligators are numerous, and they are met with here and there
throughout its course.
In the whole province there are not more than ten or twelve towns
or villages, and the largest of these, Beylah, does not contain more
than 5,000 inhabitants; Soonmemy has not half that number, and
198 Memovrr on the Province of Lus. [ Marcu,
Ootul, a town situated on the eastern side of the valley, which ranks
next in importance, scarcely a fourth ; Layaree, Oot, Momadary, and
the others, are small villages of thirty or forty houses each, part built
of mud, and the rest of mats, and none have more than 150 or 200
inhabitants. The people generally are scattered over the face of the
country, and have no fixed habitations ; their huts are erected where-
ever there is pasturage for their cattle, and being constructed of stakes
and reed mats, are easily removed to other spots when the supply of
fodder is exhausted. Beylah, the capital, is built upon a rising ground,
on the north bank of a small river flowing from the mountains to the
north-east, which joins the Poorally about a mile to the westward of
the city. It contains about 800 houses built of mud, and a population of
about 5000 souls. The palace of the Jam is situated in the north-
east quarter, and this part of it is surrounded by a mud wall of no
great strength, which is the only defence of the place.
The productions of Lus, are grain, (chiefly wheat, and jowaree) oil
seed, a kind of gram called gogur, and cotton ; ghee is made in large
quantities, and sent to Kurachee or Soonmemy for exportation, and
the flocks furnish a small supply of wool:—cotton cloth, with the
coarse woollen dresses worn by the peasantry, and coarse carpets made
at Beylah, are the only articles manufactured in the country.
It is difficult to form an estimate of the amount of the population,
from the people being so much scattered over the face of the country,
but I do not think it exceeds 25,000 souls. It is composed principally
of Noomrees, descendants from the ancient Summa and Soonvia Raj-
poots, whose chiefs formerly ruled in Sinde, and who are divided into
seven tribes—the Jamootry, Arab Gudoor, Shooroo, Boorah, Shukh,
Warah, and Mungayah. The Arab Gudoor is said to be a branch
from the celebrated Arab tribe the Koreish, and to have settled in
Lus in the reign of the third caliph Omar. That the family of Arab
Oosmanany, the chief, is from an Arab stock is evident, for in him and
all his relatives the Arab form and features are strongly marked, but
the resemblance is not visible in the tribe generally, and it is no doubt
of Noomree origin. The Jokeeas, and Jukreeas, who are also Noom-
rees, and inhabit the mountainous country to the eastward, were also
formerly subject to the chief of Lus ; but when Kurachee was taken by
the Scindians they threw off their allegiance, and have ever since
acknowledged the authority of the Ameers. Besides Noomrees there are
also many Hindoos, and a large number of African slaves: the latter
perform all the work. The chiefs and a few of their military followers
are robust, and good looking men, but the Noomrees generally possess few
of those qualities, either physical or moral, which would entitle them to
1839. ] Memoir on the Province of Lus. 199
be considered a fine race. Amongst the lower orders mixture of the
different castes and tribes is observable, and a large number exhibit
marks in their features of their African descent. In appearance and
bodily strength the men are inferior to the inhabitants of most Asiatic
countries, and they are ignorant, indolent, and superstitious. The
women possess few personal charms even when young, and are remark-
able for their bold and licentious manners. The dress of both sexes is
much the same as it is in Sinde, and there is in fact a marked resem-
blance, both in character and appearance, between the people of the
two countries.
Jam Meer Mahomed, the chief of Lus, is about fourteen years of
age, and does not at present take any part in the government of the
province, which is conducted by Ularacky, the chief of the Jamootry,
under the direction of his mother. Jam Deenah, his cousin, is the only
male relative he has; he is about forty years of age, and much liked
by the people for the kindness and generosity of his disposition. The
Jam’s sister was married some years ago to Meer Sobdar, one of the
Sinde Ameers, and it is settled that when he is of age he is to espouse
one of that prince’s sisters in return. He has also a half sister in the
harem of Meerab Khan, the Kelat prince, and another married to the
chief of the Jokeeas. The mother of these two girls resides at
Soonmemy and is in such a destitute condition that she has lately
been obliged to sell her clothes and jewels to obtain the necessaries
of life.
The Jam is not independent, but like all the Brahooey chiefs, holds
his dominions under the feudatory tenure of furnishing a certain
number of troops when required for the service of his lord paramount,
the sovereign of Kelat. The Jam’s father was formerly obliged to send
him a portion of the duties collected in his territories as a yearly
tribute, but after his marriage with one of the prince’s daughters, this
was no longer demanded. At present the Jafh is kept in complete sub-
jection, for his small state is every where exposed to the attacks of the
Brahooey tribes, who if commanded by the Kelat chief would quickly
overrun it ; and he would not in consequence dare to disobey any order
from that prince, or act in any business of importance without his
sanction. he number of troops he is expected to bring into the field
in time of war was fixed at 4500; but at present the whole military
foree of the province does not exceed 2700 men, which are furnished
by the different tribes in the following proportion :
pd
200 Memoir on the Province of Lus. [ Marcu, ©
Jamootry, .. @ Ae EPS Re a. 600
Arab Gudoor, - te ach oe Ma 600
Shooroo, .. be Lm a t., “od 200
Boorah. tf AF BS oth *: ch 300
Shukh, ap ae aif me YS: il. 100
Warah {0 ..: At ‘2 af iy Bis 100
Mungayah,. - ie ae ue se AS 300
Brahooeys,. . af A uh Lot Ae 500
Total, .. 2,700
Since the death of the Jam’s father, who expired about.eight years
ago, the revenues of the province have decreased considerably, and
do not now amount to more than 35,000 Rupees annually. They are
derived from a duty of three per cent. levied on all imports and ~
exports, and a bazar toll of one per cent. collected at the towns they
have to pass through on the road to Beylah. There isalso a land tax of
one-third the produce on al] grounds irrigated from the rivers, and one-
fifth on those which depend solely upon the rain for a supply of water.
Last year the revenue collected at the different towns was as follows:
At Soonmemy, .. i U0 Rupees, 12,000
At Layaree, Sif et ca it 2,000
At Ootul, us ty JOY, hod 3,000
At Beylah, 2 3s ae JOR 9,000
‘At Oomarah, as ais a aed 1,000
Land tax, 3, i ze te, 8,000
otal; en 35,000
Soonmemy is the principal sea-port of Lus, and for such a miserable —
looking place possesses considerable trade. The town generally called —
Meany by the natives is mean and dirty, and does not contain more —
than 500 houses ; they fre built of sticks and mud, and have a small
turret rising above the roof open to the sea breeze, without which they
would scarcely be habitable in the summer months, on account of the
excessive heat ; formerly the town was surrounded by a mud wall,
but as no pains were taken to keep it in repair it gradually fell to
decay, and now scarcely a vestige of it remains. It contains a popu-
lation of about 2,000 souls, most of whom are employed in fishing, and |
are extremely poor, and there are besides a few Hindoos who have the
whole trade of the place in their hands. At Meany the water is ex-
tremely bad. I examined all the wells in the neighbourhood, and
caused others to be dug in the most promising spots, but it was so
brackish that it was not drinkable, and I was obliged to send to
aatiiie
1839.] Memoir on the Province of Lus. 201
Kurachee for a supply for the vessels. The harbour, which has been
formed by the Poorally river, is a large irregular inlet spreading out
like that at Kurachee in extensive swamps, and choked with shoals ;
the channel leading into it is extremely narrow, and has a depth of
sixteen or seventeen feet at high water in the shallowest part, but it
shifts its position every year, and vessels of any size could not navigate
it without great difficulty, until it had been buoyed off inside. There is
six or seven and even ten fathoms in some places, but towards the town
the channels become shallow, and the trading boats cannot approach
it nearer than a mile ; at the spot where they anchor they are always
aground at low water. During the south-west monsoon the harbour
cannot be entered, for the bar at the entrance is exposed to the whole
force of the swell, and the breakers on it are heavy. ‘There is another
small sea-port belonging to Lus, situated on the western side of the
Hinglaj mountains, at Ras Ambah, it is called Ournarah, and is the
place to which the productions of the western division of the province
are sent for exportation.
The total value of the trade of Lus does not exceed five lacs of
rupees; the imports are—from Bombay, cloths, silks, iron, tin, steel,
copper, pepper, sugar, and spices; the Persian Gulf, dates and slaves; and
from Sinde, a small quantity of coarse cotton cloth. The greater part
of the articles brought from Bombay are sent to Kelat, for although
highly prized in Lus the people are too poor to purchase them, and
they receive in return wool, of which 800 candys arrived in the
course of last year, and different kinds of dried fruits. The exports,
are—prain (principally wheat and jowaree) ghee, wool, oil seed, and a
quantity of gum; a duty of three per cent. is levied on all imports
and exports, which may be paid either at Soonmemy or Beylah, and
a bazar toll of one per cent. at Layaree and Ootul, two towns on the
road.
Most of the articles imported from Bombay are sent to Kelat, and
from that city distributed throughout Beloochistan ; the quantity is
very small for the supply of such an extensive kingdom, and is not
likely to become greater until the Kelat prince takes measures
to prevent the caravans from being plundered in their route from
Beylah to his capital. The intermediate districts are inhabited by
various Brahooey tribes, such as the Mingulls, Bezinyas, &c. and to
each of the chiefs, the merchant has to pay from one to four rupees
for the camel load, as may be determined at the time; their followers
also frequently pillage the caravans. Meerab Khan, the Kelat prince,
has no doubt the power to repress these outrages, and he would certainly
interfere to prevent them, if the advantages that would accrue to
202 Account of a Journey to Beylah. [ Marcu,
himself from the increase of the trade, were pointed out in a favorable
manner. All the merchants of Lus are of opinion, that the commerce
would be considerably enlarged if security were afforded to the trader,
and of this there can be little doubt, for cloth and other articles of
European manufacture are in great request throughout Beloochistan,
and the supply is not at present adequate to the demand.
Formerly the commerce of Lus was much more valuable than it is
at present, and a large portion was sent by the Kelat route to the
northern provinces of Hindoostan ; within the last forty years it has
from various causes gradually declined. In 1808 Soonmemy was
taken, and plundered by the Joasmy pirates, and for some years the
merchants were afraid to send goods there ; the port was just beginning
to recover from this blow, when the Ameers of Sinde issued stigct
orders to the merchants of Kurachee to discontinue their practice of —
importing goods to any of the ports of Lus under the severest penalties,
and this measure, which at once took away half the trade of the
place, completed what the pirates had begun. In the meantime the
trade with the northern provinces had ceased entirely, for they had
become so unsettled that the Patan merchants, who are the great carriers
in that part of the world, ceased to come to Kelat for goods, and as
they afterwards found the route from Upper Sinde much the safest, —
they resorted to it in preference, and have since obtained the small —
supply of goods they require from the merchants of that kingdom. —
Before the trade of Lus had suffered from the causes above mentioned,
its value is said to have been five times greater than it is at present,
and it was also much more lucrative to the merchant, for at that :
period goods of European manufacture sold for double the price that is —
now obtained for them.
~ lows
T. G. CARLOSS, .
Ist February, 1838. : Lieutenant, Indian Navy.
ArT. III.—On three new species of Musk (Moschus) inhabiting the —
Hemalayan districts.
To the Editor of the Journal, Asiatic Society.
Srr,—Several years ago I called the attention of Dr. Abel to some
remarkable, and apparently permanent distinctions of colour character- |
ising the Musks, or Musk Deer of the Cis-and Trans-Hemalayan regi- |
ons. These I subsequently inserted in my amended catalogue of
Mammalia, under the specific names of Leucogaster, Chrysogaster, and
Saturatus, but without giving specific characters, owing to my conti- |
—
1839. ] On three new species of Musk. 203
nued inability to establish the species upon a more solid basis than that
of distinction of colour. The partial investigations which I have been
enabled to make, strongly favour, however, the supposition that the
superficial diagnostics are supported by others of more importance in the
form of the crania, and in the structure and position of the musk pod.
And, though I am still unable distinctly to expound these latter differ-
ences, I think it may stimulate curiosity to indicate summarily the
three presumed species as marked by their diversities of colour, in the
hope that attention may be thence drawn to the structural peculiarities
which I believe to exist in the sculls, and in the musk bags.
Ist. Species, Moschus chrysogaster, nobis. Bright sepia brown
sprinkled with golden red ; orbitar region, lining, and base of ears,
whole body below, and insides of the limbs, rich golden red or orange ;
a black-brown patch on the buttocks posteally ; limbs below their
central flexures fulvescent.
2nd. Species, Leucogaster, nobis. Body above, and the limbs deep-
er brown sprinkled with fulvous: below the head, neck, and belly,
together with the insides of the ears, and the orbits, hoary white.
ard. Species, Saturatus, nobis. Throughout saturate dusky brown,
somewhat paler below: chin only, and lining of the ears pale and
hoary.
Drawings of the above animals were transmitted to London, through
the Society, in May 1836.
I am Sir, your obedient servant,
B. H. HODGSON.
Nepal, April 15, 1839.
Art. 1V.—On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch., a species which is
very common in the Estuaries of the Ganges. By J. McCLeLuanp,
Assistant Surgeon. ;
There are nine species of Polynemi, or Paradise fishes, enumerated
by authors, and although they are all pretty well described, I am not
aware of any more valuable property being known regarding them than
their excellence as an article of food, of which we have a familiar in-
stance at this season in the Pol. paradiseus, or Mango-fish, Tupsi Muchi
of the Bengalese.
Buchanan has five species in his work on Gangetic Fishes, but three
of these are small, and probably varieties only of the Zupsi; two of them
however, are of great size, and so common in the estuary of the Hoog-
ly that I have seen numerous hackeries, or bullock carts, conveying
them to the Calcutta bazar, during the cold season. They are not
204 On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch. [ Marcu,
confined to the estuary of the Hoogly, but probably extend to all the
estuaries of the Ganges, as Buchanan says they do; and we know that
.
oe ee Se,
Dr. Russell also describes two large species in his work, long since pub-
lished, on the fishes of the Madras Coast.
The very valuable production, Jsinglass, having been recently found
to be yielded by one of the fishes of the Hoogly by a writer in Par-
bury’s Oriental Herald, it became an interesting object to determine the
systematic name of the fish affording an article so valuable, and to learn
as much as possible regarding its habits. Having procured a specimen
of this fish from the bazar, I was surprised to find it to be a Polyne-
mus, or Paradise fish, although the writer alluded to described it as
resembling a Shark. My surprise was not that a person unacquainted
with fishes should compare it to a Shark, or to any thing else, but that
a nearly allied species to the Mango-fish should contain a natatory
vessel of such size and value, while that organ is quite absent in the
Mango-fish itself, though a general character of nearly all others.
I had come to the determination never to describe single or detached
species of fish, but as the object of this paper is to elucidate the com-
mercial side of a question already before the public, I shall not pretend
to offer any remarks on the scientific part of the subject, which is in-
deed beyond my province, as my observations have hitherto been con- ,
fined to the fresh water species of India. 4
The species affording the Isinglass is the Polynemus sele, Buch. ;
Sele, or Sulea, of the Bengalese, described, but not figured, in the Gan-
getic Fishes ; but if Buchanan’s drawings had not been placed under a —
bushel since 1815, probably this useful discovery would have been
sooner made, and better understood by the writerin Parbury’s Oriental —
Herald, to whom we are indebted for it.
The annexed figure from Buchanan’s unpublished collection at the
Botanic Garden, conveys an excellent representation, about half size, of
a specimen from which I obtained 66 grains of Isinglass: but as the
writer in Parbury’s Oriental Herald states that from half a pound to
three quarters of a pound is obtained from each fish, we may suppose”
either that P.sele attains a much greater size than 24 pounds, the
limit given to it by Buchanan, or, that the Isinglass is also afforded by e
far larger species, namely Polynemus teria, Buch. or Teria bhangan of the
Bengalese, Maga jellee of Russell, which Buchanan was informed some- :
times equals three hundred and twenty pounds avoirdupois, and which I
frequently have seen ef an uniform size, that must have been from fifty —
to an hundred pounds at least, loading whole cavaleades of hackeries at
once on their way to the Calcutta bazar, as I have already stated, during
the cold season, when they would consequently seem to be very common.
———— re
1839. ] On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch. 205
Although the sound, or natatory vessel is the part of the fish that
would afford the principal inducement to form fisheries, one of the
obligations that speculators should be obliged to enter into with the
Government is, to cure all parts of such fishes as might be taken for
their sound. Considering the scarcity of fish in many parts of India,
and the great, I may say unlimited demand for it in some parts of the
country even when badly preserved, as well as the excellence of the flesh
of all the Polynemi, the curing of these fishes might prove no less pro-
fitable to the parties themselves, than it would unquestionably be to the
country. I was happy to find the attention of the Royal Asiatic Society
directed to the subject of curing fishes in India by Dr. Cantor, (vide Pro-
ceedings, 21st April, 1838) but a something was then wanting to be known
in order to give a direct inducement to the undertaking.* I therefore
regard the discovery of the Ichthyocolla of commerce in one of the larger
Polynemi of India as a circumstance eminently calculated to direct at-
tention to a promising and almost unlooked for source of enterprise. We
first of all require to know whether more Polynemi than one afford it,
and to be fully acquainted with the habits and the methods already em-
ployed for taking such as do. Polynemus sele, Buch. is the species I exa-
mined and found to contain it ; but this species is supposed to be a variety
only of Polynemus lineatus, which is very common on all the shores to
the eastward; it therefore becomes a question of some importance to
determine whether P. fineatus yields the same valuable article, and if it
* Should Dr. Cantor still be in London, I would recommend those who
may be interested in the important question of Isinglass to consult him, as
no one is so competent to afford information regarding the fish by which that article
is yielded in India. He will, I am confident, on a re-examination of his notes
regarding the Polynemi, readily distinguish those with large sounds, and be able
to afford more valuable information regarding their habits, and the quantities in which
they are procurable, than could be expected from any one who had not devoted his
thoughts to the subject, during a survey of the place in which these fishes occur, I am
not sure that the species of Polynemus Dr. Cantor particularly refers to in his paper
as the Sailliah, or Saccolih, is not the very fish that affords Isinglass ; if so, it appears to
be considered by Dr. Cantor as a new species, and his notes will probably afford all that
it is essential to know regarding its habits. Thus, as Sir J. E. Smith somewhere obser-
ved, “the naturalist who describes a new species, however trifling it may seem, knows not
what benefit that species may yet confer on mankind.”
In an interesting account of Kurachee by Lieut. Carloss, read at the last anniver-
sary Meeting of the Bombay Geographical Society, cod sounds and shark’s fins are
mentioned among the exports from that place, and fishing is said to be carried on to a
considerable extent along the coast of Sinde.. As however the Cod, Morrhua
vulgaris, Cuy., is quite unknown in the Indian Seas, the species from which the
sounds alluded to by Lieut. Carloss are taken are no doubt Polynemi, the larger
species of which are sometimes called by the English, Rock-Cod. It will be curious to
learn if the Chinese have monopolised this trade on the coast of Sinde as well as
in the Hoogly,
206 On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch. (Marcu, |
be really common to the eastward; if so, it seems strange that the Chinese
should send for it to the Hoogly. Next, do the Pol. Hmoit and Pol.
plebeius, supposed by Buchanan to correspond with his See, contain the
same valuable substance ? and do either of Russell’s species, namely, the
Maga booshee and Maga jellee, (Indian Fishes, 183, 184,) yield it? These —
are questions easily determined along our coasts by merely opening such —
fish as correspond with the one here figured, and ascertaining whether
they contain an air vessel or not, and whether that vessel if present be —
large or small. Mergui, Batavia, Singapore, Tranquebar, Madras, and —
Bombay are points at which observations might be made. This question §
may be so easily ascertained, that it is hardly worth forming a conjecture —
about it; but if any of the species common to the coasts of the Eastern —
seas possessed so valuable a property, the chances are that it would —
have been long since discovered. It is therefore probable that the ¥
large gelatine sound will be found to be peculiar to Pol. sele, and per- |
haps Pol. teria,* Buch. both of which seem to resort chiefly to the |
Gangetic estuaries at certain seasons, particularly during the North- i
east monsoon, when it is easy to imagine that the shelter afforded in :
those estuaries at that season, might account for many peculiarities 5
which their ichthyology appears to present, compared with that of open
coasts. It is during the cold season that the two gigantic fishes above
mentioned appear to be caught in most abundance, a circumstance the |
more favourable to any improved operations that might be resorted)
to with a view to convert them to useful purposes. Whether both con-
tain.the same valuable substance, I am unable to say, having as yet)
only examined P. sele. .
Grn.—POLYNEMUS.
Two fins on the back, with long filaments attached to the sides in front”
of the pectoral fins. Opercula covered with scales ; preoperculum
serrated behind. Example. The common Mango-fish of Bengal.
YreLpinG IsmnGuass. : 4
P. Sele, Buch. Plate — r
Sele, or Sulea of the Bengalese. |
Five filaments, the first reaching from the front of the pectorals o
midway between those fins and the anal, the other filaments progres-
sively shorter ; no streaks on the sides, lateral line deflected on the lower |
lobe of the caudal fin. The fin rays are as follows ;—first dorsal seven, —
second dorsal fourteen, pectorals thirteen in each, ventrals each six, —
anal twelve or thirteen, caudal twenty (?) The teeth are very fine, con- |
tinuous below round the edes of the jaws, but interrupted at the |
* P, quadrifilis, Cuy. P. tetradoctylus, &c. and probably refer to the same,
TBlack Babel io Pres
1839. ] On Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch. 207
anterior part of the upper jaw, behind which a small detached group of
palatine teeth are placed on the vomer.
The liver consists of an elongated left lobe and a short right one, un-
der which the gall bladder is situated. The stomach is a short mus-
cular cul-de-sac, both orifices of which being placed at the anterior
extremity, from which numerous small cece are given off, the intestine
extends straight to the vent; in all these respects it corresponds
nearly with P. paradiseus. The air vessel, which is quite absent in
the latter, and on which the peculiar value of this species seems to
depend, is a large spindle-shaped organ about half the length of the
fish, thick in the middle and tapering toward the extremities, where it
ends in front by two, and behind by a single tendenous cord ; similar
small tendenous attachments, about twenty-two in number, connect it on
either side to the upper and lateral parts of the abdominal cavity.
This organ, which is called the sound, is to be removed, opened, and stript
of a thin vascular membrane which covers it both within and without,
washed perhaps with lime water and exposed to the sun, when it
will soon become dry and hard ; it may require some further preparation
to deprive it of its fishy smell, after which it may be drawn into shreds
for the purpose of rendering it the more easily soluble. The fish which I
examined weighed about two pounds and yielded about sixty-five grains
of Isinglass, not quite pure, but containing about 10 per cent. of
albumenous matter, owing perhaps to the individual from which it was
taken being young and out of season, and not above a tenth part of the
ordinary size of the species. But the solution after having been
strained appeared to be equal to that of the best Isinglass, which costs in
Calcutta from twelve to sixteen rupees a pound. As the subject thus
seemed to be of consequence, I gave a portion of the substance in
question to Dr. O‘Shaughnessy for its chemical examination.
a. Breadth of the back,
6. Scale magnified,
c. Scale from lateral line magnified,
x
*& d. Air vessel or sound natural size.
:
|
|
|
|
|
:
Caleutta, 3rd May, 1839.
Ee
208 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcu,
Arr. V.—Journal of the Mission which visited Bootan, in 1837-38,
under Captain R. Borteau PemBerton. By W. Grirritu, Esa.
Madras Medical Establishment.*
The Mission left Gowahatti on the 21st December, and proceeded a
few miles down the Burrumpootur to Ameengoung, where it halted.
On the following day it proceeded to Hayoo, a distance of thirteen
miles. ‘The road, for the most part, passed through extensive grassy
plains, diversified here and there with low rather barren hills, and
varied in many places by cultivation, especially of swrsoo. One river
was forded, and several villages passed.
Hayoo is a picturesque place, and one of considerable local note ;
it boasts of a large establishment of priests, with their usual companions, —
dancing girls, whose qualifications are celebrated throughout all”
Lower Assam. These rather paradoxical ministers are attached to
a temple, which is by the Booteas and Kampas considered very
sacred, and to which both these tribes, but especially the latter, resort
annually in large numbers. This pilgrimage, however, is more connect-
ed with trading than religion, for a fair is held at the same time.
Coarse woollen cloths and rock salt form the bulk of the loads which
each pilgrim carries, no doubt as much for the sake of profit as of
penance. The village is a large one, and situated close to some: low
hills ; it has the usual Bengal appearance the houses being sur-
rounded by trees, such as betel palms, peepul, banyan, and caoutchouc. —
To Nolbharee we found the distance to be nearly seventeen miles. The
country throughout the first part of the march was uncultivated, and —
entirely occupied by the usual coarse grasses; the remainder was one —
sheet of paddy cultivation, interrupted only by topes of bamboos, in |
which the villages are entirely concealed ; we found these very abun- |
dant, but small: betel palms continued very frequent, and each garden |
or enclosure was surrounded by a small species of screw pine, well |
adapted for making fences.
Four or five streams were crossed, of which two were not fordable: |
jheels were very abundant, and well stocked with water fowl and |
waders. At this place there is a small bungalow for the accommoda- |
tion of the civil officer during his annual visit ; it is situated close |
to a rather broad but shallow river. There is likewise a bund road. |
We proceedéd from this place to Dum-Dumma, which is on the |
Bootan boundary, and is distant ten miles from Nolbharee. We con- |
tinued through a very open country, but generally less cultivated than |
* Presented by the Government.
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-28. 208
that about Nolbharee; villages continued numerous as far as Dum-
Dumma. This is a small straggling place on the banks of a small
stream, the Noa Nuddee ; we were detained in it for several days, and
had the Booteas alone been consulted, we should never have left
it to enter Bootan in this direction. The place I found to be very
uninteresting. |
December 31st. We left for Hazareegoung, an Assamese village
within the Bootan boundary. .
We passed through a much less cultivated country, the face of which
was overrun with coarse grassy vegetation. No attempts appeared to
be made to keep the paths clean, and the farther we penetrated within
the boundary, the more marked were the effects of bad government.
We crossed a small and rapid stream, with a pebbly bed, the first
indication of approaching the Hills we had as yet met with. The
village is of small extent, and provided with a Nam-ghur in which we
were accommodated: it is situated on comparatively high ground,
the plain rising near it, and continuing to do so very gradually until
the base of the Hills is reached. There is scarcely any cultivation
about the place.
We left on January 2d for Ghoorgoung, a small village eight miles
from Hazareegoung ; similar high plains and grassy tracts, almost un-
varied by any cultivation, were crossed ; a short distance from the village
we crossed the Mutanga, a river of some size and great violence during
the rains, but in January reduced to a dry bouldery bed. There is no
cultivation about Ghoorgoung, which is close to the Hills, between
which and the village there is a gentle slope covered with fine sward.
We entered the:Hills on the 3d, and marched to Dewangari, a
distance of eight miles. On starting we proceeded to the Durunga
Nuddee, which makes its exit from the Hills about one mile to the
west of Ghoorgoung, and then entered the Hills by ascending its bed,
and we continued doing so for some time, until in fact we came to the
foot of the steep ascent that led us to Dewangari. The road was a
good deal obstructed by boulders, but the torrent contains at this season
very little water.
The mountains forming the sides of the ravine are very steep, in
many cases precipitous, but not of any great height. They are
generally well wooded, but never to such a degree as occurs on most
other portions of the mountainous barriers of Assam. At the height
of about 1000 feet we passed a choky, occupied by a few Booteas, and
this was the only sign of habitation that occurred.
We were lodged in a temporary hut of large size, some 200 fect
below the ridge on which Dewangari is situated ; our access to that
210 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcu,
place being prohibited, as the Booteas, although long before informed
of our approach and intentions, were not quite certain of our designs.
On the following day, after some fuss, we were allowed to ascend to
the village, in which a pucka house had been appropriated for our ac-
commodation. :
Dewangari, the temples of which are visible from the plains of
Assam, is situated on a ridge, elevated about 2100 feet above the
level of the sea, and 1950 above that of the plains. The village
extends some distance along the ridge, as well as a little way down
its northern face. The houses, which are in most cases mere huts,
amount to about 100; they are distributed in three or four scattered
groups ; amongst these a few pucka or stone-built houses of the ordinary
size and construction occur; the only decent one being that occupied
by the Soobah, who is of inferior rank.
Along the ridge three or four temples of the ordinary Boodhistical
form occur; they are surrounded with banners bearing inscriptions,
fixed longitudinally to bamboos. Attached to some of these temples
are monumental walls of poor construction, the faces of which bear slabs |
of slate, on which sacred sentences are well carved.*
The village abounds in filth. The centre of the ridge is kept as a
sort of arena for manly exercises; about this space there occur some
picturesque simool trees, and a few fig trees, among which is the
banyan. 4
There is no water course or spring near the village; the supply is |
brought from a considerable distance by aqueducts formed of the
hollowed-out trunks of small trees. In one place this aqueduct is
carried across a slip, but otherwise there is nothing tending to shew
that difficulties existed, or that much skill would have been exerted
had such really occurred.
During our long stay at this place we had many opportunities of
forming acquaintance with the Soobah, as well as with the immediate-
ly adjoining part of his district. We found this almost uncultivated,
and overran with jungle. No large paths were seen to point out that —
there are many villages near Dewangari; in fact the only two which |
bear marks of frequent communication, are that by which we ascended,
and one which runs eastward to a picturesque village about half a |
mile distant, and which also leads to the plains. |
The Soobah we found to be a gentlemanly unassuming man; he
received us in a very friendly manner and with some state; the room
* Both to the east and west of Dewangari there is a picturesque religious edifice,
with ornamented windows. Their effect is much heightened by the presence of the
weeping Cypress, which situated as it was here, gave me an idea of extreme beauty.
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 211
was decently ornamented, and set off in particular by some well
executed Chinese religious figures, the chief of which we were told
represented the Dhurma Rajah, whose presence even as a carved block
was supposed to give infallibility. We were besides regaled with
blasts of music. His house was the most picturesque one that I saw,
and had some resemblance, particularly at a distance, to the represen-
tations of some Swiss cottages. It was comparatively small, but as he
was of inferior rank, his house was of inferior size.
The Soobah soon returned our visit, and in all his actions evin-
ced friendship, and gentlemanly feeling ; and we soon had reason to
find that among his superiors at least we were not likely to meet
with his like again. His followers were not numerous, nor, with the
exception of one or two who had dresses of scarlet broad-cloth, were
they clothed better than ordinarily.
The population of the place must be considerabie; it was during
our stay much increased by the Kampa people, who were assembling
here prior to proceeding to Hazoo. Most of the inhabitants are pure
Booteas ; many of them were fine specimens of human build, certainly
the finest I saw in Bootan: they were, strange to say, in all cases
civil and obliging.
Cattle were tolerably abundant, and principally of that species
known in Assam by the name of Mcthans ; they were taken tolerable
eare of, and picketed in the village at night: some, and particularly
the bulls, were very fine, and very gentle. Ponies and mules were not
uncommon, but not of extraordinary merits. Pigs and fowls were
abundant.
The chief communication with the plains is carried on by their
Assamese subjects, who are almost entirely Kucharees: they bring
up rice and putrid dried fish, and return with bundles of manjistha.
On the 23rd, after taking a farewell of the Soobah, who gave us the
Dhurma’s blessing, and as usual decorated us with scarfs, we left
for Rydang, the halting house between Dewangari and Kegumpa,
and distant eight miles from the former place. We reached it late in
the evening, as we did not start until after noon. We first descended
to the Deo-Nuddee, which is 800 or 900 feet below the village, and
which runs at the bottom of the ravine, of which the Dewangari ridge
forms the southern side, and we continued ascending its bed, almost
entirely throughout the march.
The river is of moderate size, scarcely fordable however in the rains ;
it abounds with the fish known to the Assamese by the name of
Bookhar, and which are found throughout the mountain streams of
the boundaries of the province. They, like all others, are considered
212 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Mancn,
sacred, although after the first distrust had worn off, the Soobah did
not object to my fishing. We passed a Sam Gooroo* engaged in
building a wooden bridge ; he was the only instance I met with of a
Bootea priest making himself useful. He inquired of Capt. Pemberton,
with much condescension, of the welfare of the ‘ Goombhanee’ and his
lordship the Governor General.
24th. Left for Khegumpa. The march was almost entirely an
uninterrupted ascent, at least until we had reached 7000 feet, so that
the actual height ascended amounted nearly to 5000 feet. It com-
menced at first over sparingly wooded grassy hills, until an elevation
of about 4000 feet was attained, when the vegetation commenced to
change; rhododendrons, and some other plants of the same natural
family making their appearance. Having reached the elevation of
7000 feet by steep and rugged paths, we continued along ridges well
clothed with trees, literally covered with pendulous mosses and
lichens, the whole vegetation being extra tropical. At one time we
wound round a huge eminence, the bluff and bare head of which towered
several hundred feet above us, by a narrow rocky path or ledge over-
hanging deep precipices; and thence we proceeded nearly at the
same level along beautiful paths, through fine oak woods, until we
reached Khegumpa. The distance to which, although only eleven
miles, took us the whole day to perform.
This march was a beautiful, as well as an interesting one, owing
to the changes that occurred in the vegetation. It was likewise
so varied, that although at a most unfavourable season of the year, I
gathered no fewer than 130 species in flower or fruit. Rhododendrons
of other species than that previously mentioned, oaks, chesnuts, maples,
violets, primroses, &c., &c. occurred. We did not pass any villages, nor
did we meet with any signs of habitation, excepting a few pilgrims
proceeding to Hazoo.
Khegumpa itself is a small village on an exposed site; it does not
contain more than twelve houses, and the only large one, which as
usual belonged to a Sam Gooroo, appeared to be in a ruinous state.
The elevation is nearly 7000 feet. The whole place bore a wintery
aspect, the vegetation being entirely northern, and almost all the trees
having lost their leaves. The cold was considerable, although the ther-
mometer did not fall below 46°. The scarlet tree rhododendron was
common, and the first fir tree occurred in the form of a solitary spe-
cimen of Pinus excelsa. In the small gardens attached to some of the
* So are they called from their peculiar sanctity. Sam is a priest, and Gooroo also
a priest; each priest is therefore twice a priest.|
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton's Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 213
houses I remarked vestiges of the cultivation of tobacco and Probosa.*
In the vallies however surrounding this place there seemed to be a good
deal of cultivation, of what nature distance prevented me from ascer-
taining.
25th. Left for Sasee. We commenced by descending gradually
until we had passed through a forest of oaks, resembling much our well
known English oak; then the descent became steep, and continued
so for sometime ; we then commenced winding round spurs cloth-
ed with humid and sub-tropical vegetation; continuing at the
same elevation we subsequently came on dry open ridges, covered
with rhododendrons. The descent recommenced on our reaching a
small temple, about which the long leaved fir was, plentiful, and
continued without interruption until we reached a small torrent.
Crossing this, we again ascended slightly to descend to the Dimree
river, one of considerable size, but fordable. The ascent recom.
menced immediately, and continued uninterruptedly at first through
tropical vegetation, then through open rhododendron and fir woods,
until we came close upon Sasee, to which place we descended very
slightly. This march occupied us the whole day. After leaving the
neighbourhood of Khegumpa we saw no signs of cultivation; the
country, except in some places, was arid ; coarse grasses, long leaved
firs, and rhododendrons forming the predominating vegetation. We
halted at Sasee, which is a ruined village, until the 28th. The little
cultivation that exists about it is of barley, buckwheat, and hemp.
28th. We commenced our march by descending steeply and unin-
terruptedly to the bed of the Geeri, a small torrent, along which we
found the vegetation to be tropical ; ascending thence about 500 feet,
we descended again to the torrent, up the bed of which we proceeded
for perhaps a mile ; the ascent then again commenced, and continued
until we reached Bulphai. The path was generally narrow, running
over the flank of a mountain whose surface was much decomposed ;
it was of such a nature that a slip of any sort would in many places
have precipitated one several hundred feet. The face of the country
Was very barren, the trees consisting chiefly of firs and rhododen-
drons, both generally in a stunted state. We reached Bulphai late in
the evening ; and the latter part of the march was very uncomfortable
Owing to the cutting severity of the wind. The vegetation was not
interesting until we came on a level with Bulphai, when we came on
oaks and some other very northern plants. We were well accommodated
in this village, which is a very small one, situated in a somewhat
* Kleusine coracana.
214 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Manrcu,
sheltered place, and elevated to 6800 feet above the sea. The sur-
rounding mountains are very barren on their southern faces, while on
the northern, or sheltered side, very fine oak woods occur. The houses
were of a better order than those at Sasee, and altogether superior to
those of Khegumpa. They are covered in with split bamboos, which
are secured by rattans, a precaution rendered necessary by the great
violence of the winds, which at this season blow from the south or
south-east. Bulphai isa bitterly cold place in the winter, and there
is scarcely any mode of escaping from its searching winds. The vege-
tation is altogether northern, the woods consisting principally of a
picturesque oak, scarcely ever found under an elevation of 6000 feet.
There is one small patch of cultivation, thinly occupied by abortive
turnips or radishes, and miserable barley. It was at this place that
we first heard the very peculiar crow of true Bootan cocks, most of
which are afflicted with enormous corns. s
On the 3lst we resumed our journey, ascending at first a ridge
to the N. E. of Bulphai, until we reached a pagoda, the elevation
of which proved to be nearly 8000 feet; and still above this rose to
the height of about 10,000 feet a bold rounded summit, covered with
brown and low grass. Skirting this at about the same level as the
pagoda, we came on open downs, on which small. dells, tenanted
by well defined oak woods were scattered. After crossing these downs,
which were of inconsiderable extent, we commenced to descend, and
continued doing so until we came to Roongdoong. About a third of
the way down we passed a village containing about twenty houses,
with the usual appendage of Sam Gooroo’s residence ; and still lower
we came upon a picturesque temple, over which a beautiful weeping
cypress hung its branches. We likewise passed below this a large
temple raised on a square terraced basement. From this the descent
is very steep, until asmall stream is reached, from which we ascended
very slightly to the castle of Roongdoong, in the loftdest part of which we
took up our quarters. From the time that we descended after crossing
the downs, the country had rather an improved aspect, some cul-
tivation being visible here and there. We met a good many Kampas,
pilgrims, and one chowry tailed cow, laden with rock salt, which
appears to be the most frequent burden.
There was more cultivation about Roongdoong than any other place
we had yet seen, although even here it was scanty enough. It would
appear that they grow rice in the summer, and barley or wheat during
the winter ; and this would seem to be the case in all those places of
sufficient altitude where the fields were terraced. The elevation of
’ the place is 5175 feet, yet a few orange trees appeared to flourish ;
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. Q15
this was the highest elevation at which we saw these trees living.
There is a species of Atréplezg, the Mooreesa of the Assamese, likewise
cultivated about Roongdoong: the seeds are eaten as well as the
leaves, which form a sort of ¢urkaree. ‘The ingenuity of the Booteas
was well shewn here by the novel expedient of placing stones under
the ponies’ feet to enable them to get at the contents of the mangers !
The ponies appeared tolerably well fed, at least I saw them enjoy one
good meal, consisting of wild tares and the heads of Indian corn,
which had been previously soaked ; besides these luxuries, they were
supplied with a slab of rock as a rolling stone or scratch-back. Our
host, the Dhoompa, who is appointed by the Deb himself, was an im-
pudent drunken fellow, and presumed amazingly on*his low rank.
He was one of the most disagreeable and saucy persons we met with
in Bootan.
Feb. \st. Our mareh commenced by descending, gradually at
first and then very rapidly, to the Dumree Nuddee ; crossing this,
which is of small size, at the junction of another torrent, we wound
along the face of the mountain forming the right wall of the ravine,
ascending very gradually at the same time. We continued thus
until we came on the ravine of the Monass, which we followed
upwards, the path running about 1000 feet above its bed for about
two miles, when we reached Benka. We passed two or three small
villages on the right side of the Dumree, and a few others were
seen on its left. The country throughout was of a most barren ap-
pearance, the vegetation consisting of coarse grasses, stunted shrubs,
and an occasional long leaved pine. Benka, or as it is better known
Tassgong, is a small place situated on a precipitous spur, 1200 feet
below which, on one side, the Monass roars along, and on the other
a much smaller torrent. «From either side of the village one might
leap into eternity: it is elevated 3100 feet above the sea.
We were lodged in a summer house of the Soobah, about half
a mile up the torrent, and in which, as it was an open house,
and as they kept the best room locked up on the score of its being
sacred, we were much incommoded by the furious gusts of wind
sweeping as usual up the ravine.
The place itself is the Gibraltar of Bootan, consisting of a large
square residence for the Soobah, decorated in the usual manner,
of a few poor houses much crowded together, and the defences.
These consist of round towers of some height, and a wall which con-
nects the village with the tower; and on the opposite side of the
torrent there are other defences of towers and outhouses. All seemed
to be in a somewhat ruinous state.
eee
216 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcu,
A few days after our arrival we had an interview with the Soobah,
on the open spot in front of our residence. On this he had caused to
be pitched a small silken pavilion, about half the size of a sipahis’ paul.
He came in all possible state, with about thirty armed followers, pre-
ceded by his state band, which consisted of a shrill clarionet and a
guitar, (guiltless of sound) a gong and a bell, ponies, a Tartar’ dog,
gentlemen of the household, priests, all assisted in forming a long string
which advanced in single file.
He was polite and obliging, and maintained his rank better than
any other of the Soobahs we saw. After the interview, at the end of
which presents of decayed plantains, papers of salt, scarfs, and strips
of coarse blarfket were returned, we were treated with music and
dancing women, who only differed from their compeers of India in
being elderly, ugly, very dirty, and poorly dressed. The spectators
were then seated on the ground and regaled with rice and chong.
On his departure the noise far exceeded that attending on his
advent. Shrieks and outcries rent the air, the musketoons made
fearful report, and, in fact, every one of the followers, of sufficiently
low rank, made as much noise as he could. The most curious parts
of the ceremony were,—the manner in which they shuffled the Soobah
off and on his pony ; the mode in which the ponies’ tails were tied up; —
and the petition of the head of the priests for at least one rupee.
It was here that we first heard of the deposition of the old Deb,
and the consequent disturbances. ;
Feb. sth. Punctually on the day appointed by the Soobah ~
did we leave this place, and descended by a precipitous path to the
Monass, which we crossed by a suspension bridge, the best and largest,
I suspect, in Bootan. The bed of this river, which is of large size —
(the banks which are mostly precipitous being sixty or seventy yards
asunder) and of great violence is 1300 feet below Benka. We then
commenced ascending very gradually, following up the north side of
the ravine, until we reached Nulka: the march was a very short
one. The country was perhaps still more barren than any we had
hitherto seen, scarcely any vegetation but coarse grasses occurring.
Near Nulka the long leaved pine recommenced. We passed two
miserable villages scarcely exceeded by Nulka, in which we took up _
our abode. No cultivation was to be seen, with the exception of a
small field of rice below Nulka.
Feb. 6th. We descended to the Monass, above which Nulka is situ-
ated 6 or 700 feet, and continued along its right bank for a consider-
able time, passing here and there some very romantic spots, and one or
two very precipitous places. On reaching a large torrent, the Koollong,
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. oi]
we left the Monass, and ascended the former for a short distance,
when we crossed it by a wooden bridge. The remainder of the march
consisted of an uninterrupted ascent up a most barren mountain,
until we reached Kumna, a small and half-ruined village, 4300 feet
above the sea.
Little of interest occurred: we passed a small village consisting of
two or three houses ard a religious building, and two decent patches
of rice cultivation. The vegetation throughout was almost tropical,
with the exception of the long leaved fir, which descends frequently
as low as 1800 or 2000 feet. I observed two wretched bits of cotton
cultivation along the Monass, and some of an edible Ladbéata, one
of the numerous makeshifts ordinarily met with among Hill people.
Feb. 7th. Weft for Phullung. We ascended at first a few hundred
feet, and then continued winding along at a great height above the
Koollong torrent, whose course we followed, ascending gradually
at the same time, until we reached our halting place. As high as 5000
feet the Kumna mountain retained its very barren appearance ; at
that elevation stunted oaks and rhododendrons commenced, and at
5300 feet the country was well covered with these be and the
vegetation became entirely northern.
Throughout the march many detached houses were visible on the
opposite bank of the Koollong, and there appeared to be about them a
good deal of terrace cultivation. On the left side of the torrent two
villages were seen, both as usual in a ruinous state.
8th, and 9¢h.—We were detained partly by snow, partly by the
non-arrival of our baggage. On the 9th I ascended to a wood of
Pinus excelsa, the first one I had noticed, and which occurred about
1000 feet above Phullung. The whole country at similar elevations
was covered with snow, particularly the downs which we passed after
leaving Bulphei. ‘Tassgong was distinctly visible. The woods were
otherwise composed of oaks and rhododendrons. At Phullung they
were endeavouring to keep alive the wild indigo of Assam; a species of
Ruellia, but its appearance shewed that it was unsuited to the climate.
Feb. 10th. To Tassangsee. We continued through a similar coun-
try, and at a like elevation, with the exception of a trifling de-
scent to a small nullah, and an inconsiderable one to the Koollong,
on the right bank of which, and about 500 feet above its bed,
Tassangsee is situated.. We erossed this torrent, which even here is of
considerable size and not fordable, by means of an ordinary wooden
bridge, and then ascended to the village. This is constituted almost
entirely by the Soobah’s house, which is a large quadrangular build-
ing ; on the same side, but several hundred feet above the house,
218 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-88. [Manrcn,
there is a large tower ; also a small one on the same level, and some re-
ligious edifices. We were lodged over the stable.
The country about Tassangsee is picturesque, with large woods
of Pinus excelsa, which here has much the habit of a larch, a few vil-
lages are visible on the same side of the Koollong, and a little cul-
tivation. The Soobah was absent at Tongsa, to which place he
had been summoned owing to the disturbances, so that we were
relieved from undergoing the usual importunities and disagremens
between his followers and ours. The place is said to be famous for its
copper manufactures, such for instance as copper cauldrons of large
dimensions ; but I saw nothing indicating the existence of manufac-
turers, unless it were a smal! village below the castle, and on the same
side of the Koollong, which looked for all the world like the habitation
of charcoal burners. <A little further up this stream a few small flour
mills oceur.
Snow was visible on the heights around, and especially on a lofty
ridge to the north. We found Tassangsee to be very cold owing to
the violent south or south-east winds; the thermometer however
did not fall below 34°. Its elevation is 5270 feet, the vegetation
entirely northern, consisting of primroses, violets, willows, oaks, rhodo-
dendrens, and pines ; very fine specimens of weeping cypress occur near
this place.
Feb. 14th. Resumed our journey, interrupted as usual by the non-
arrival of our baggage, and scarcity of coolies—and proceeded to
Sanah. We descended at first to the torrent, which bounds one side of
the spur on which the castle is built, and which here falls into the
Koollong; the march subsequently became a gradual and continued
ascent, chiefly along its bed. We crossed two small torrents by means
of rude flat wooden bridges, and passed two or three deserted villages.
Snow became plentiful as we approached Sanah. This we found
to be a ruined village, only containing one habitable house. It is
situated on an open sward, surrounded with rich woods of oaks
and rhododendrons, yews, bamboos, &c. Its elevation is very nearly
3000 feet.
Feb. 15th. We started at the break of day, as we had been told
that the march was a long and difficult one. We proceeded at first
over undulating ground, either with swardy spots, or through romantic
Janes ; we then ascended an open grassy knoll, after passing which
we came on rather deep snow. The ascent continued steep and
uninterrupted until we reached the summit of a ridge 11,000 feet .
high. Although we had been told that each ascent was the last,
we found that another ridge was still before us, still steeper than the
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 219
preceding one, and it was late in the day before we reached its summit,
which was found to be nearly 12,500 feet. Above 9500 feet, the height
of the summit of the grassy knoll before alluded to, the snow was deep ;
above 10,000 feet all the trees were covered with hoar-frost, and icicles
were by no means uncommon. The appearance of the black pines,
which we always met with at great elevations, was rendered very
striking by the hoar-frost. Every thing looked desolate, scarce a
flower was to be seen, and the occasional fall of hail and sleet added
to the universal gloom.
The descent from the ridge was for the first 1500 feet, or thereabout,
most steep, chiefly down zigzag paths, that had been built up the faces
of precipices; and the ground was so slippery, the surface snow being
frozen into- ice, that falls were very frequent, but happily not attended
with injury. It then became less steep, the path running along swardy
ridges, or through woods. In the evening I came on the coolies, who
had halted at a place evidently often used for that purpose, and who
positively refused to proceed a single step further. But as Captain
Pemberton and Lieut. Blake had proceeded on, I determined on follow-
ing them, hoping that my departure would stimulate the coolies to
further exertions. After passing over about a mile of open swardy
ground I found myself benighted on the borders of a wood, into which
I plunged in the hopes of meeting my companions ; after proceeding for
about half an hour slipping, sliding, and falling in all imaginable
directions, and obtaining no answers to my repeated halloos; after
having been plainly informed that I was a blockhead by a hurkarah,
who as long as it was light professed ‘to follow me to the death—
** Master go on, and I will follow thee to the last gasp with love and
loyalty”—I thought it best to attempt returning, and after con-
siderable difficulty succeeded in reaching the coolies at 81 p. m.
when I spread my bedding under a tree, too glad to find one source of
comfort. »
I resumed the march early next morning, and overtook my com-
panions about a mile beyond the furthest point I had reached ; and as
I expected, found that they had passed the night in great discomfort.
We soon found how impossible it would have been for the coolies
to have proceeded at night, as the ground was so excessively slippery
from the half melted snow, and from its clayey nature, that it was as
much as they could do to keep their legs in open day-light.
We continued descending uninterruptedly, and almost entirely
through the same wood, until we reached Singé at 9}.a.m. The total
distance of the march was fifteen miles—the greatest amount of
ascent was about 4500 feet, of descent 6100 feet. We remained at
920 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. (Marcu,
Singé up tothe 18th, at which time some coolies still remained behind,
This village, which is 6330 feet above the sea, is of moderate size.
containing about twelve houses; in the best of these we were lodged,
and it really was a good house, and the best by far we were ac-
commodated with while in Bootan.
On the night of the 17th snow fell all around, though not within
1000 feet of Singé. The comparative mildness of the climate here
was otherwise indicated by the abundance of rice cultivation about and
below it. It stands on the border of the wooded and grassy tracts
so well marked in the interior of Bootan, at least in this direction, and
about midway on the left side of a very deep ravine, drained by the
river Koosee. On both sides of this, villages were plentiful ; on the
opposite or western side alone I counted about twenty ; about all there
is much cultivation of rice and wheat; the surface of the earth
where untilled, being covered with grassy vegetation and low shrubs.
Feb. 18th. We commenced a steep descent, and continued it until
we came in sight of the river Koosee, which is not visible from Singe.
We then turned to the north, following the course of the river upwards,
the path running about 800 feet above its bed. Thence, after
descending another ravine, drained by a tributary to the Koosee, we
again ascended slightly, to re-descend to the Koosee, up the bed of
which we then kept until we came to the Khoomar, a considerable
torrent, which we crossed about 100 yards from its mouth by a
wooden bridge ; within a quarter of a mile of this we crossed the Koosee
itself by a similar bridge, and then ascended gradually along its right
bank until we reached Singlang, which place became visible after pass-
ing the Khoomar.
After arriving at the Koosee the country became barren, resem-
bling much that about Tassgong ; and the only cultivation we passed
in this portion of the march was some rice along the bed of that river.
The usual delays took place at Singlang, and as it was the resi-
dence of a Soobah, we suffered the usual inconveniences. We were
miserably lodged in a small open summer house, up a small ravine,
and at a short distance from the castle, which is a large and rather
irregular building. |
The village itself isa poor one, most of the inhabitants being quar-
tered in the castle. We had an interview with the Soobah in an
open place close to the village: it was conducted with much less
state than that at Tassgong. We found the Soobah to be very young,
in fact almost a boy ; he behaved civilly, and without any pretension.
None of his armed men were present, and the whole number of
Booteas collected to see the show could not have exceeded 100. We
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 221
sat in the open air, while the Soobah was sheltered by a paltry silken
eanopy. Nachnees more than ordinarily hideous were in attendance.
There is but little cultivation about this place, which is 4520 feet
above the sea, and the surrounding mountains are very barren.
About the village I noticed a few stunted sugar canes, some peach
and orange trees, the castor-oil plant, and a betel vine or two. The
only fine trees near the place were weeping cypresses ; the simul also
occurs.
Feb. 23rd. After the usual annoyances about coolies and ponies, we
left Singlang without regret, for it was a most uninteresting place. We
commenced by an ascent of about 1000 feet, and then continued
following the course of the Koosee downwards. We continued re-
tracing our steps until we reached Tumashoo, to which place we
scarcely descended, and on arriving found ourselves opposite Singe,
and not more, as the crow flies, than three miles from it. We were
told subsequently that there was a direct road from Singeé to this,
which is about the centre of the populous parts of the country I have
mentioned as being visible from Singé; so that it was quite plain
that we had been taken so much out of our way in order to gratify
the Soobah by enabling him to refwrn us some decayed plantains,
balls of ghee, and dirty salt. The road throughout was good, and
evidently well frequented. At an elevation of about 6000 feet we
came on open woods of somewhat stunted oaks and rhododendrons ;
the only well wooded parts we met with being such ravines as
afforded exit to water courses. We passed several villages in the
latter part of the march, some containing 20 and 30 houses, and met
with a good deal of cultivation as we traversed that tract, the im-
proved appearance of which struck us so much from Singé.
Tumashoo is an ordinary sized village, about 5000 feet in elevation.
We were lodged in the Dhoompa’s house. _ I observed that the cattle
here, which were Mcthans, were kept in farm yards, better supplied
with straw than the poor beasts themselves. A few sheep were like-
wise seen.
_ Feb. 24th. Left for Oonjar, ascending at first over sward or through
a fir wood for about 800 feet, when we crossed a ridge, and thence
descended until we came to a small torrent which we crossed ;
thence we ascended gradually, until we surmounted a ridge 7300
feet high; descending thence very gradually until we came over
Oonjar, to which place we descended by a steep by-path for a few
hundred feet. The road was generally good, winding along at a
considerable height above the Koosee, until we finally left it on its
turning to the south. Singé was in sight nearly the whole day. The
222 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-388. [Mancu,
features of the country were precisely the same. At the elevation of
7300 feet the woods became finer, consisting of oaks and rhododen-
drons, rendered more picturesque from being covered with mosses,
and a grey pendulous lichen, a sure indication of considerable eleva-
tion. Various temples and monumental walls were passed, and
several average sized villages seen in various directions. A fine field
of peas in full blossom was noticed at 5500 feet, but otherwise little
cultivation occurred. Oonjar is a small village at an elevation of
6370 feet.
Feb. 25th. Leaving this place, we continued winding along nearly at
the same altitude until we descended to the river Oonjar, which drains
the ravine, on the right flank of which the village is situated. his
river, which is of moderate size, is crossed twice within 200 yards.
From the second bridge one of the greatest ascents we had yet en-
countered ‘commenced ; it was excessively steep at first, but subsequent-
ly became more gradual. It only terminated with our arrival at the
halting place, which we denominated “ St. Gothard,” but which is
known by the name Peemee. Its elevation is about 9700 feet, and
we had ascended from the bridge as much as 4350 feet. Snow
commenced at 7500 feet, and became heavy at 8500 feet; Peemee
was half buried in it, and ornamented with large icicles : it consists of
one miserable hut. This hut would not have withstood the attacks of
another such party as ours, for the men made use of its bamboos for
firewood, and the horses and mules eat very large portions of it. Our
people were put considerably out from not considering it proper to use
snow water, the only fluid to be procured, as there is no spring near.
Feb. 26th. We continued the ascent through heavy snow. For the
first 1000 feet it was easy enough, but after that increased much in dif-
ficulty. Great part of the path was built up faces of sheer precipices.
About noon we passed through the pass of Rodoola, which consists of
a gap between two rocks, barely wide enough to admit a loaded pony.
One of the rocks bore the usual slab with the mystic sentence “ Oom
matinee pamee oom.’ ‘There is nothing striking in the place, which
besides is not the highest part of the mountain traversed. The eleva-
tion was found to be 12,300 feet.
The remainder of the ascent was very gradual, but continued for
about 13 miles; and I consider the actual pass from which we com-
menced descending to be at least 12,600 feet. The descent was at first
very rapid, passing down the bold face of the mountain, which was
covered entirely with stout shrubby rhododendrons. We then descend-
ed gradually through a fine wood of the black fir. On recommen-
cing the steep descent we passed over swardy patches surrounded
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 223
by fir woods, and we continued through similar tracts until within
1000 feet of our halting -place, to which we descended over bare
sward.
The march, which was one of thirteen miles, lasted nine hours ;
the greatest ascent was nearly 4000 feet, the greatest descent nearly
9000 feet. It was with great difficulty that many of our followers
succeeded in effecting it: with the usual apathy of natives, they
wanted to remain in a ruined log hut, at an elevation of 12,500 feet,
without food, instead of pushing on. Capt. Pemberton very properly eject-
ed them all, and when once they had passed the snow, they regained a
good deal of their miserable spirit. The road throughout the ascent
was buried in snow, the depth of which alone enabled us to cross one
very bad place where the constructed road appeared to have given
way, and at which most of our ponies had narrow escapes. On the
descent the snow became scanty at 9500 feet, and at 9000 feet dis-
appeared almost entirely, lingering only in those places which through-
out the day remain obscured in shade.
From the summit of Rodoola a brief gleam of sunshine gave us a
bird’s-eye view of equally lofty ridges running in every direction, all
covered with heavy snow.
The vegetation of the ascent was very varied, the woods consisting
of oaks, rhododendrons, and bamboos, up to nearly 11,000 feet.
Beyond this the chief tree was the black fir ; junipers, alpine poly-
gonums, a species of rhubarb, and many other alpine forms presented
themselves in the shape of the withered remains of the previous season
of active vegetation. That on the descent was less varied, the trees
being nearly limited to three species of pines, of which the black fir
scarcely descended below 11,600 feet, when it was succeeded by a more
elegant larchlike species, which I believe is Pinus Smithiana ; this
again ceased toward an altitude of 9500 feet, when its place was occu-
pied by Pinus excelsa, now a familiar form.
We found Bhoomlungtung to occupy a portion of rather a fine val-
ley. The village is of moderate size, but of immoderate filth, only
exceeded in this respect by its tenants, to whom no other Booteas could
come near in this, as it would seem, necessary qualification of an in-
habitant of a cold, bleak, mountainous country ; it is situated on the
left bank of a good sized stream. We were lodged in the chief house,
but were annoyed beyond measure by the smoke arising from a con-
tiguous cook room, in which operations were going on day and night.
The valley is not broad, but is two or three miles in length: it is
surrounded on al] sides, but especially to the south and east by lofty
mountains. The elevation of Bhoomlungtung is nearly 8700 feet,
Gg
224 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. (Marcu,
and we considered it to be the most desirable spot we had yet met
with.
The valley is for the most part occupied by wheat fields, but the
prospect of a crop appeared to me very faint. Two or three villages
occur close to Bhoomlungtung. The tillage was better than any
we had seen, the fields being kept clean, and actually treated with
manure, albeit not of the best quality; in a few instances they were
surrounded with stone walls, as were the court yards of all the houses,
but more commonly the inroads of cattle were considered sufficiently
prevented by strewing thorny branches here and there. The houses
were of ordinary structure, but unspeakably filthy.
With the exception of a sombre looking oak near Bhoomlungtung,
and some weeping willows, the arboreous vegetation consists entirely
of firs. The shrubby vegetation is northern, and so is the herba-
ceous, but the season for this had not yet arrived. It was here that I
first met with the plant called after Mr. James Prinsep ; the compli-
ment is not, in Bootan at least, enhanced by any utility possessed by
the shrub, which is otherwise a thorny, dangerous looking species.
Here too we first saw English looking magpies, larks, and red-
legged crows.
March \st. Proceeded to Byagur or Juggur. We were told that
the march was a short one, and that we should continue throughout
down the bed of the Tung-Tchien, the river of Bhoomlungtung ;
we found, however, that we soon had to leave this, and commence
ascending. After a second descent to a small nullah, we encountered
a most tedious ascent, which continued until we surmounted a ridge ~
overlooking Byagur, to which place we descended very rapidly. The
height of this ridge was 9950 feet, yet we did not meet with a vestige
of snow. The distance was fourteen miles. We passed two or three
small villages, but saw scarcely any vegetation after leaving the valley. —
The vegetation continued the same, the road traversing either sward or
fir woods, consisting entirely of Pénds excelsa.
The valley in which Byagur is situated is still larger than that of —
Bhoomlungtung: it is drained by a large river which is crossed by a
somewhat dilapidated wooden bridge ; the elevation is about 8150 feet.
The village so called is a moderately sized one; but there are several
others in the valley, which is one of the very few decently inhabited
places we met with. The inhabitants are much cleaner than those
of Bhoomlungtung. The Soobah was absent at Tongsa; his castle,
which is a very large, irregular, straggling building, is situated on a
hill 500 feet above the plain, some of its defences, or outworks,
reaching nearly to the level of the valley. During the hot weather
*
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 225
it is occupied by Tongsa Pillo, on which occasion the Soobah retires
to Bhoomlungtung.
The cultivation is similar to that of the other valley, but the crops
looked very unpromising. The soil is by no means rich, and the
wind excessively bleak ; wheat or barley are the only grains cultivated.
The mountains which hem in this valley are not very lofty; to the
north, in the back ground, perpetual snow was visible. To our west
was the ridge which we were told we should have to cross, and which
in its higher parts could not be less than 12,000 feet.
March 4th. We commenced ascending the above ridge almost im-
mediately on starting ; surmounting this, which is of an elevation at
the part we crossed of 11,035 feet, we continued for sometime at the
same level, through fine open woods of Pinus Smithiana : having des-
cended rapidly afterwards to a small nullah, 9642 feet in elevation, we
then reascended slightly to descend into the Jaise valley. On the
east side of the ridge, i. e. that which overlooks Byagur, we soon
came on snow, but none was seen on its western face, notwith-
standing the great elevation. The country was very beautiful,
particularly in the higher elevations. I may here advert to the bad
taste exhibited in naming such objects after persons, with whom they
_ have no association whatever. As it is not possible for all travellers
to be consecrated by genera, although this practice is daily becoming
more common, we should connect their names with such trees as are
familiar to every European. As we have a Pinus Gerardiana and
Webbiana, so we ought to have had Pinus Herbertiana and Moorcrof-
tiana, &c. By so doing, on meeting with fir trees among the snow-clad
Himalayas, we should not only have beautiful objects before us, but
beautiful and exciting associations of able and enduring travellers. Of
Capt. Herbert, the most accomplished historian of these magnificent
mountains, there is nothing /évzng to give him a “ local habitation and
aname.” It will be a duty to me to remedy this neglect; and if I
have not a sufficiently fine fir tree hitherto undescribed in the Bootan
collection, I shall change the name of the very finest hitherto found,
and dignify it by the name Herbertiana. The prevailing tree was the
Smithian pine. We saw scarcely any villages, and but very little cul-
tivation. Jaisa is a good sized village ; it was comparatively clean, and
the houses were, I think, better than most we had hitherto seen. We
were lodged in a sort of castle, consisting of a large building, with a
spacious flagged court yard, surrounded by rows of offices. The part
we occupied fronted the entrance, and its superior pretensions were
attested by its having an upper story.
.
226 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Manrcu,
There is a good deal of wheat cultivation around the village, which
is not the only occupant of the valley: this is the highest we had
yet seen, and is perhaps one of the highest inhabited vallies known, as
it is 9410 feet above the sea ; it is drained by a small stream, and is of
less extent than either that of Byagur or Bhoomlungtung. The
surrounding hills are covered with open fir woods, and are of no con-
siderable height. Larks, magpies, and red-legged crows, continued
plentiful, but on leaving this valley we lost them.
March 5th. We proceeded up the valley, keeping along the swab of
the stream for sometime ; we then commenced ascending a ridge, the top
of which we reached about noon ; its elevation was 10,930 feet. The
descent from this was for about 2500 feet very steep and uninterrupted,
until we reached a small torrent at an elevation of 8473 feet; from
this we ascended slightly through thick woods of oak, &c. until we came
on open grassy tracts, through which we now gradually descended at
a great height above the stream, which we had left a short time
before. We continued descending rather more rapidly until we
came to a point almost immediately above Tongsa, by about 1000
feet; from this the descent was excessively steep. The distance was
13 miles. On the ascent snow was common from a height of 9000 feet
upwards. The vegetation on this, or the eastern side, was in some
places similar to that above Byagur. Beautiful fir woods formed
the chief vegetation, until we came close to the summit, when it
changed completely. Rhododendrons, Bogh putiah,'and a species of
birch, and bamboos, were common, mixed with a few black pines.
The woods through which we descended, were in the higher eleva-
tions almost entirely of rhododendrons ; and lower down chiefly of
various species of oak and maple—the former being dry and very
open, the latter humid and choked up with underwood. After coming
on the open grassy country we did not revert to well wooded tracts.
No villages occurred, nor did we see any signs of cultivation after
leaving the valley of Jaisa until we came near Tongsa, above which
barley fields were not uncommon. Tongsa, although the second, or at
any rate the third place in Bootan, is as miserable a place as any
body would wish to see. It is wretehedly situated in a very narrow
ravine, drained by a petty stream, on the tongue of land formed by
its entrance into the large torrent Mateesum, which flows 1200 feet
below where the castle stands. The village is 6250 feet in altitude: it
consists of a few miserable houses, one of the worst of which was
considerately lent to us. The castle is a large and rather imposing
building, sufficiently straggling to be relieved from heaviness of ap-
pearance: it is so overlooked, and indeed almost overhung by some
ce
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 937
of the nearest mountains, that it might be knocked down by rolling
rocks upon it. It is defended by an outwork about 400 feet above.
The surrounding country is uninteresting, the vegetation consisting
of a few low shrubs and some grasses: of the former the most common
are a species of barberry, and a hitherto undescribed genus of Hama-
melidce. No woods can be reached without ascending 12 or 1500 feet.
Barley was the chief cultivation we saw, but the crops alternated
with rice, which is here cultivated, as high as 6800 feet. In the
gardens attached to the cottages, or rather huts, we observed the
almond and pear in full blossom: the only other trees were two or
three weeping cypresses and willows, and a solitary poplar.
Our reception was by no means agreeable. I was roared to most
insolently to dismount while descending to the castle ; our followers
were constantly annoyed by the great man’s retainers; and, in fact,
we got no peace until we had an interview with the Pillo on the 15th.
Before the arrival of this personage, who had just succeeded to office,
great efforts were made to bring about an interview with the ex-Pillo,
and a stoppage of supplies was actually threatened in case of refusal.
The firmness of Capt. Pemberton was however proof against all this.
It had been previously arranged that the former Pillo, the uncle of
the present one, should be admitted at this interview on terms of
equality ; this kindness on the part of the nephew being prompted
probably by the hopes of securing his uncle’s presents afterwards. We
were received with a good deal of state, but the apartment in which
the meeting took place was by no means imposing, or even well orna-
mented. The attendants were very numerous, and mostly well-
dressed, but the effect of this was lessened by the admission of an in-
discriminate mob. We were not admitted however into the presence
without undergoing the ordeals which many orientals impose on those
who wish for access to them.
We were most struck with the difference in appearance between the
old and new Pillos: the former was certainly the most aristocratic
personage we saw in Bootan ; the latter, a mean looking, bull-necked
individual. A novel part of the ceremony consisted in the stirring
up of a large can of tea, and the general recital of prayers over it,
after which a ladleful was handed to the Pillos, who dipped their fore-
finger in it, and so tasted it.
The meeting passed off well; and afterwards several less cere-
monious and more friendly meetings took place. We took leave
on the 22nd. This interview was chiefly occupied in considering
the list of presents, which the Pillo requested the British Government
would do themselves the favour of sending him. He begged most
.
228 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcu,
unconscionably, and I thought that the list would never come to an
end ; and he was obliging enough to say, that any thing he might
think of subsequently would be announced in writing. He was very
facetious, and evidently rejoiced at the idea of securing so many good
things at such trifling expense as he had incurred in merely asking
for them. Nothing could well exceed the discomfort we had to
undergo during our tedious stay at this place. Our difficulties were
increased subsequently to our arrival by the occurrence of unsettled
weather, during which we had ample proofs that Bootan houses are
not always water-proof; we were besides incessantly annoyed with
a profusion of rats, bugs, and fleas; nor was there a single thing to
counterbalance all these inconveniences, and we consequently left the
place without the shadow of a feeling of regret.
On the 23rd of March we resumed our journey ; and having
traversed the court yard of the castle, we struck down at once to the
river Mateesum by a very steep path. Having crossed this by a
bridge, we gradually ascended, winding round the various ridges on
the right flank of the ravine of this river. We left it when it turned
to the southward, in which direction Bagoa-Dooar was visible, and
continued ascending gradually until we reached ‘Taseeling, seven
miles from Tongsa, and 7230 feet above the sea.
Taseeling consists of a large house, principally used as a halting-
place for chiefs going to and from Punukka and Tongsa. The sur-
rounding mountains are rather bare, as indeed is the country between
it and Tongsa. There is some cultivation to be seen around it, and
several villages. As we approached Taseeling open oak and rhodo-
dendron woods recurred. The vegetation near the Mateesum was sub-
tropical ; the road was good, and in one place was built in zigzag up
the face of a cliff.
March 24th. To Tchinjipjee. We commenced by ascending until
we had surmounted a ridge about 800 feet above Taseeling ; during the
remainder of the march we traversed undulating ground at nearly
the same altitude, at first through an open country, afterward through
beautiful oak and magnolia woods, until we came on the torrent
above which we had been ascending since leaving the Mateesum ; a
little farther on we came on the finest temple we had seen, and
situated in a most romantic spot. It stood on a fine patch of sward,
in a gorge of the ravine, the sides of which were covered with beauti-
ful cedar-looking pines; the back ground was formed by lofty moun-
tains covered with heavy snow.
Following the river upwards for about a mile and a half, we reacli-
ed Tchinjipjee, which is situated on the right bank of the torrent.
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 229
The march was throughout beautiful, particularly through the. forest,
which abounded in picturesque glades. No villages or cultivation
were seen.
Tchinjipjee is perhaps the prettiest place we saw in Bootan; our
halting place stood on fine sward, well ornamented with ( Quercus
seme carpifolia?) very picturesque oaks, and two fine specimens of
weeping cypress. ‘The surrounding hills are low, either almost en-
tirely bare or clothed with pines. The village is of ordinary size,
and is the only one visible in any direction; its elevation is 786
feet. There is some cultivation about it, chiefly of barley, mixed
with radishes.
March 27th. We continued following the river upwards, the path
running generally at a small height above its bed. Having crossed it
by a rude wooden bridge, we diverged up a tributary stream, until
we reached a small village ; we thence continued ascending over easy
grassy slopes, here and there prettily wooded, until we reached the
base of the chief ascent, which is not steep, but long, the path running
along the margin of a rhododendron and juniper wood: the height
of its summit is 10,873 feet. Thence to Rydang was an uninterrup-
ted and steep descent, the path traversing very beautiful woods of
rhododendrons, oaks, yews, &¢. Snow was still seen lingering in
sheltered places above 10,000 feet. The march throughout was
beautiful. In the higher elevations the Bogh Pat was very com-
mon.
Besides the village mentioned, two temporary ones were seen near
the base of the great ascent, built for the accommodation of the Yaks
and their herdsmen: of this curious animal two herds were seen at
some distance.
Rydang is prettily situated towards the bottom of a steep ravine:
its elevation is 6963 feet. A few villages occur about it, with some
barley and wheat cultivation.
March 28th. We descended directly to the river Gnee, which drains
the ravine, and continued down it sometime, crossing it once; then
diverging up a small nullah we commenced an ascent, which did not
cease until we had reached an elevation of 8374 feet. Continuing
for sometime at this elevation we traversed picturesque oak and rho-
dodendron woods, with occasionally swardy spots; subsequently des-
cending for a long time until we reached Santagong.
Oak and rhododendron woods continued common until we approach-
ed Santagong, in the direction of which the trees became stunted,
and the country presented a barren aspect. Several villages were
however seen in various directions, surrounded with cultivation.
230 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcn,
Santagong is 6300 feet above the sea ; it is a small village, but the
houses are better than ordinary. The surrounding country, especially
to the north, is well cultivated, and the villages numerous. The
country is bare of trees ; almost the only ones to be seen are some
long leaved firs, a short distance below Santagong, close to a small
jheel abounding in water fowl.
March 29th. From Santagong we proceeded to Phain, descending
immediately to the stream, which runs nearly 1800 feet below our
halting place. Crossing this, as well as a small tributary, we encoun-
tered a steep ascent of 1000 feet. Subsequently we wound along,
- gradually ascending at the same time, until we reached an incon-
siderable ridge above Phain, to which place we descended slightly.
The distance was six miles. The country was bare in the extreme,
and after crossing the stream above mentioned, villages became rather
scanty. Towards Phain the soil became of a deep red colour.
This place, which is 5280 feet above the sea, is a small village, con-
taining six or seven tolerable houses. The country is most uninterest-
ing and uninviting, scarce a tree is to be seen, the little vegetation that
does exist consisting of low shrubs. A few villages are scattered about
it, and there is some rice cultivation.
We were detained here until the Ist of April, in order that we
might repose after our fatigues; but in reality to enable the Punukka
people to get ready our accommodations. Wandipore, a well known
castle situated in the Chillong pass, is just visible from Phain, below
which it appears to be some 1200 feet, and about three miles to the
south west. Its Zoompoor, one of the leading men in Bootan, made
some ineffectual attempts to take us to Punukka via his own castle;
various were the artifices he resorted to for this purpose, but he failed
in all. Among others, he sent a messenger to inform us that the Deb
and Dhurma were both there, and very anxious to meet us, and that
after the meeting they would conduct us to Punukka.
April 1st. To Punukka. We descended rather gradually towards
the Patchien, proceeding at first north-west, and then to the north.
On reaching the stream, which is of considerable size, we followed it
up, chiefly along its banks, until we arrived at the capital, no view of
which is obtained until it is approached very closely The valley of
the Patchien was throughout the march very narrow ; there was a good
deal of miserable wheat cultivation in it, and some villages, all of
moderate size. The country continued extremely bare. The distance
was about eleven miles. Punukka, the second capital in Bootan, the.
summer residence of a long line of unconquered monarchs—Punukka
to which place we had been so long looking forward with feelings of de-
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 231
light, although the experience of Tongsa ought to have taught us
better, disappointed all of us dreadfully. For in the first place I saw a
miserable village, promising little comfort as respects accommodation,
and one glance at the surrounding country satisfied me that little was
to be done in any branch of natural history. For a narrow, unfruit-
ful valley, hemmed in by barren hills, on which no arboreous vege-
tation was to be seen, except at considerable elevation, gave no great
promise of botanical success.
On reaching the quarters which had been provided for us, and
which were situated in front of the palace, we were much struck with
the want of care and consideration that had been shewn, particularly
after the very long notice the Booteas had received of our coming, and
the pressing invitations sent to meet us.
These quarters had evidently been stables, and consisted of a
square enclosure surrounded by low mud walls. Above the stalls
small recesses, scarcely bigger than the boxes which are so errone-
ously called a man’s “long home,” had been made for our special
lodgements ; that of the huzoor, Captain Pemberton, was somewhat
larger, but still very much confined. Having added to these a roof
formed of single mats, an oppressive sun, and a profusion of every
description of vermin, Capt. Pemberton determined on renting quarters
in the village, and this, owing to his liberality, was soon accom-
plished ; and from the two houses we occupied did we alone obtain
comfort among the numerous annoyances we were doomed to ex-
perience during our lengthened stay.
The capital of Bootan is for pre-eminence, miserable. The city itself
consists of some twelve or fifteen houses, half of which are on the
left bank of the river, and two-thirds of which are completely ruinous,
and the best of these ‘ Capital’ houses were far worse than those at
Phain or Santagong, &c. Around the city, and withina distance of a
quarter of a mile, three or four other villages occur, all bearing the
stamp of poverty, and the marks of oppression.
The palace is situated on a flat tongue of land formed by the con-
fluence of the Matchien and Patchien rivers. To the west it is quite
close to the west boundary of the valley, the rivers alone intervening.
[t is a very large building, but too uniform and too heavy to be im-
posing: it is upwards of 200 yards in length, by perhaps 80 in
breadth. Its regal nature is attested by the central tower, and the
several coppered roofs of this. .
The only cheering objects visible in this capital, are the glorious
Himalayas to the north, anda Gylong village 12 or 1500 feet above the
palace to the west; elsewhere all is dreary, desolate looking, and hot.
Hh
232 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcn,
During the first few days of our stay, and indeed until our interview
with the Deb, we were much annoyed by the intruding impertinence
and blind obstinacy of his followers. They were continually causing
disputes either with the sentries or our immediate followers, and it
was only by repeated messages to the palace, stating the probable
consequence of such a system of annoyance, that Captain Pemberton
sueceeded in obtaining any respite.
After many delays, we were admitted to the Deb’s presence on the
9th. Leaving our ponies, we crossed the bridge built over the Patchien,
which was. lined with guards, and defended by some large, wretchedly
constructed wall pieces. We then entered a paved yard, and thence
ascended by some most inconvenient stairs to the palace, the entrance
to which was guarded by a few household troops dressed in scarlet
broad cloth. We then crossed the north quadrangle of the palace,
which is surrounded with galleries and apartments, and was crowded
with eager spoctators, and ascending some still more inconvenient, or
even dangerous stairs, reached a gallery, along which we proceeded
to the Deb’s receiving room, which is on the west face of the palace:
at the door of this the usual delays took place, these people supposing
that their importance is enhanced by the length of delay they can
manage to make visitors submit to.
The Deb, who was an ordinary looking man, in good condition,
received us graciously, and actually got up and received his Lord-
ship’s letter standing ; the usual conversation then took place by means
of interpreters, and the Deb having received his presents, and presented
us with usual plantains, ghee, and some walnuts, dismissed us; and
this was the first and last time I had the honour of seeing him, as
I was indisposed at the time of ourleaving. Toreturn, the room was a
good sized one, but rather low ; it was supported by well ornamented
pillars, hastily hung with scarfs and embroidered silk. The most
amusing part of the ceremony was that exhibited by the accountant
general’s department, who were employed in counting and arranging
courie shells—really emblematic of the riches of the kingdom—ap-
parently with no other aim than to re-count, and re-arrange them, yet
they were very busily engaged in writing the accounts. A day or two
after, our interview with the Dhurma took place. He received us in
an upper room of the quadrangular central tower: while we were in
his presence we remained standing, in compliment to his religious
character. The Dhurma Rajah is a boy of eight or ten years old, and
good looking, particularly when the looks of his father, the Tungso
Pillo, are taken into consideration. He sat in a small recess, lighted
chiefly with lamps, and was prompted by a very venerable looking,
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 945
grey-headed priest. He had fewer attendants, and his room was less
richly ornamented than that of the Deb. Around the room sat priests
busily employed in muttering charmed sentences from handsome gilt
lettered black books, which reminded me of those used in some parts
of Burmah.
Very few of our attendants saw either of the Rajahs, and it was
expected that no one would presume to enter the Dhurma’s presence
empty handed. To some of the sipahis, who were anxious to see him,
his confidential advisers said, “ Give forty rupees, come into the quad-
rangle under the Dhurma’s window, and then you may see him, or
you may not see him; I will not be answerable for any thing, but
receiving the forty rupees.”
During our protracted stay at this place, nothing particularly
worthy of notice occurred. Intrigues seemed to be constantly going
on, and the trial of temper on the part of Captain Pemberton must
have been very great ; it was however soon evident that no business
could be transacted with a Bootea Government without being enabled
first to enforce abundance of fear, and consequently any amount of
agreement from them; messages to and fro passed continually, the
bearer being a very great rascal, in the shape of the Deb’s Bengal
Moharrer. Thus he would come and appoint the next day for a
meeting ; then he would return and say, that such a place was better
than such a place; as evening drew near he would come and say,
unless you agree to such and such, there will be no meeting ; and after
bearing a message that no change in this respect would be made, he
would make his appearance and say, all the minsters were sick, and
so could not meet. ©
My only amusement out of doors was a morning walk up or down
the valley. I was prompted to this chiefly by the pangs of hunger,
as the Bootea supplies were very short, indeed wild pigeons afforded
me at least some relief. During the day I examined such objects as my
collectors brought in, for it was too hot to think of being out after
9a.m. I also had a few Bootea patients, most of whom were la-
bouring under aggravated forms of venereal.
The climate of Punukka has but little to recommend it, and in fact
- nothing, if viewed in comparison with the other places we had seen in
_ Bootan. The greatest annoyance existed in the powerful winds blow-
ing constantly throughout the day up the valley, and which were
often loaded with clouds of dust. The mean temperature of April
may be considered as 71°.
The maximum heat observed was 83°, the minimum 64°. The
mean temperature of the first week of May was 75° 3’; the maximum
234 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Marcu,
80°, and the minimum 70°. The cultivation in the valley, the soil of
which seems very poor, containing a large proportion of mica, was
during our stay limited to wheat and buck-wheat, but scarcely any of
the former seemed likely to come to ear. Ground was preparing for
the reception of rice, which is sown and planted in the usual manner.
Crops just sown are immediately eaten up by the swarms of sacred
pigeons that reside in the palace, so that husbandry is by no means
profitable ; more especially as there are other means of providing for
the crops, such as they may be. Thus we saw several small fields,
- amounting perhaps to an acre in extent, cut down to provide fodder
for some ponies that had lately shared in a religious excursion to
Wandipore.
Cattle are not frequent. There were some pigs. The fowls were
of the most miserable description, and very scarce. In spite of offers
of purchase and plenty of promises, we were throughout allowed
three a day, and they were rather smaller than pigeons. Towards the
latter end of our stay, rice became bad and scarce.
We saw nothing indicating any degree of trade worth mentioning.
Parties changing their residence frequently passed through from the
north-east, generally accompanied by ponies, whose most common
burdens appeared to be salt. No direct intercourse appears to exist
with Thibet, as even the tea, which they consume in large quantities,
is said to come from Paro Pillo’s. |
There are a great number of Assamese slaves about Punukka;
indeed all the agricultural work, as well as that of beasts of burden,
appears to devolve upon these unfortunate creatures, who are miser-
ably provided for, and perhaps dirtier than a genuine Bootea himself.
During my morning walks I was almost daily entreated for protection.
In one case only, and in this by the merest accident, was Captain
Pemberton enabled to get such evidence as authorised him to claim
it as entitled to British protection. Connected with this case is an act
of black treachery, to which I shall hereafter refer.
We stopt so long here, and we had daily so many instances proving
that no confidence could be placed on any thing coming from the
palace, that I began at last to despair of getting away. The old Deb
was very anxious to see us, and the new Deb still more anxious that
we should accompany him when he left Punukka, in the hope that
the presence of the Mission would be advantageous to him.
It wa entirely owing to the firmness of Captain Pemberton that
we were enabled to avoid such a disagreeable meeting ; and the Deb,
feeling at last convinced that his views could not be carried into
effect, gave orders for getting rid of us as speedily as possible ; and on
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. J30
the 9th May at noon we left Punukka, the most uninviting place
I have ever seen in a hilly country. On the morning of the same
day there was a demonstration in the palace of great boldness ; the
roof of the northern side was covered with troops, who shouted, fired,
and waved banners.
We crossed both bridges of the palace without any interruption
or annoyance, at which I was most agreeably surprised ; and then
gradually ascended the right flank of the valley, following the course
of the united rivers, Patchien and Matchien. We proceeded in this di-
rection for sometime, until we came on a ravine affording an outlet to
a tributary of the Panukka river, which we then followed, gradually
descending through fir woods until we reached the torrent. Crossing
this, which is a small one, we commenced the ascent to Telajong,
which we soon reached. We were lodged in the castle, which is in
the hands of the old Deb’s followers, and who threatened to fight
very hard. Its elevation is about 5600 feet, and it is situated towards
the base of very steep mountains, which we crossed next day. It is
somewhat ruinous, but might even in Bootea hands make a stout de-
fence against a Bootea force.
The march was a moderate one ; up to the ravine the country had
the same barren aspect, but on changing our direction we came on fir
woods. About Telagong the country is well wooded, chiefly with
oaks, and the vegetation is considerably varied. Near the torrent
we met with a village or two, and a little cultivation, chiefly of buck
wheat.
April 10th. We descended to a small nullah just below the castle,
and then commenced an ascent which lasted for three or four hours,
and which was generally moderately steep. On surmounting the ridge,
which was of an elevation of about 10,000 feet, we commenced a
long, and uninterrupted descent along the course of a small torrent
(the path being well diversified with wood and "olade) until we reach-
ed Woollokha, distant fourteen and half miles from Telagong.
About 1200 feet above this we came on rather fine wheat cultiva-
tion, among which two or three villages were situated. Above this
elevation we came on fine woods of oaks and yews, diversified with
swardy spots ; and on reaching the summit of the ridge an open sward
with beautiful rhododendron, birch, and juniper woods. Herbaceous
monocotyledons abounded here, in fact the vegetation altogether .was
very rich, and the first spring vegetation we had yet met with.
Gooseberries and Currants were common from 9000 feet upwards :
Euphorbius, Primroses, Saxifragis, Clematises, Anemones, Ranuncu-
luses, &c., were some among the many European forms that I met
236 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Manrcu,
with on this march. Near the summit, on the descent, a genuine
larch was observed, and lower down two species of poplar were very
common. The scenery was generally very beautiful. We passed a
delightfully situated Gylong village not much below the summit, and
near Woollookha saw Symtoka, a rather large square building be-
longing to the Deb Rajah, situated two or three hundred feet above
our road.
Woollookha is a good sized village, and the houses are very good :
it is close to the river Teemboo, which drains Tassisudon valley, a
few miles distant to the north. ‘There are several villages around it,
and a good deal of cultivation of alternating crops of barley, wheat,
and rice. The valley, if indeed it can be called so, for it is very nar-
row, is picturesque enough, although the surrounding hills are not well
wooded. ‘The banks of the river, which here flows gently enough,
are well ornamented with weeping willows.
11¢h. We continued our route following the river, the path gene-
rally laying down its bed, or close to it, occasionally ascending two
or three hundred feet above it. Halted at Lomnoo, an easy march.
The features of the country remained the same until we neared our
halting place, when woods of Pénus excelsa became very common ;
roses occurred in profusion, and the vegetation generally consisted of
shrubs; villages were tolerably frequent, and the cuckoo* was again
heard.
12th. ToChupcha. Continued for some time through a precisely simi-
lar country, still following the river, but generally at some height above
its bed. After passing Panga, a small village at which our conduc-
tors wished us to halt, although it was only six miles from Somnoo,.
we descended gradually to the river Teemboo, and continued along
it for some time, during which we passed the remains of a suspension
bridge. Leaving the rivers soon afterwards, we encountered such a long
ascent that we did nét reach Chupcha till rather late in the evening,
most of the coolies remaining behind. Having surmounted the ridge
immediately above Chupcha, and which is about 8600 feet in altitude,
we descended very, rapidly to the village, which is about 600 feet
lower down the face of the mountain. The road was for the most
part tolerably good ; in one place it was built up along the face of a
cliff overhanging the Teemboo. The scenery was throughout pretty,
but especially before coming on the ascent: some of the views along
the river were very picturesque.
* The first time I heard this bird was about Punukka. Although in plumage it
differs a good deal from the bird so well known in Europe, yet its voice is precisely
similar.
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. Tag
After leaving Panga no villages were passed, and one small one
only was seen on the opposite bank of the Teemboo ; but up to the
above mentioned place the country continued tolerably populous.
The vegetation, until the ascent was commenced, was a good deal like
that about Somnoo, Pznus excelsa forming the predominant feature.
From the base of the ascent it became completely changed—oaks
forming the woods, and from 7500 feet upwards, various rhododendrons
occurring in profusion, mixed with wild currants, &c. We were de-
tained at Chupcha for two days, at the end of which the last coolies had
scarcely arrived : it is ten miles from Somnoo, and sixteen miles from
Panga, and about 8100 feet in elevation, The greatest ascent, and this
too after a march of twelve miles, must have been between 2500 and
3000 feet. We were lodged comfortably in the castle, although it
was not white-washed, nor had it the insignia of a belt of red ochre.
It is a short distance from the village, which again is two or three
hundred yards to the west of the direct road. We thought Chupcha a
delightful place: the scenery is varied, the temperature delightful,
varying in doors from 46° to 52°
The face of the mountain although very steep, is about the castle
well cultivated: the crops which were of six ranked barley, were
very luxuriant, and certainly the finest we ever saw in the country.
The red-legeed crow recurred here. During our stay, I ascended the
ridge immediately above the castle, passing through a very large village
of Gylongs, elevated at least 9000 feet. This village was the largest I
saw in Bootan, and was ornamented with a pretty religious build-
ing, surrounded by junipers, and more decorated than such edifices
usually are. Up to the village the path passed through beautiful
woods of Pinus excelsa: above it I came on open sward, which
continued on the south face up to the very summit of the ridge, which
was nearly 11,000 feet. The north face of the mountain was well
wooded: on it rhododendrons, a few black pines, beautiful clumps
of Pinus Smihiana, Bogh Pat, Mountain Pears, Aconites, Colum-
bines, Saxifrages, Primroses, &c. were found in abundance. The
southern face was decorated with a pretty yellow Anemone, and
the pink spikes of a Bistort. From the ridge still loftier ones were
visible in every direction, all of which were covered with snow, which
lightly sprinkled the one on which I stood. At this season snow
searcely remains for a day under 11,000 feet, except in very sheltered
situations.
15th. I left Chupcha with much regret. We descended by a pre-
cipitous path to a torrent about 1800 feet below the castle. Cross-
ing this, we descended gradually until we came 01 the ravine of the
238 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Mancu,
Teemboo; at which point there is a small pagoda, visible from
Chupcha. We then turned southwards, and continued for a long time
at nearly the same level, passing a small village, Punugga, three or
four hundred feet below us, and in which Capt. Turner had halted on
his ascent. The descent to Chuka was long and gradual, becoming
tolerably steep as we approached it. We reached the Teemboo by a
miserable road, about half a mile from Chuka castle, which occupies
a small eminence in what has once been the bed of the river.
The march was seventeen miles. The road in many places was very
bad, and scarcely passable for loaded ponies. The scenery was frequent-
ly delightful, and vegetation was in the height of spring luxuriance.
The hills bounding the ravine of Teemboo continued very high until
we reached Chuka; they were well diversified, particularly. at some
height above us, with sward and glade, and richly ornamented with
fine oaks, rhododendrons, cedar-like pines, and Pinus excelsa. Water
was most abundant throughout the march, and in such places the’
vegetation was indescribably rich and luxuriant.
No village besides that of Punugga was passed or seen, nor did I
observe any cultivation. I was much impeded by droves of cattle
passing into the interior, for the road was frequently so narrow, and
the mountains on which it was formed so steep, that I was obliged to
wait quietly until all had passed. These cattle were of a different
breed from those hitherto seen in Bootan, approaching in appearance
the common cattle of the plains, than which however they were much
finer and larger.
We were sufficiently well accommodated in the castle of Chuka,
which is as bare of ornament as its neighbour of Chupcha;; it is a place
of some strength against forces unprovided with artillery, and com-
mands the pass into the interior very completely. There is a miser-
able village near it, and several trees of the Ficus elastica.
16th. To Murichom. We descended to the Teemboo, which runs
some fifty feet below the castle, and crossed it by a suspension
bridge, of which a figure has been given by Capt. Turner ; it is very
inferior in size and construction to that of Rassgong, although, unlike
that, it is flat at the bottom. We continued following the Teemboo
winding gradually up its right bank, chiefly through rather heavy
jungle, and descending subsequently about 600 feet to its bed by a
dreadfully dangerous path, built up the face of a huge cliff. We con-
tinued along it until we crossed a small torrent at its junction with
the large river, and then ascended gradually, following the ravine of
this through humid jungle. As we approached Murichom we left
the Teemboo a little to our left, and continued through a heavily
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 239
wooded country. Before ascending finally to Murichom, we descended
twice to cross torrents. We reached Murichom late in the evening,
the distance being eighteen miles.
No villages were seen until we came in sight of Murichom. The
mountains were much decreased in height, and clothed with dense
black jungle. We passed two water-fglls, both on the left bank of the
Teemboo, the one most to the south being the Mznza peeya of Turner.
Neither of them appeared particularly worthy of notice. The vegeta-
tion had almost completely changed, it partook largely of the sub-
tropical characters, scarcely a single European form being met with.
The road was absolutely villainous,* it was very narrow, frequently
reduced to a mere ledge, and painful owing to the sharp projections
of the limestone, the prevailing rock of this part of the country.
Murichom is a small village, rather more than 40V0 feet above the sea ;
the houses, which are about eight or ten in number, are thatched : it is
prettily situated: there is a little cultivation of wheat and maize
about it. Although at so considerable an elevation, most of the plants
were similar to those of Assam.
17th. Leaving Murichom we descended rapidly to a small tor-
rent, from which we re-ascended until we had regained the level
of Murichom. The path then wound along through heavily wooded
country at an elevation of 4000 or 4200 feet: we continued thus
throughout the day. At 5 p.m. finding that the coolies were com-
mencing to stop behind, and failing in getting any information of my
companions, I returned about 13 mile to the small village of Gygoogoo,
which is about 300 feet below the path, and not visible from it. It is a
miserable village of three or four bamboo hufs. We had previously
passed another and much better village, but as this was only six miles
from Murichom, Capt. Pemberton determined to push on.
18th. I proceeded to Buxa. The path was somewhat improved, and
the ascent gradual until an elevation of about 5500 feet was sur-
mounted, from which the descent to Buxa is steep and uninterrupted.
This place is seen from a ridge about 1200 feet above it. I reached
it between 9 and 10 a.m., and found that my companions had
arrived late on the preceding evening, having accomplished a march
of twenty miles in one day. Scarcely any coolies had arrived, however,
before me. The features of the country remained the same, the
whole face being covered with dense black looking forest. Even on
* Such is the nature of the path from Chuka to the plains, although it is the great
thoroughfare between both capitals and Rungpore, that either the trade of Bootan with
that place must be much exaggerated, or some other road must exist between these two
points.
ra
240 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Mancu,
the ridge, which must have been between 5000 and 5500 feet in
elevation, scarcely any change took place. As I descended to Buxa
vegetation became more and more tropical, and on reaching it found
myself surrounded with plants common in many parts of the plains of
Assam.*
Buxa is rather a pretty place, about 2000 feet above the sea.
The only decent house in it is that of the Soobah, who is of inferior
rank. The huts are of the ordinary description, and do not exceed
twelve in number. The Soobah’s house, with some of those of Bengal
officers, occupy a low rising ground in the centre of the pass, which is
divided from the hills on either side by a small torrent. A view of the
plains is obtainable from this place.
Captain Pemberton left Buxa a day before me, as I was detained
behind for coolies, none of whom had yet arrived. On the following
day I rejoined him at Chicha-cotta. The descent to the plains is steep
at first, and commences about a quarter of a mile from Buxa. On
reaching the steep portion a halting place, called Minagoung, is
passed, at which place, all bullocks, which are here used as beasts of
burden, are relieved if bound to Buxa, or provided with burdens,
if bound for the plains. The descent from this place is very gra-
dual, and scarcely appreciable ; the path was good, and bore appear-
ances of being tolerably well frequented ; it passed through a -°
rather open forest, low grasses forming the under-plants. The
plains were not reached for several miles, indeed the descent was so
gradual, that the boundaries of the hills and those of the plains were
but ill defined. At last however the usual Assam features of vast
expanses of grassy vegétation, interrupted here and there with strips
of jungle, presented themselves. ‘The country is very low, entirely
inundated during the rains, and almost uninhabited. Saul occurred
toward that which may be considered the Toorai of these parts, but
the trees were of no size.
Chicha-cotta is eighteen miles from Buxa, and is situated ona grassy
plain ; it is small and miserably stockaded, nor is there any appear-
ance about the place indicative of comfort or security. To Koolta. We
continued through nearly a desolate country, overrun with coarse
grasses, until we came on the river, which is of considerable width,
but fordable ; we now found ourselves in the Cooch-Behar territory,
and were much struck with the contrast between its richly cultivated
state, and the absolute desolation of that belonging to Bootan. We
continued traversing a highly fertile country, teeming with population,
9 - * . . .
* Plantains, jacks, mangoes, figs, oranges, &c., are found about the huts of Buxa.
Journ. ab. $0c. Vol. VIT. PL. LX.
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1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan. 1837-38. 241
until we reached those uncultivated portions of Assam, that are so
frequent in the immediate vicinity of the Brahmaputra.
Our marches to Rangamutty were as follow :—
From Koolta to Bullumpore.
From Bullumpore to Kuldhooba.
From Kuldhooba to Burrumdungur. .
From Burrumdungur to Rangamutty.
At Rangamutty, where we received every civility from the Bhoo-
rawur, we took boat and arrived at Goalpara on the
Beyond this it is scarcely necessary to trace our progress. I have
only to add, that but one death occurred during the time the Mission
was absent.
( To be continued. )
Art. VI.—Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society.
By Dr. WM. JAMESON.
[ The subjoined very important Report on the state of our Museum,
forms a part of the Proceedings of April, but we deem it well deserving
of the earliest publicity. During the few weeks Dr. Jameson held the
office of Curator, his exertions have accomplished more than could be
readily believed, in reducing the chaotic materials of the Museum into
systematic arrangement and disposition. His suggestions will doubtless
receive the attentive consideration they are so strongly entitled to, and
we trust before long that our Museum will be guaranteed from such
reproaches as Mr. Jameson now too justly inflicts on it. His accom-
plished successor, Dr. M‘Clelland, has all the skill and zeal essential for
suecess, but the means at his disposal are manifestly too limited to en-
able him to execute all the measures his judgment would dictate. We
anxiously hope that the naturalists of the Society will be excited by Dr.
Jameson’s Report to consider of the best and readiest means for the
establishment of a Museum befitting the first Scientific Institution in the
East. As our funds have been heavily drawn on this season for the
erection of a new suite of apartments, to accommodate our growing
collections, we think it would be worthy of those who feel the importance
of such ennobling pursuits, to come forward with the means for furnish-
ing our Museum with every essential appurtenance of the best and most
242 Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. (Marcr,
durable kind. We shall be happy to act as Trustees for a ‘ Museum
Fund,’ should our suggestions meet the approbation of those who under-
stand and appreciate the object in view.—Ebs. |
In reporting upon the present state of the collection of the Asiatic Society, we have
felt much disinclination, fearing lest by so doing we might be considered as attacking
the proceedings of our predecessors; we however consider it our duty, from the place
we now hold, and the more so as we leave this in a few days for the Upper Provinces,
trusting that when the statement has been laid before the Society, active measures
will be taken to improve its condition.
We shall first notice the Minerals and Rocks. In these two departments the
collection is exceedingly rich as far as numbers are concerned. Of the former there are
upwards of two thousand specimens, and of the latter probably upwards of four thousand ;
but the miserable condition in which they have been kept—packed in drawers one
above another, without paper, or any other material intervening—has rendered many
of them entirely useless and unfit to be placed in the collection. In particular we
would mention the Zeolites, many of which originally must have been magnificent.
The Apophyllites (a species of zeolite) are very fine, and still valuable specimens,
and had they not been so much destroyed, the Society might have claimed the merit of
possessing, of this particular variety, the finest specimen, probably, in the world.
Most of the other specimens have been equally neglected, and many of value destroyed.
In regard to labels, there were but few attached, and of these many wrong. The Rocks,
of which there is a most magnificent and extensive collection, would have been doubly
valuable if they had been furnished with labels, indicating the locality from whence they
had been obtained; at present after a collection containing every variety has been laid
aside for the Society’s own Museum, the others, when named, will form valuable
duplicates for exchanging. To this department of the Society’s Museum no at-
tention whatever has been paid, although probably the most important. Lying beneath
one of the tables in the Museum there was a large collection, said to be sent by
Dr. Helfer, but as not one of the specimens was labelled, that is intimating where
found, we have not been able to make use of them. In fact such a collection is quite
useless to a Society; and even if some important mineral should be found in it, the
value of the discovery could not be followed up. It would be of importance to intimate
this to individuals engaged in making such collections.
Mammalia.—The collection of quadrupeds consists of about seventy specimens,
many of which are exceedingly good, and a few very rare, among which we would
characterise the Hylobates albimanus, Hylobates hoolock, Ailurus refugens, Ictides
albifrons ; but in this department the collection of the Society is very deficient, not
containing above a fifth of the quadrupeds found in India. Moreover many specimens,
from their bad condition, would require to be replaced as soon as possible.
Birds.—The number of birds prepared amount to upwards of six hundred specimens,
and in addition to these there is a considerable collection in boxes, many specimens of
which are not as yet in the Museum. Among the birds, there are some exceedingly
rare and yaluable specimens, and several new to science, which we shall now notice
briefly. 1. Larus kroicocephalus. The discovery of this species is probably one
of the most interesting which has been made in ornithology for some time. In size it is
equal to the Larus marinus of Europe, and possesses in the head and neck colours
~1839.] Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 243
one of the principal characters essential to the genus Kroicocephalus of Eton, in every
other character it is a true Larus; and as the colour of the head and neck disappear in
winter, we have therefore this species representing in summer the genus Kroicocephalus,
and in winter Larus; shewing the necessity of abandoning the former genus. The
specimen in the Society’s' collection is partly in a state of change from the summer
to the winter. In the Edinburgh Royal Museum there is another specimen in perfect
summer plumage: these probably are the only two specimens known. The name
we have adopted is one which we proposed to the Wernerian Society, being the generic
one of Eton reduced to trivial value. Belonging to that interesting genus the
Leiothrix, Swains. of which there is but one species described, there are two new species
in the collection of the Society, in the Edinburgh Museum there is a third, and in the
Zoological Society’s Museum of London a fourth, all of which are peculiar to India,
and thus the number of species is now increased to five, shewing the necessity and
importance of making new genera, if the characters presented are sufficiently marked,
although at first only one species should be presented. We could enumerate a
large series of genera which were represented a few years ago by one species only, but
which now contain from three to twelve species. In a bird lately laid before the
Society by Dr. Evans, and considered by him as a variety of the Aguila Chryractos,
the Society has a new species belonging to the genera Haliaétus ; the only other
specimen we have seen is in the collection of the Zoological Society of London. We
cannot omit mentioning the Zurylaimus Dalhousie as exceedingly rare and valuable
species, three specimens only being known to exist in collections. Many other
novelties, some of them extremely interesting in illustrating ornithological geography
could be pointed out, which however would extend our report to an undue length; we
however may state that Dr. Helfer has sent lately to the Society a new Chalcites, and
Irena puella, and Calyptomina viridis, both of which were supposed to be confined
to the Asiatic Islands.
Osteology.—The Osteological Department of the Society’s collection is small,
but still there are several splendid skeletons. The magnificence of the Fossil Osteolo-
gical collection cannot be too strongly pointed out; but it is much and deeply to be
regretted that there is no proper accommodation for it; which we hope will soon be
remedied by proper cases being provided, and placed in the new apartments now
building, in order that the many unique and valuable specimens may be properly
exposed to view.
In regard to the Icthyological, Erpetological, Conchological, &c. departments of the
Society we have not had any leisure to examine, and therefore forbear at present
giving any report. But as there is much room for improvement in the departments
we have already noticed, we beg to offer a few suggestions.
Minerals and Rocks.—Before the collections of Minerals and Rocks can be generally
useful, there must be proper means for exhibitions, and we hope soon to see cases fitted
up on the plan we proposed, or any other which may be suggested, furnished to the rooms.
The advantages in having collections of Rocks and Minerals arranged and labelled
properly, would no doubt be of the greatest consequence, seeing that it would form
the basis for comparison of any collections which may hereafter reach the Museum; and
also be of use to individuals for comparing their own private collections. As far as
it lay in our power, during the short space of time we have had, we have arranged the
Minerals in the tables formerly occupied by eggs, birds’ heads, &c. only temporary
howeyer, expecting that more suitable cases will be provided. The Rocks are still lying
244 Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [Marcu,
exposed for want of accommodation, but a few of them so arranged that when cases
are provided, they can be removed by any individual.* The system we have followed
is that of Werner, as improved by modern authors. If any member would now visit
and see the extent of their Mineralogical collection, I am sure they would be convinced
of the necessity of having proper cases.
The Bird cases since last Meeting have been fitted up with shelving, which has
enabled us to arrange systematically the collection, and the system we have adopted is
that of the Baron Cuvier. Moreover, in addition to the advantage derived in having
a systematic arrangement, the cases will now contain three times as many specimens as
they did formerly. To us it appears a most extraordinary idea, to suppose that objects of
Natural History cannot be properly. preserved in this country. No doubt in cases fitted
up in the same manner as those of the Society at the present moment, they could
not, either here or any where else; but if these cases were made air-tight, by lining
the edges of the doors with chamois leather poisoned with arsenic, according to
the plan adopted with the cases of many of the European collections, we would be
bound to say, that the collections could be preserved nearly as well here as in Europe.
At least this is a subject well worthy the attention of the Society.
In conclusion, we shall offer a few brief remarks in regard to the desiderata. To in-
crease their collections, public bodies have generally adopted one plan, viz.—a memo-
rial giving a brief account of the manner how to prepare, collect, and pack objects
of Natural History, and at the same time pointing out those objects most to be desired.
If such a memorial was got up under the auspices of this Society, and distributed among
its numerous members and correspondents throughout India, the Society would not only
possess for itself a collection in a very short time, but at the same time would have at
its disposal, for making exchanges, a large series of duplicates; and in the space of a
few years by so doing with the different collections in Europe, America, Cape, and
Sydney, it would thus bring together, with little expense to itself, a collection which
would vie with the various noble institutions on the European continent, and at the
same time worthy fof this the so-called City of Palaces. Before this can be done,
a Catalogue of the collection must be made. Moreover the Society could in a
series of tables exhibit by specimens, that is by bringing together the rocks of the dif-
ferent districts bordering on each other, the Geology of the whole of India, and thus in
a manner supply that great desideratum, at least to individuals here, viz. the want
of a Geological Map, and probably it might be the means of leading to this desirable
object ; an undertaking worthy of support from such an institution, and from the
country at large,
Wd:
* Dr. M‘Clelland informs us they have been once more swept into chaos by the
unguarded hands of assistants since Mr. Jameson’s departure. Nothing can more
clearly prove the futility of attempting to do any thing in this department before
proper cabinets are procured.—Eps.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 245
Art. VII.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
. Wednesday Evening, 6th March, 1839.
At a Meeting held at the Grand Jury Room of the Supreme Court.
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
The Honorable Sir H. Seton, the Rev. Jonn Henry Pratt, Dr. Wiviiam
Jameson, Mr. E. Tuomas, Mr. J. W. Laipvay, and Mr. A. C. DuNnLop, proposed
at the last Meeting, were ballotted for, and duly elected Members of the Society.
Read a letter from Mr. Cuarxes Ritter, acknowledging his election as an honorary
Member.
The Officiating Secretary apprized the Meeting of the departure of their Curator,
Dr. George Evans, to Europe; and after some discussion it was resolved that Dr.
Wictiam Jameson be appointed to the office, on the same allowances as those drawn
by his predecessor.
Library.
Read a letter from H. T. Prinszp, Esa. forwarding for inspection Dr. Robert
Wieut’s Illustrations of Indian Botany.
The following books were presented :—
_ Bulletin de la Societé de Geographie, vol. 9th—by the Society.
On the Ovulum of Santalum, by WiLLiaM GrirFiTHs, Esq.—by the Author.
Die Stupa’s (Topes) and die Colosse Von Bamiyan, by Cart Ritrer—by the Author.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. I—by the Society.
Proceedings of the Bombay Geographical Society for August, 1838—by the Society.
Ditto of the American Philosophical Society, Nos. 1, 2, and3, from January to August
1838—by the Society.
5 Copies Alif Leila, vol. Ist in Arabic—subscribed for by the Society.
Lardner’s Cyclopedia—Literary and Scientific Men, vol. 9th—from the Booksellers.
Read an application from PremcHauND Pundit, Editor of the ‘‘ Nyeshadha,”’ regard-
ing the 2nd part of the work in Manuscript, and offering to making over the same to
the Society, on condition of his being remunerated for his trouble in compilation.
Resolved that the application be referred to the Committee of Papers.
Museum.
A Gumsoor Battle Axe was presented by Mr. J. G. BALMAIN.
Statistics.
Read a letter from H. H. Spry, Esq., Secretary to the Statistical Sub-Committee,
intimating that in consequence of the Society’s declining to publish the Documents
compiled by them, they will no longer prosecute their researches.
The Annual Report for 1838, which had been presented on the Ist of January, was
then read, and adopted by the Meeting.
Secretaries’ Annual Report.
The indisposition and absence of the Rev. Mr. Maan since his appointment, and
the short period during which we have held the office of Officiating-Secretaries, will
we trust constitute a sufficient apology for the incompleteness of the present anniversary
notice.
We have endeavoured by a diligent perusal of the proceedings of the year just
elapsed to become familiar with the state and prospects of the Society, and we have also
246 Asiatic Society. [ Marcu,
sought more detailed information from the gentlemen severally responsible for the
Library, Finance, and Museum departments.
On the general statistics of the Society we have to state that the accession gf Mem-
bers to the Society during the year 1838 was as follows :—
Ordinary Members, wees 25
Honorary Members, <b J
Associate Members, — oe 1
The loss of Members by deaths, departures to Europe, and withdrawals, has been
—by departure to Europe, Messrs. W. Anam, A Corvin, H. Watters, Col. Burney,
and Mr. James PrRiNsSEP. By withdrawals, Messrs. W. Bruce and W. Dent.
By deaths in India, Messrs. A. E. Dopssand Joun Bett, and in France Monsieur A
Jacquet, an honorary Member, and one of the most distinguished Orientalists of the day.
We designedly forbear on this occasion from the attempt at any minute obituary
notice of the Members whose deaths we so deeply lament. The decease of M. Jacquet
was only announced at our last meeting. His friend and fellow labourer, EucENE
Burwour, in the letter which conveys this melancholy news, gives a touching narrative
of the circumstances of M. Jacaquet’s malady and death. A victim to consumption,
induced by his unremitting studies, he died at the age of 28, in the delusive confidence
of revealing by his future labours much of what is still mysterious in the history and
chronology of the Hindoo nations A quarter of an hour before death he was still
ardently pursuing his studies. In the homage paid to his memory in France, the Asiatic
Society of Bengal most unanimously and profoundly concur.
Publications.
We have to state that during the past year the 4th and last volume of the “‘ Maha-
bharata’’ has been the only work printed in the Oriental department. The volume will
be immediately published, and will cost the Society between 4 and 5,000 Rupees. The
liberality of Government has most opportunely enabled the Society to meet from its
own resources this heavy outlay, which otherwise would have fallen on our respect-
ed Secretary, Mr. Prinsep. The sale of the work in France has unfortunately proved
far short of M. BurNour’s sanguine predictions.
The publication of the ‘‘ Sharira Vidaya,’’ or translation of ‘‘ Hooper’s Anatomist’s
Vade Mecum,”’ has been sanctioned by the Society in conjunction with Mr. Murr, who
has generously subscribed 1,000 Rupees for this special object. There is yet however
much difficulty in this undertaking. The professional members of the Society con-
sider the work wholly useless without plates, and the lowest estimate yet obtained
places the cost of such illustrations at 6 x 250 = 1,500 Rupees. A reference to Europe
was evidently expedient to procure cheaper and better cuts than are obtainable in
India, and for the result of such reference the work is now postponed.
The publication of the “Sharya-ul-Islam’’ by the Newab Tanawor JUNG, has unfor-
tunately been much retarded. The delay is attributable to the conjoint inactivity of
the Printer and of the Moulavee employed to correct the proofs. Means are being taken
however to accelerate the completion of the work. An advance of 800 Rupees has
this month been made to the Printer, in pursuance of a resolution of the Committee
of Papers and Finance.
The Transactions of the Society will soon be augmented by the publication of the 2nd
Parts of the 19th and 20th Volumes. We may be pardoned for anticipating that the
literary reputation of the Society will be well sustained in their pages. Ifthe Society ~
has been reproached with neglecting the Natural History of Asia, the part of the
1839. | | Asiatic Society. ; 247
Physical Researches now in the press, will, we are confident, more than remove that
stigma. The bulk of the Physical Part will consist of Dr. M‘CLELLanp’s elaborate
paper on ‘‘ Indian Cyprinide.”’
In connexion with the subject of publications, we should not omit to notice two works
by Members of the Society, to which Government has contributed either by sub-
scription or by still more direct support. The first is the version by Mr. Torrens of
the ever-charming “‘ Alif Leila.’’ The second is the remarkable and valuable Cochin-
Chinese Dictionary, by the Right Rev. the Bishop of Isauropolis, now Roman Catholic
Bishop of the Diocese of Bengal.
Antiquities.
In antiquarian enterprise, research, and discovery, the past year has been most prolific.
Among the events of interest we notice in our records, we may particularize the liberal
grant by Government for the erection of the Allahabad pillar—the receipt from the
Rev. Mr. Wixsown of fac-similes of the Girnar inscriptions—Mr. PrinsEp’s most im-
portant discovery of the name of ANriocHus in two of the edicts of AsHoKa—Mr.
Prinsep’s translation of the religious edicts of Asoka, discovered in Gujerat and in
Cuttack—and the discovery that the inscription of Junegurh related the circumstance of
the repair of a bridge in the time of Cuunpra Gupta, by AsHoka, his grandson.
To these let us add, the interesting fruits of Mr. Kirroxr’s Researches in Cuttack—
the active and successful measures adopted by Government to procure fac-similes of the
Junegurh and Girnaghur inscriptions—the verification by Lieut. Postans of Mr.
PRINSEP’s views as to the reading of the name of ANTIGONUS next to that of ProLemy
in the 14th edict, in the Girnar inscriptions—the measures taken by Government to
prevent the demolition of the Kanarah Temple—and, lastly, Professor LassEn’s simul-
taneous proposition of an alphabet for the Pali and Bactrian languages, nearly identi-
cal with that described by Mr. Prinsep in the July number of the Journal. On even
this disjointed and hasty glance, we may well be proud of the progress the Society has
accomplished in the fulfilment of one of the chief objects of its institution. It will, we
doubt not, be universally admitted that the Asiatic Society during the past year has
justified its high name, and retained its natural position, as the most energetic and suc-
cessful agent of antiquarian discovery in the East.
Statistics.
Owing to the lamented deaths of Sir B. MaLKin and Mr. BELL, the retirement of
Messrs. Watters and Apa, and the withdrawal of Messrs. BigneL, CurRNIN, and
M ‘Curintock, the Committee was at the end of the year 1838 reduced to four Mem-
bers, Messrs. Ewart, Spry, BAILLiz, and Stewart. Mr. W. P. Grant has since
been elected a Member.
It is understood that Dr. Stewart has been for some time engaged in tabulating
translations of the Records of Native Mortality in Calcutta, with the view to illustrate
the localities of disease in this city, and the effects of climate on the health of its inha-
-bitants. Dr. Spry has prepared a series of tables illustrating the state of education
among different classes of Society in Bengal. Mr. Ewart has ready for press some
very valuable original tables connected with the currency and trade of Calcutta.
The only paper which has yet appeared in common with the labors of this Committee,
is the very important document by Mr. H. T. Prinsep, on the decrement of juvenile
European life in Bengal. This valuable contribution to vital statistics has already
appeared in the Society’s Journal. |
Kk Kk
248 ' _ Asiatic Society. (Marcu,
The Statistical Committee have met with the most willing and efficient support from
the Government, and from the Parent Society. Access has been granted to all
official records. connected with the subjects of finance, commerce, education, and
judicial administration. The Society has already contributed 500 Rs. to defray any
expenses incurred by the Committee. High expectations are consequently entertained
as to the harvest to be reaped from so fertile a field, by such active labourers, and
under such warm and constant encouragement. The form best suited for the pub-
lication of the documents already prepared has excited considerable discussion, and
still awaits a final decision.
Library.
The Librarian has been kind enough to comply with our request for a detailed report
of the accessions to our collection during the last year, and he has classified the entire
under the heads of languages and subjects. We now beg leave to present his report,
by which it appears that we have received,
Publications in English, 117
in French, .. 4 3]
in Latin, dna as 3
in German, .. ae 5
in Dutch, 344 ER 2
in Persian, 6
in Arabic, .. a 4
in Turkish, ..— 433 |
Total, .. 174 up tothe period of Mr. Csoma’s Report.
On the last day of the old year, we had the pleasure of receiving from M. Cassin the
highly important consignments exhibited on the table at the last meeting.
199 vols. 4to. and 8vo.
109 Pamphlets.
The works in question embrace some of the most important and valuable publi-
cations in every department of Natural History.
The mode in which this supply has been obtained is also very gratifying, the
expense having been defrayed by the sale of our Oriental Publications in Paris. It is
pleasing to observe this reciprocation of benefits by the cultivation of apparently
opposite pursuits—We have exchanged the ancient lore of the East, for the most
modern and useful sciences of Europe. Each branch of our labors thus proves auxi-
liary to the other. The researches of the naturalist are promoted by the discoveries
of the philologist and antiquarian, and thus, each in our particular sphere, we sustain
the reputation and enhance the utility of a Society established for the universal purpose
of investigating ‘‘ whatever is performed by man or produced by nature’’ in the East.
Museum of Natural History.
Mr. Evans has sent in an Annual Report, which will be published separately for
your information.
Miscellaneous.
During the past year some miscellaneous passages in our history deserve to be re-
corded in our annual notice.
In January we had the gratification of witnessing the erection in our apartments of
the bust of our distinguished associate, Professor Wiison. ‘The feeling excited on
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 249
this occasion, led on the following month to the adoption of measures, by which we look
forward to an early installation of the like remembrances of Sir WM. Jongs, of Mr.
CovLeBrookk, and Dr. Mit. This is indeed an object worthy of a grateful and wise
Society, and must excite in the present Members the ambition of ultimately deserving
such inestimable rewards.
In February a despatch was received from the Court of Directors, ordering 40 copies
of each number of the Society’s Journal—an act of generous patronage most fitly
bestowed on the periodical, as it was then conducted. It was moreover but the fore-
runner of still greater munificence, in the grant authorized in September of 500 Rupees
per mensem for the encouragement of Oriental Publications.
Nor while we acknowledge this princely aid from Government, should we be silent
on the liberality of some individual benefactors. Among these. Mr. Murr stands pre-
eminent—his subscription of 1000 Rupees to the expenses of the “‘ Sharira Vidaya’”’ will
we trust ere long be instrumental in placing a practical work on Anatomy within the reach
of the hereditary physicians of the East. Another act of warm co-operation, and we
have done. Let us commemorate the readiness with which Mr. James PrINSEP sus-
tained, by an outlay of 6,000 Rupees, the publication of the ‘* Mahabharata,’’ which
would otherwise have necessarily been discontinued. For this we are fortunately en-
abled to indemnify Mr. Prinsep, but he is not the less entitled to this grateful notice
of his unrivalled liberality.
In conclusion of this very imperfect Report, we should have dwelt in due and de-
served detail on the vast loss we have experienced in Mr. PrinsEp’s departure to
Europe, had not the subject been so fully and recently before the Society, and
so perfectly dealt with in the President’s address. We have now only to express
our earnest hopes that in full health and spirit Mr. PrRinsrep may soon return to the
scenes of his brilliant and numerous triumphs. His absence must not however altoge-
ther nullify the movement he excited. It seems to us too that the best proof, of the
esteem and affection in which we hold him, will be the perseverance in his pursuits, and
in the support of his Journal, until his presence enables the Society to enjoy again
the advantage of his inestimable labours.
(Signed) J. ©. C. SUTHERLAND,
W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, M. D.
Acting Secretaries.
Art. VIII.—Meteorological Register.
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|
JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCLETY.
No. 88.—APRIL, 1839.
Art. I.—Journal of the Mission which visited Bootan, in 1837-38,
under Captain R. BoineEAu PemBerton. By W. GrirFiru, Esa.
Madras Medical Establishment.
(Continued from page 241.)
PART IT.
| Remarks on the nature of the country, especially its vegetation, boundaries, and
divisions—its government, population, sects, character, customs, manners, and diet—
political relations. |
The following remarks suggested themselves to me during the
bird’s eye view I had of Bootan ; their superficiality is only to be ex-
cused by the shortness of my stay, the want of proper interpreters, the
jealousy of the Booteas, and extreme mendacity of such of their
Bengal subjects from whom, in my total ignorance of the Bootea
language, information was alone to be expected. And as I had daily
opportunities of seeing the constancy with which the head of the
Mission amassed all available information, I contented myself with
remarking on external rather than internal objects, on the face of
nature, rather than on that of men. Bootan, I need scarcely observe,
is a mountainous country, forming a considerable part of the most
Magnificent chain of mountains in the universe ; in it are to be found
all dggrees of elevation, from 1000 to 25,000 feet. In its extent it is
rather more limited than was supposed, since Capt. Pemberton has as-
certained that the country to the eastward, which is ruled by the
Towang Rajah, is directly dependent on, and forms a portion of the
Lhassa government.
Ll
252 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. LArrin,
The boundaries of the country are, Thibet to the north ; the plains
of Assam and Bengal to the south ; Sikkim to the west ; and the Kam-
pa country to the east. Its greatest breadth will hence be about 90, and
its greatest length about 210 miles.
The physical aspect of this country, so far as regards its most essen-
tial point—mountains, presents perhaps but little deviation from that
of other parts of the Great Himalayan chain; but on this point I
am unable to give any information. Every variety of surface was
met with, from bluff-headed to peaked highly angular summits. In some
places the paths were built up the naked faces of precipices ; in others,
very considerable elevations might be attained by very gradual ascents,
over a sufficiently practicable country. The two most rugged and most
peaked were, as might be expected, the two highest—Dongdola and
Rodola: the others, which generally averaged 10,500 feet, were very
easy. Of the rivers, which are in all cases mere mountain torrents,
nothing need be said. The largest we saw was the Monass, which
forms the principal drain of the eastern portion of Bootan. No lakes
appear to occur: there is below Santagong a jheel of small extent, but
it is of no depth, and does not derive its presence from springs or
the embouchure of small tributaries. It abounded with water fowl,
and was choked up with sedges, and a plant belonging to the family
Hydropeltide, hitherto not, I believe, found in India. Neither is
Bootan a country of valleys; in fact, with the exception of those of
Bhoomlungtung, Byagur, and Jaisa, we saw none worthy of bear-
ing the name. That of Punukka owes its existence to the va-
garies of the river, as its only level part has obviously at some
previous time formed part of its bed. The three valleys otherwise
mentioned are, if viewed in comparison with other valleys situated in
similarly mountainous countries, perfectly insignificant, for they con-
sist of a gentle slope from the bases of the contiguous hills to the bed of
the draining stream. The valley of Tassisudon is probably of like
extent with that of Punukka, but Turner’s accounts are so little to be
relied on, that even in a simple matter like this no just conclusion is to
be formed. I have only to add, that the three valleys are represented
as being close to some of the passes into Thibet: this alone is perhaps
sufficient to account for their great elevation.
Hot springs occur one day’s journey from Punukka, and appear to
be the resort of many invalids, victims to the most frequent disease,
lues venerea. From specimens procured by our guide, Chillong Soubah,
there must be at least two springs ; of one the water is of a yellowish
tint, and highly sulphureous ; that of the other is limpid, and
possesses no sensible properties. I did not hear of the existence of such
springs elsewhere.
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 253
Of the climate, which is necessarily so varied, it would be useless.
to attempt to give an account ; indeed the only two places of the cli-
mate of which the mean could be given for even one month, are
Tongsa and Punukka. The mean for the month of March at Tongsa
may be estimated at 56° 3’, the maximum heat between the 6th and
2lst instant being 63°, and the minimum 51°. I have elsewhere
stated the results of the observations made at Punukka. Throughout
the barren portions of the country, which are so generally limited to
inconsiderable elevations, the heat must no doubt be great during the
summer months; at Punukka in April the sun was found very
incommoding after 9 a.m; and as a proof of the heat at such eleva-
tions as 7000 feet in some places, I may readvert to the culture of rice
at, and above Tongsa. The ravines are, however, very narrow about
this place, and the faces of the mountain on which the cultivation oc-
curred had a western aspect.
In very many places, however, more abstracted from the influence
‘of radiated heat, delightful climates may be found. It is curious,
though not singular, that the best situations were always found occu-
pied by Gylong villages. Considerable elevation is, in addition to other
minor causes, requisite at least for a Bootea, during the summer
months: thus the Gylong villages were rarely seen under 8000 feet,
and oftener about 9000 feet; and the chiefs find a summer change of
residence necessary, during which they repair to elevations varying
from 7000 to 9000 feet.
The change in the Deb’s residence from Punukka to Tassisudon in
the summer, and vice versa in the winter, is to be accounted for, espe-
cially the latter change, on principles of equalization; that is, the
ryots about the one place are obstinate enough to refuse supplies for
more than six months ; such at least was the story heard by us,
although it is rendered doubtful, by the total want of regard evinced
by the rulers of the land for the interest of their subjects. The most
delightful climate we experienced was that of May at Chupcha, which
is situated on the steep face ofa mountain with a south west aspect, yet
the temperature ranged from 46° to 51°. A week afterwards, and we
were exposed to the unmitigated fierceness of a Bengal sun at the
hottest time of the year. | ;
The most disagreeable part of the climate of Bootan exists in the
violence of the winds, more particularly in the valleys. The direc-
tion of these winds, which are very gusty, is invariably up the
ravines, or contrary to the course of the draining torrents, no matter
what direction these may have; the winds therefore are dependent
upon local circumstances, as might be expected from the dryness of the
254 Capt. Pemberion’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. ([Aprit,
soil, and its effects on vegetation. The winds are more violent through-
out the lower tracts than elsewhere, and as in many of these places
they are enabled to supply themselves with dust, they often became
very positively disagreeable, and formed no inconsiderable part of the
annoyances we were subjected to during our residence at Punukka.
These partial winds* are frequently so violent as to unroof the
houses ; it must be remembered, however, that the roofs are generally
mere shingles, kept in their places by large stones. During our stay
at Punukka, the regal or sacred part of the roof was blown off; the
clattering that ensued from the falling of the copper plates, mixed
with the noise of the shingles and stones of other parts of the palace, was
very great; a deputation was immediately sent from the palace to
request that we would fire off no more guns near the palace, and we
found out afterwards that we were looked upon with a very suspicious
eye.
We were not much incommoded with rain, neither should I consi-
der it to be abundant throughout the lower elevations, at least no
part of the vegetation I saw in such tracts seemed to indicate even a
small amount of moisture. We were only once delayed by snow, and
on our return enjoyed uninterrupted fine weather until we reached
Buxa, where, as might be expected from its proximity to the plains
and the season, the weather was unsettled.
As regards quantity of vegetation, Bootan exhibits, it appears to me,
considerable peculiarities. In the other parts of the Himalayan chain I
have seen, and generally throughout India, the bases and lower portions
of the mountains are the most thickly wooded, and it is generally a
tolerably certain indication of elevation when less wooded tracts are
met with; but in Bootan not only is the vegetation of the lower
ranges contiguous to the plains unusually scanty throughout a consi-
derable part of their extent, but throughout the interior it is generally
absolutely barren within certain elevations. ‘This scantiness at the
base of the mountains is perhaps at its maximum due north from
Gowahatti, in which direction the vegetation is almost entirely grami-
neous ; to the westward it certainly lessens, but even to the north of
Rungpore (Bengal) the woods are thin, especially when contrasted
with the Toorais of other portions ; at the same time the vegetation of
the lower ranges is in this direction nearly as dense as it is else-
where. Of its extent to the eastward I have no actual evidence to of-
fer ; but as to the north of Jeypore there is a well defined Toorai, and
* The general winds have, it would appear, the usual direction ; that is, they blow
from the plains,
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 255
as to the eastward again, it would appear to again become deficient :
it probably is irregular in its distribution, and depends consequently
on local causes.
But while there is such difference in the amount of vegetation
along the tract at the base of the mountains, the vegetation on these
up to an elevation of 1600—3500 feet is uniformly scanty, except to
the westward, in which direction, as I have mentioned, they do not
differ in absolute amount from the well wooded mountains to be seen
elsewhere.
Between Dewangiri and Punukka we found that the surface of
the* interior below 5000 feet in elevation was uniformly very barren,
and after crossing the ridge above Telagoung we found similar ap-
pearances, but with a very dissimilar vegetation, at elevations of
from 7000 to 11,000 feet, but they were by no means so uniform or so
general. Throughout the barren tracts* of the first of the above
portions of Bootan the vegetation consists for the most part of grasses,
among which a few low shrubsoccur. The arboreous vegetation is
confined almost entirely to Pinus longifolia, which is very commonly
much stunted. The barren tracts to the westward of Telagoung were
remarked almost entirely along the Teemboo, the southern face of
the ravine of which was generally remarkably barren, even at very
considerable elevations. Grasses did not form here so predominant
a portion, shrubs on the contrary abounded, and among these the most
common perhaps was a species of [tosa, very much like the R sericea
of Royle’s Illustrations.
In Bootan it is only at high elevations, and under certain circum-
stances, among which aspect.and especially humidity are the most
important, that the grand forests which have excited the admiration
of all travellers in the Himalayas to the westward, make their ap-
pearance. The requisite elevation is scarcely ever less than 7000, and
is generally about SOUV0—8500 feet ; at such, oaks, magnolias, rho-
dodendrons, and several species of firs attain to great perfection. Be-
tween, or on the borders of the woods, patches of swards, adorned in
the spring with beautiful herbaceous plants are frequently met with,
and form the prettiest object in the whole scenery of Bootan. The
vegetation of such, and of much higher elevations, is generally well
diversified, until indeed one reaches an elevation of 11,500 feet ; at
such I found it generally reduced to black firs, stunted junipers,
and shrubby rhododendrons, the bulk, as regards amount of species,
* These lower mountains are very frequently curiously marked with transverse
ridges. These have much of the appearance of ancient terrace cultivation, but on
inquiry 1 was assured that such was not their origin.
256 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
consisting of herbaceous plants, whose growth is confined to a very
few congenial months, and which were almost all hid from my view
by the heavy snow, so constant between the latter end of October and
the commencement of May. Another striking feature in Bootan is the
constancy with which southern faces of mountains are, especially
towards their summits, bare of trees or shrubs; this it has in
common with other parts of the Himalayas both to the westward,
where it has struck all travellers, and to the eastward, as on the
Mishmees. I am not prepared to state whether any satisfactory
explanation of this has been given; it struck me to be due, in
Bootan at least, to the searching severity of the winds, which are
quite sufficient to keep down all luxuriance of vegetation. Whatever
the secondary causes may be, there can be no doubt that the primary
one is due to the influence of the south-west monsoon, to which all
these faces of the Himalayan mountains are freely exposed.
The higher the altitude the greater, as indeed might be expected,
was the uniformity of vegetation, and it was only in such that any
general features of vegetation could be said to occur. A very constant
feature of high altitude, such as from 11,000 to 12,500 feet, existed in
the black fir, a lofty tabwarly branched tree of a very peculiar
appearance, in comparison at least with other Bootan species, and
which, when seen standing out in dark relief, might, from the very
frequent mutilation of its lower branches, be mistaken at a distance for
palm; with these there was as nearly a constant association of the
same species of other plants. The most striking among the partial
features of the vegetation of Bootan was presented to us by the three
valleys, so often alluded to; these may well be called the region
of pines of that country. The range of the three species was most
distinct and very instructive, although the Smithian Pine, a little
further to the westward, descended to a somewhat lower elevation than
it did in the tract above mentioned.
Still more partial features were presented by the Pinus excelsa, and
more especially by the Pinus longifolia, the distribution of both of which
appears to depend on local causes. The latter species was not seen
on our return, nor was there a vestige of a fir visible after reaching
Chuka ; no species but the long-leaved was seen below 5500 feet.
I have jn the foregoing few remarks merely glanced at the most
familiar features of the botany of Bootan. As the importance of strict
determination has been much insisted on before correct views can be
formed of the botanical geography of any country, I have purposely
omitted all details, until the collection shall have been duly examined ;
but even when this has been done, the difficulties are almost insuper-
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-88. 257
able, for although Roxburgh died thirty four years ago, and the number
of plants indigenous to India has been increased fourfold since that
time, the means exist of determining but a very few more than those
described by Roxburgh himself. It is familiar to all botanists that of
the 8000 species distributed eight or ten years since by the Honorable
Company, not more than 1000 have yet received their promised share
of elaboration.*
Bootan is divided into provinces which are ruled by Pillos, of whom
there are three—the Paro, Tongsa, and Tacca: they derive their names
from their respective residences ; the rank of the two first is, I believe,
equal, and they are admitted into council, while that of Tacca Pillo
is very inferior.
The provinees are again divided into districts, equivalent to Sou-
bahships; of these there are several. The Soobah’s jurisdictions through
which we passed were those of Dewangiri, Tassgong, Tassangsee, Leng-
Jung, and Byagur, all of which are in Tongsa Pillo’s province. After
leaving Tongsa we came into the province of Punukka, and after
leaving this capital we came on the tract attached to that of Tassisu-
don, or as it is called Tassjeung. The Soobahs all exercise supreme
jurisdiction within their own limits, but pay a certain annual amount
of revenue to their respective Pillos. The Soobahs of Dewangiri and
Buxa are of subordinate rank.
But besides these governors of provinces, and governors of districts,
there are other officers of high rank, who assist in moving the machine
of government ; they do not however make good exemplifications of the
proverb, “in the multitude of counsellors there is wisdom.” The
offices of these additional counsellors are as follow—the Tass Troom-
poon, or warder of the palace of Tassisudon ; the Puna Troompoon of
the palace of Punukka; and Wandipore Troompoon of the castle of
Wandipore ; then there is the Lam Trimpe on the part of the Dhurma,
and Deb Trimpe on the part of the Deb.
* The following passage was erased from the proof of Dr. Griffith’s M.S. in the
office of the Secretary to Government. We insert it asa note, on Dr. Griffith’s and
our own responsibility, and in the confidence that Dr. Wallich can readily give a full
and a satisfactory answer to the implied charges.—Eps.
** Had Dr. Wallich never been in India the matter would have been otherwise, as
it would not then have been a matter of policy to remove every vestige of an Herba-
rium from the Botanic Gardens, and to publish a confused catalogue of names without
characters. As the matter now stands, Indian botanists are reduced to this,—they must
either give up all the advantages they possess by being in India, and wait until all the
species, amounting to 3 or 4,000, named by Dr. Wallich have been described by others
in Europe from dried, and in many cases very imperfect specimens, or they must in no
ease acknowledge the authority of any body to name an object without giving it a charac-
ter, and publish such new species as they may deem to be new with their names and
their descriptions.’’
258 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprtt,
The supreme authorities are the Dhurma and Deb Rajahs; the
latter representing the temporal government in its strictest sense, as
his reign is generally short ; the former the spiritual in as strict a sense,
for he is, although infinitely divisible, quite eternal. The immorta-
lity of the Dhurma is not so well known as that of the Lama of Thibet,
it is nevertheless equally true; both appear to have been firmly be-
lieved by Captain Turner, whose account of the behaviour and intel-
ligence of the Grand Lama, an infant of some months old, is very
amusing and characteristic. The present Dhurma is, as I have men-
tioned, the son of Tongsa Pillo, a curious coincidence.
The chief test of the authenticity of the infant in whom the Dhur-
ma condescends to leave the regions of ether for those of gross spirits,
consists in his recognising his former articles of wearing apparel, &c.;
and to avoid any supposition that might arise from the probability of
any mortal child being struck with shewy gew-gaws, this child is
bound to assert that they are actually his own; if it does so, surely
it is satisfactory evidence. The infant Dhurma may as well be found in ~
the hut of the poorest peasant as in the residence of an officer of high
rank, but I dare say, if the truth were known, he is usually made
for the occasion.
When he has been completely tested he is removed to the palace,
and his life thenceforward becomes one of almost absolute seclusion.
Surrounded by hosts of priests, and in the apparent enjoyment of
most things deemed desirable by a Bootea, he is nothing but a state
prisoner, virtually sacrificed to state ordinances. Neither is it proba- —
ble that he enjoys any power sufficient to recompense him for being —
cut off from the merry side of life, for if his teachers have been wise
teachers, they probably rule him throughout. But all this holds good
only on the supposition that his life is as really monastically rigid as
those of some orders of Christian monks were not. We heard strange
accounts, especially at Punukka, sufficient to suggest that a priest is
not necessarily virtuous in Bootan more than any where else.
His revenues are, I believe, derived from certain lands in the plains,
and above all from offerings. He is also said to trade, but none of
them can derive much profit from commercial speculations.
It is in the Deb that the supreme authority as regards the internal
economy of the country is vested. But supreme though he be cailed,
as he can do nothing without consulting all the counsellors, including
the Pillos, who have no cause to dread his displeasure, his power must
be extremely limited, and very often disputed ; and, if it is remem-
bered that he is always checked by those counsellors who are actually
present with him, and that he holds no, or at least very little, territory
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 259
on the plains; and that a Pillo has no check on himself, that his pro-
vince is perhaps remote from the capital, and that he has filled up all
his offices with his own relations and friends, it is evident, I think,
that the change from governor of a province to that of supreme ruler
of the country must be attended with loss of power. Besides, the Deb
is only expected to retain office for three years, at the end of which he
is expected to retire, provided he be weak enough.
The present Deb, if indeed he now exists, has no authority out of
Punukka, and not too much even in his own palace. He was formerly
Tacca Pillo, and this seemed to be the grand source of complaint
against him.
The chief object of the Deb, as is that of all his officers, is to accu-
mulate money. The sources of this are plunder, fines, reversion of
property to him by death of the owners (and this seems to be carried to
a frightful extent), tributes from the Pillos, offerings on accepting office,
trading, and the proceeds of lands in the plains ; but this last source
cannot yield much, since the occupation of the best part by Herr Govindh.
Our Deb, in addition to his usual sources, added another during our
visit, by robbing the Dhurma of all his presents. The revenues of the
Pillos are derived principally from their Dooars, or territories in the
plains, by plunder either of their own subjects, or those of the British
government, fines, in short by every possible method.
Nothing can be said in favour of this many-headed government ;
each Deb, each Pillo, each Soobah, ‘each officer in fact of high or low
degree, is obstinately bent on enriching himself at the expense’ of his
subjects or his inferiors; and their object is to do this as rapidly as
possible, as removals are always probable, and are almost sure to
depend upon a change of the Deb. There is no security for property,
and not much for life, but fines are fortunately deemed more pro-
fitable than bloodshed, and, in short, the only safety of the lower
orders consists in their extreme poverty. The whole proceedings of
this government with the Mission were characterised by utter want
of faith, honesty, and consideration. The trickery, intrigue, and false-
hood could only be equalled by the supreme ignorance, presumption,
and folly exhibited upon every occasion. Procrastination was a trump
card in the game they played, mildness of deportment was pretty sure
_ of inducing insolence, and they were only kept in decent order by per-
ceiving that you were determined not to be trifled with.
Iam not disposed to assign their behaviour to the nature of the pre-
sent temporary government ; it was only natural in an ignorant, very
conceited people, who find that they are treated with distinguished
consideration by the only power that admits them to an equality. The
Mm
260 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
preceding Deb, from convictions of interest, and from having tasted
more than once of British liberality, might have treated the Mission
with some consideration, but the issue as to business would doubtless
have been the same. I regret much not being able to state more about
the government of the country, and more especially its internal eco-
nomy. The usual punishment for crimes is in fines, a method always
resorted to wherever money is considered as the grand object. In
Bootan I have little doubt but that the commission of grievous crimes
would be encouraged, were the lower orders in condition to pay the
fines. . 3 .
I have before adverted to an instance of black treachery : that instance
was furnished by a Mahomedan, Nuzeeb-ood Deen, a native of Cal-
cutta; who having accompanied a trader into Bootan had been
detained and placed in a state of captivity for twelve years. By some
fortunate neglect on the part of the.Booteas in the palace, he contrived
to gain admission to Capt. Pemberton ; and his tale was so consistent,
and bore such evidences of truth, that Capt. Pemberton claimed him
as a British subject; and the justice of the claim was very strongly
urged by the prevarication of the Booteas, who indeed finally admit-
ted it. Nuzeeb-ood Deen returned to the palace, but very luckily for
him, Capt. Pemberton, who suspected that the Booteas might dispose
of him privily, insisted much that he should be forthcoming when he
called for him, and wrote to the Deb to the same purpose; yet even
under these circumstances, it was unanimously agreed that he should
be cut to pieces and thrown into the river, but they refrained from 3
doing so from fear of the consequences. As soon as he was given up, — .
which happened a day or two before our departure, he placed himself —
under Captain Pemberton, who advised him not to associate with —
Booteas, and above all to eat or drink nothing from their hands.
Nuzeeb-ood Deen however was not proof against a cup presented to him
by a boy with whom he had been very intimate during his captivity.
The consequences were every symptom of having partaken of some
narcotic poison ; he was saved by the action of powerful emetics, but
did not recover for some time afterwards; he was carried through
the palace and throughout the first march on a Bootea’s back.
The population of the country is certainly scanty, and indeed could
not be otherwise under existing circumstances. Villages are very ge-
nerally “ few and far between,” in addition to their being small. The
only decently populated bits of country we saw about Santagong and
Tamashoo. The valley of the Teemboo as far as Panga was also
tolerably populous, but it must be remembered that this is the princi-
pal part of the great thoroughfare of the country. The palaces and —
se
x
;
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 261
eastles are the only places well inhabited, but the inmates might
very advantageously be dispensed with, as they consist of idle priests
in excess, and bullying followers; both too happy to live at the ex-
pense of the poor cultivators.
The causes of this scantiness of the population exist in polyandry,
and one of its opposites agyny, in the bad government, and the filthy
and licentious habits of the people. The great rarity of aged people
struck us all very forcibly, and is a proof that whatever may be
the proportion of births, the proportion of life is below average. The
bad influence of polyandry is supposed to be counteracted by the idea,
that the spouse of many will be faithful to the eldest so long as he
may be present, and after him to the second, and so on ;—such an idea
is at best absurd, and as regards Bootan women, is positively ridi-
culous, their chastity not being of such a quality as to induce them to
be particular as to relationship, or even acquaintance.
The expected celibacy of so large a portion of the inhabitants, al-
though probably assumed in some degree, and which depends either on
acceptance of office or on the course of education, must be very
pernicious. The large number thus withdrawn from propagating—the
only good in their power—would lead us to suppose that polygamy
would be of much more likely occurrence than polyandry ; and the
custom is rendered still more paradoxical by the contrariety of custom
observed amongst most other Asiatic people, who make polygamy
almost an invariable consequence of worldly prosperity.
In very many places there is obviously an extreme disproportion of
females to males, yet it would be too much to assume that there is a
general disproportion, although the two causes above adverted to be
would sanction such a belief, unnatural as it may supposed to be. We
could not ascertain that the apparent disproportion of females was
the result of unnatural conduct on the part of the Booteas, although
iN my opinion they are sufficiently capable of destroying either male
or female offspring, did they consider it expedient to their interests.
Of the diseases, which in all countries form so essential a part of the
causes tending to diminish population, I know nothing. The few pati-
ents I had at Punukka were all suffering from venereal, frequently in
its worst form. Chillong Soobah assured me that such cases occur in
the proportion of one in five.
The number of half-ruined villages would suggest the idea that the
population was formerly more extensive than it now is. But it must
_ be remembered that, in this as well as most other hilly parts of India,
the population is partly migratory. In acountry where agriculture is
not understood, where no natural means exist for renovating the soil,
262 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
and no artificial ones are employed, the population must vary their
abodes in accordance with means of subsistence. The only cause for
surprise is that they should build such substantial houses ; they may
do so with a view of returning to them after the ground has been
sufficiently fallowed.
Education. Of the course of this essence of the growth of the mind
I can state nothing. If the assumption of the habits of priesthood
be considered as the first step of education, it is rather extensive ;
but I doubt whether a Bootea boy may not wear these robes for
years and then throw them off improved in no good, but in all vice.
There is scarcely a village in Bootan in which some exterior decorations,
as well as the whole air of the house, do not indicate it to be the
favoured residence of a priest; yet I never heard the hum of scholars
in any other place than Dewangiri, in which, and it is a curious
coincidence, priests were comparatively uncommon.
The Booteas appear to have no caste; they are divided, however,
into several sects, and in the account of the Persian sent into Bootan
by Mr. Scott, whose account may be found in the fifteenth volume of
the Asiatic Researches, as many as fifteen are enumerated. It does
not appear, however, that the possession of the higher offices is con-
fined to the higher sects ; for Tongsa Pillo is known to be a man of a
low sect, although he may be considered, from his station and con-
nexions, the most powerful man in the country.
Most Booteas have much of the same appearance ; to this however
the people about Bhoomlungtung, Byagur, and Jaisa, as well as those
about Rydang are marked exceptions, and have much more of what I
imagine to be the Tartar appearance.*
If we look at those sects which do not depend upon blood, but
upon education or circumstances, we may divide the inhabitants into
labourers, priests, idle retainers, and great men, which is in many
places another word for tyrants. The labourers are better acquainted
with poverty than any thing else, and are lucky in being allowed to
have such a safeguard.
Perhaps the most numerous, and certainly the most pernicious
class, is that of the Priests or Gylongs. Their number is really astonish-
ing, particularly when compared with the population in general. Not
only do they swarm in the castles and palaces, of which they occupy
the best and most exalted parts, but they inhabit whole villages, which
may be always recognised by the houses being somewhat white-washed,
of a better than ordinary description, and always in the best and
* The people again towards Buxa are of very distinct appearance, but this results
from a tolerably free admixture of Bengalee blood.
1839. } Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 263
coolest situations. Of their grades of rank I can say nothing, but
much importance seems to depend upon due agedness. The highest
were usually admitted to the interviews, and of course expected to be
recompensed for the honour they did us; but as they were well con-
tented with two or three rupees, their ideas cannot be said to be
extravagant. They are perhaps rather more cleanly than other
Booteas, and are reported to bathe publicly every week ; but although
we frequently saw processions in single files, in all cases headed by a
small drum, a sort of gong, a clarionet, and an incense bearer, the
priests following according to their seniority, the youngest noviciate
ending the tail, I am not convinced but that the bathing part may be
more nominal than actual ; one thing at least is certain, that the duty,
whatever it was, was agreeable, otherwise we should not have seen the
processions so often.
They are kept in order in the castles by hide whips, in the use
of which some of the brethren are neither sparing nor discriminating.
The dress is becoming, consisting of a sleeveless tunic, generally of a cho-
colate colour, and edged with black or yellow. They are certainly bet-
ter off than any other class: their chief duty is to be idle, to feast at
the expense of the country, and at most, to tell their beads and recite
mutterings.
The idle retainers form also a large portion, though by no means
equal to that of the priests. As little can be said in the favour of these
as in that of those, but they have one disadvantage in not being able to
make use of their religion as a cloak for evil deeds. In these two classes
all the most able-bodied men in the country are absorbed: they are
taught to be idle and to become oppressors, and what is very bad in
such a thinly populated country, they learn to look upon the ordinance
of marriage, and its usual consequences, as a bar to their own interest.
Of the great men I can only say that their influence is undeviatingly
directed to the furtherance of their interests ; they become governors to
oppress, not to protect the governed—they rule by misrule ; and as
being the sources of the two great evils I have just mentioned—priests
and retainers—they are themselves the greatest curse that ever was
inflicted upon a poor country.
Of the moral qualities of the Booteas it is not in my power to give a
pleasing account. ‘To the lower orders I am disposed to give credit for
much cheerfulness, even under their most depressed circumstances,
and generally for considerable honesty. The only instances of theft
that occurred did so on our approach to the Capital. How strange, that
_ where all that should be good, and all that is great is congregated,
there is little to be found but sheer vice; and how strange, that
264 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. |_Apnit,
where good examples alone should be led, bad examples alone are
followed.
To the higher orders I cannot attribute the possession of a single
good quality. They are utter strangers to truth, they are greedy
beggars, they are wholly familiar with rapacity and craftiness, and the
will of working evil. This censure applies only to those with whom
we had personal intercourse ; it would be perhaps unfair to include
the Soobahs, whom we only saw once, in such a flattering picture,
but it certainly would not be unreasonable ; and I must make one
exception in favour of Bullumboo, the Soobah of Dewangiri, and he
was the only man of any rank that we had reason to be friendly
towards and to respect. In morale they appeared to me to be inferior
to all ordinary Hill tribes, on whom a Bootea would look with in.
effable contempt ; and although their houses are generally better, and
although they actually have castles and places called palaces, and
although the elders of the land dress in fine cloths and gaudy silks,
and possess money, ponies, mules, and slaves, I am disposed to consi-
der them as inferior even to the naked Naga.
They are not even courageous. I am inclined to rank courage among
physical rather than moral qualities, yet it could not so be classified
in the consideration of a Bootea, in whom other physical qualities are
well developed. I therefore consider it among those other qualities
which, as I have said, are absent in Bootan. A Bootea is a great
boaster, but a small performer. All the accounts I heard of their re-
puted courage were ludicrous. Turner mentions seriously that one
desperate revolution superinduced the death of one man in battle;
and we were told that in the late protracted one, the only sufferers
were two sick people who were unable to escape from a burning house.
In a military point of view they could only make up for their deficiency
in numbers by an excess of courage and of perseverance under diffi-
culties. They are not even well versed in the use of their national
weapons. The Gourkha Soubahdar who accompanied the Mission
looked on them with the utmost contempt, and this knowledge he had
gained by long experience. In Mr. Scott’s time a handful of Assamese
sebundies would take stronghold after stronghold, and lead off all the
tenants, excepting the defenders who had run away, as captives; and
very lately 700 Booteas, with every advantage of ground, were totally
routed by seventy of the same sebundies. Their courage may there-
fore be written down as entirely imaginary. _
Their ideas of religion appear to be very confused; religion with
them consisting, as indeed it may do among other more civilised
people, of certain external forms, such as counting beads, and mutter-
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 265
ing sacred sentences. The people throughout are remarkably super-
stitious, believing in an innumerable host of spirits, whose residences
they dare not pass on horseback; and while they are near these
abodes they keep the tenant at bay with vollies of incantations. The
offerings to these spirits are usually flowers, or bits of rag; this prac-
tice they have in common with most of the tribes to the extreme east
of Assam.
Of any marriage ceremonies I could not hear; but as chastity would
appear to be unknown, no particular forms are probably required ;
nor do I think that there is a particular class of prostitutes. We all had
opportunities of remarking the gross indelicacy of Bootea women ; of
this and of their extreme amiableness, the custom of polyandry is a
very sufficient cause. So far as I could see, there is no distinction of
rank among Bootea women, and those only are saved from the per-
formance of menial duties who are incapacitated by sickness or age.
If the account given by Mr. Scott’s Persian of the ceremonies atten-
dant on birth be true, another sufficient cause exists for scantiness of
population, as well as for a disproportion of women. He asserts that
the second day after birth both child and mother are plunged into the
nearest river ; but so great is the dislike of a Bootea for this element,
that I am inclined to discredit the account, and more especially as
regards the mother.
The disposal of corpses is much the same as among the Hindoos :
the ashes of the body are collected, and are, I believe, thrown into the
nearest river. The ceremonies, of course, begin and end with a dona-
tion to the officiating priest. The only part of them I witnessed was
the burning, and this only in one instance ; it was done in a slovenly
and disgusting manner.
Of the social habits, little favourable could be said in any place
where the women are looked on as inferior beings, and used as slaves.
The men generally are excessively idle, and spend most of their time
in drinking chong, for the preparation of which, as well as that of
arrack, there are provisions in most houses. I do not think I ever
saw a male Bootea employed, except indeed those who acted as
coolies. All the work in doors and out of doors is done by women, to
whom about Punukka Assamese slaves are added. The men are great
admirers of basking in the sun, and even prefer sitting shiveri ing in the
cold to active employment.
I need scarcely add that both sexes are in all their habits inexpres-
sibly filthy. The women in their extreme indelicacy form a marked
contrast with such other Hill tribes as I am acquainted with.
The only use either sex make of water is in the preparation of food
266 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
or of spirits—no water ever comes into contact with any part of their
person ; they scarcely ever change their clothes, especially the woollen
ones. The people about Bhoomlungtung are far the dirtiest, and as
they wear dark woollen cloths, rendered still darker by long accumu-
lation of smoke and dirt, they look more like representations of natives
of Pandemonium, than of any place on the earth’s surface.
As they, at least the official part, are very assuming, so does state
enter largely into all their proceedings. All our interviews with
them were conducted with all possible state on their part ; and that
exhibited to us at Tongsa and Punukka, was striking enough, and
will ever after form in my mind as bitter a satire upon state as one
could well wish. The effect was much lowered by the usual Asiatic
want of arrangement, by an assumption of superiority among the in-
feriors (probably enough at the instance of their superiors), and by the
admixture of the profanum vulgus, who had no opportunity of hiding
inherent dirt under fine robes. On these occasions the behaviour of
the chief was certainly gentlemanly, but the impression was soon ob-
literated by a messenger overtaking us, probably on our return, for
another watch, or another telescope, or any other thing. In personal
appearance I did not observe much difference between the higher and
the lower orders, with the exception of the ex-Pillo of Tongsa, who
seemed to have the best blood in the country concentrated in him.
The presents given as returns of the magnificent gifts of the Governor
General were beggarly ; and yet there was a good deal of parade in
their exhibition. To us narrow silk scarfs were always given, occa-
sionally varied with a foot and a half of blanket. The scarfs are
habitual gifts among all the upper classes, and very generally form
the inner envelope of letters.
Fine woollens and embroidered China silks form the dress of the
nobles ; thick cotton or woollen doublets or tunics are common to every
body else, but the chiefs probably have similar dresses in private, at
least their principal officers certainly have ; and the only difference in
such cases is the belt, from which the dha is on occasions suspended
these are embroidered, and have a rich appearance. The dress of all
is certainly cumbrous, especially when the peculiarly Chinese boots are
donned. The boots of the higher orders are certainly not made in
Bootan ; those of the lower orders consisted of a foot of some skin, with
party-coloured woollen leggins, which lie above the calf. They are worn
by both sexes.
The general receptacle for odds and ends, and a most capacious one it
is, is between the skin and the doublet. Into this, which (consequent
toone side being formed by the body) is not of the cleanest description,
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 267
every thing is thrust, from a handful of rice to a walnut, from a live
fish to a bit of half putrid dried meat. Tobacco is carried in a small
pouch suspended from one side.
A dha, or straight sword of a heavy description, is worn by all who
ean afford it, and the belt of this secures the loose doublet about the
waist, and prevents the innumerable deposits therein from falling down.
Those who cannot wear dhas from poverty, wear ridiculous looking
knives, which dangling from the belt have a very absurd appearance.
It is lucky that the people are not quarrelsome, and not inclined to
resist the followers of chiefs, otherwise from the men being so generally
armed, and so generally addicted to drinking, assaults might be ex-
pected to be of common occurrence ; I only saw however one instance
in which a man had been wounded. I certainly shuddered at times,
expecting every moment to see adverse parties multiply each other by
division ; but latterly I was persuaded that cutting blows were rarely
resorted to. The end of these disputes, which barring the blows
were very fierce, was always brought about by the arrival of some
third person, who by espousing one, espoused the stronger cause, and
when this was done the weaker withdrew, or was made to withdraw
by blows with the flat side of the weapon.
The accoutrements of a man of war differ, so far as his mere dress
goes, in nothing. His defences consist of a well quilted iron skull-cap,
which, when out of danger, is worn slung on the back ; lappets are
attached to it which defend the face—perhaps from cold. They also
carry circular leathern shields, apparently of rather good manufacture.
Their weapons of defence are first the dha, which is a heavy unwieldy
Weapon, without any guard. They are worn on the right side,
but this to us awkward mode of wearing does not hinder a Bootea
from disengaging his weapon readily, the sheath being first seized by
the left hand. <A blow from this weapon must cause a desperate
wound, and judging from their quarrels, in which not a vestige of any
skill in self-defence was shewn, the first blow, when actually struck,
must decide the matter. Their fire arms, which are all matchlocks,
and which vary in size from musketoons to huge wall pieces, are con-
temptible: they are of Chinese manufacture. Their powder, which
they manufacture themselves, is powerless ; indeed in one sense it may
be considered as positively lessening power, for Captain Pemberton
and Lieut. Blake ascertained that in ordinary charges it could not cause
the discharge of the wad, and hence it actually weakened the cap.
_Toremedy this badness they put in very large charges, but after all they
seem to depend more on the effect of the noise than on that of the
missile, for so little reliance is placed on this, that the marksman is
Nh
268 Capt. Pemberton's Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. LArrit,
said to follow up the discharge by the piece by the discharge of a
stone. It is likewise said that few venture to take aim except with
the stone ; they generally attach the gun to a tree, and without point-
ing it consider that they have performed a dangerous feat by causing
its discharge. All the musketeers I saw, even when there was
no ball in the gun, certainly averted their faces very studiously when
the due fizzing of the powder warned them that the explosion would
soon come on. |
The most common weapon next the dha is the bow: this we only
saw practised at Dewangiri, and the result was not alarming. The
bows are longer than ordinary, at least so they appeared to my inex-
perienced eyes. It must be remembered that they do not, as in
some more civilised places, fire at marks the size of an ordinary house.
The mark which we saw was a small battledoor-shaped piece of
wood, the distance was 150 yards, and the situation of the mark was
pointed out by branches of trees ; scarcely an arrow alighted with-
in reasonable distance, yet the mark bore several marks, which we
knew were made for the occasion. Each archer was very noisy in ap-
plauding his own skill, and challenging the others to equal it.
The dress of the women likewise consists of a loose garment, and is
very similar to that worn by Hill tribes to the eastward of Assam.
They have very few ornaments: the chief ones consist of a plate of
silver fastened round the head, and crossing the upper part of the fore-
head, wire ear-rings of large dimensions, and peculiar rings fastened to
a straight silver wire and worn projecting beyond the shoulder. They
appear to be fond of flowers, and frequently decorate themselves with
garlands, particularly of the scarlet rhododendron and the weeping
willow.
The diet of the lower orders is very, very poor; they appear to live
entirely on grain of an inferior nature, or in the wheat districts on
coarse, abominably dirty chowpatties. There can be little doubt but
that in many places they are not unfrequently much pinched by
want.
The chiefs and their followers, and the inmates generally of the
castles, live chiefly on rice brought from the plains; they likewise con-
sume much dried fish, and very likely not a little dried meat, which
they prepare by means of fire and smoke. They are as strict in their
ideas of not eating flesh of living animals as the Burmese are; and
they are beyond doubt very fond of animal diet: the salt is I believe —
brought from Thibet: they eat with the hand. |
Their beverages are in the first place tea, but this is I believe used
only by persons of some rank or property: they procure this from
1839.] Capt. ‘Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 269
Thibet, in the form of huge flat cakes: it does not possess a particle
of aroma. Still more common is the beverage called swnga pat, which
may be likewise used for the tea; if. their accounts can be relied
on it is prepared from the leaf of a pear or medlar. I had no anxiety
to taste it as it was of a muddy appearance and reddish colour.
Of intoxicating fluids they have two; one of these is merely fer-
mented, and is known by the name of chong ; it is a vile preparation
from rice, made in the same manner, but very inferior in quality
to that used by the Singphos. To this drink, which is not strong,
they are immoderately addicted, and it generally is carried with them
on journeys in large horns made from the horns of the Mithan.
The distilled liquor I had one opportunity of tasting; it was ;
very clear, and much resembled weak whisky, as the Soobah had
I imagine diluted it prior to distribution to the spectators.
The political relations of the country are as limited as the boun-
daries. With Stkkim they appear to have no intercourse. In the
Kampas to the eastward there is some reason to believe that they
pay an annual tribute. ‘That they are tributary indirectly to Lhassa,
and now directly to China, there can be no doubt, although the
official people most strenuously denied it. It was affirmed indeed that
a considerable time ago the Chinese were in actual possession of the
eountry, but relinquished it finally on account of its poverty. China
also exercises its authority in inflicting fines on them, and keeps
guards on all the passes into Thibet. The tribute is taken I believe
annually to Lhassa accompanied with an envoy. With the British
government its chief relations have existed owing to the occupation of
certain tracts in the plains called Dooars, from their being situated
near the passes into the mountains. ‘These tracts are of considerable
extent, and are held by the Booteas on toleration, as the tribute they
are under the obligation to pay is not only so small in amount as to
be quite nominal, but is generally allowed to lapse into arrears.
In assigning the continuation of the possession of these tracts where-
ever an accession of dominion was gained, the British government
acted with its usual liberal policy; but this liberality has been so
little appreciated by the people of Bootan, that the system, as it has
worked hitherto, has been fraught with mischief; it has been most
positively injurious to the territories in the plains, and it is, I think,
injurious to Bootan itself.
We had ample opportunities of observing the extremity of misrule
_to which the Dooars in Assam as well as those in Rungpore are sub-
jected by the infamous government of the Booteas, and it was the
more striking from the contrast presented by our Assamese territories,
270 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
and as much so, by those of Cooch Behar. The crossing of a river
eighty yards wide is sufficient to carry one from a desert into a coun-
try, every inch of which is highly cultivated ; yet the richness of
the soil is in favour of the tracts immediately contiguous to the Hills,
and such are, in Assam at least, especially esteemed by the most
laborious part of the population, the Kacharies ; and were it not for
this predeliction in favour of these tracts, and the short-sightedness
-peculiar to a native population, by which immunity from taxation is
preferred to security of property, the Assamese Dooars would rapidly
become totally depopulated. .
A gift long granted as a favour, in the eyes of an Asiatic, is soon con-
" sidered as a right; and although the Bootea government has received
some severe lessons in the shape of capturing their impregnable places,
and of a resumption of portion of the Plain tracts, yet the free and
quick restoration of the same on apologies having been made, with
copious professions of better behaviour in future, has been attended
with a very different result from that which would be occasioned by
gratitude. The very severe lesson which they were taught in 1836, in |
which they were completely disgraced by being defeated by a handful
of sebundies, and then punished by losing a Dooar, has taught them
nothing. That very same Dooar, perhaps too liberally restored, has
been for some months seizable for arrears of tribute. Nor is this all;
since that restoration it would appear that their officers have become
more than usually insolent. I think that it may fairly be assumed,
that they argue on the certainty of restoration, so that a good foray
might possibly, if its consequences were only temporary resumption, be
a source of profit to them. By the plan of allowing barbarians to
hold country in the plains, the inhabitants of those plains lose a portion
of their most fertile soil; many of them are besides exposed to all the
inconveniences and dangers of an unsettled frontier, for such must
such a frontier be;* and hitherto it has not been attended, at least
in many places, with the expected effect of securing the friendship of
the Booteas, and the quiet of the frontier.
But no argument can place the matter in a clearer light than the
facts connected with Herr Govindh, a subject of Bootan, but who is
now independent both of Bootan and of the English government, and
who therefore enjoys considerable tracts of country without paying any
thing for them ; nor can any thing more forcibly point out the weak-
ness of the Bootea nation, for not only does Herr Govindh keep them
in effectual check, but he has, I believe, offered to take all the Dooars
* Occupation of such tracts is very favourable to the carrying off of slaves, an habi-
tual practice I have no doubt with the Booteas.
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 271
from them, if the government will allow him to pay 40,000 Rupees a
year as tribute.
It acts injuriously on Bootan by Cireiaatahiy the energies of its in-
habitants, and suppressing the development of those resources which
every habitable country may be supposed to possess. It must be re-
membered that the cultivation of the Plain tracts is not, as in some
other instances, carried on by the inhabitants of the mountains, but by
the natives of the Plains, who after reaping the produce of their labour
appear to be compelled to take it to the first station in the Hills, from
which it is distributed to the appointed places.
In all cases of entreaty for restoration it has been urged that the in-
habitants of Bootan cannot subsist without these tracts, but they forget
that by labouring in their own country they might supply themselves
either with grain, or the means of purchasing it; and further, that the
supplies drawn from the Plains are only enjoyed by the chiefs and
their followers.
Some distress would doubtless result from immediate and final re-
sumption, but this distress would be confined to the better orders, and
would be a due punishment to them; it would in a short time be
abundantly counteracted by the reduction of the Gylongs, and by the
compulsion of a great number of idle hands to work for subsistence.
It would also, I think, have a beneficial effect in lessening internal
commotions. The ambition or rapacity of a chief is now readily
seconded by the greediness of his idle followers, but were these
necessitated to become agriculturists they would certainly not respond
very readily to his call; as matters now stand, in short, there is a
ruinous drainage of a very fertile tract of country, without any sort of
return whatever ; for the revenue derived from one Dooar during,
a short season that it remained in our hands was amply beyond
all proportion to the tribute; and it may fairly, I think, be stated
that a country which draws every thing from another, and makes no
return, may be compared to a parasite, the removal of which is
always desirable, and very frequently essential. The Bootan go-
vernment has been invariably treated with great liberality by the
greatest power in the East, and how has it requited it? It has
requited it by the rejection of a treaty which could only be productive
of advantage to them, by shuffling mendacity, by tampering with
British subjects, and by inconsiderate conduct toa British Mission,
evinced in many other ways than that of opening its daks. They ob-
ject to forwarding communications to Lhassa, they object to British
_ traders entering their country, and, in fine, they object to every thing
that is reasonable, and that would be mutually advantageous. In short,
272 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit, |
they shewed themselves to be ignorant, greedy barbarians, such as
should be punished first, and commanded afterwards.
The objection raised against the resumption of the Dooars, on the
plea that no check will then exist on the Booteas, is one contrived
to meet expediencies: it has never been attended with the supposed
effect. The affair of Herr Govindh, and the recent victory at Silka-
bhari are convincing proofs that the Booteas may easily be kept with-.
in their own limits. | And even arguing the necessity of an increased
military force, it must not be forgotten that the same tract which now
yields us nothing but a few debased coins, a few inferior ponies, with
abundance of disputes and law suits, would in a very short time be-
come equal in richness to any of the neighbouring tracts, rich as these
undoubtedly are.
PART III.
[ Natural productions, agriculture, domestic animals, arts, and commer'ce. |
Few wild quadrupeds were seen by us in Bootan. Tigers, leopards,
and elephants are to be found on the lower ranges, and probably the
former straggle up to as considerable a height as they do to the west-
ward. The chief beasts of prey in the interior are bears, but they
do not seem to be numerous, and foxes of large size and great beauty :
these last are confined to considerable elevations, and none were seen
under 8000 feet.
Monkeys as usual abound on the lower ranges, on which the
Hoollock of Assam likewise occurs. Some long-tailed monkeys occur-
red above Bulphai, 8200 feet above the sea; and in January I
likewise saw a flock of noble ones not far from Tongsa, at an elevation
of 5800 feet ; these were white, and in form and size resembled the
Langoors. Among wild ruminants, I may mention the barking deer,
which however scarcely ascend above 4000 feet, and the musk deer,
the most valuable wild animal of the country. It would appear to
be rather common on the higher ranges, as several skins were brought
to us from Punukka; the price for us, of a perfect one, that is with-
out the musk, being five rupees.
The smaller animals that came under our notice were a species,
I believe, of Lagomys, which Lieut. Blake found dead on the path, one
or two animals of the weasel kind, and rats which swarm in very
many of the houses.
Three or four species of squirrel were likewise procured, all from
elevations of 5500 feet, yet all were likewise natives of Assam. The
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 273
most striking one is a black one, with a whitish belly, measuring,
including the tail, nearly three feet.*
The variety of birds is, of course, considerable, but the lower ranges
seem to be by far the most productive ; on these jungle fowl and two
species of black pheasant are found. The raven is found throughout,
but the very familiar crow or jackdaw never leaves the plains, and
never leaves populous places. Throughout the higher portions of
Bootan it has as noisy, but scarcely possibly as mischievous a substi-
tute in a red-legged crow. This is common in the three elevated
valleys, and not rare elsewhere at elevations of 8000 to 9500 feet: and
below these it is scarcely to be seen. Cuckoos, larks, magpies, jays,
and sparrows were the chief European forms met with, but except the
latter, perhaps, all were of different species from the birds known by
those names in Europe. _
The cuckoo is rather widely dispersed. I first heard it about
Punukka, and subsequently along the Teemboo, at an elevation of
7000 feet ; below this height, at least in this direction, its peculiarly
pleasing voice was not heard, although I think I saw the bird consi-
derably lower. With the magpie, which has much of the plumage of
the European bird, but a shorter tail, we became familiar at Bhoom-
lungtung, but lost it at Jaisa. The jay, a figure of which may be seen
in Mr. Royle’s Illustrations, was found pretty constantly throughout
the wooded tracts between 5500 to 7000 feet ; it is a noisy, but nota
very wary bird. Larks were very common in the elevated valleys, and
afforded us some good shooting; in habits, plumage, and voice they
are to an uninitiated eye the prototypes of the bird so well known in
Europe. In the same valleys Syrases were common. Wild fowl are, as
might be expected, rare; the only place where they occurred in toler-
able plenty was in the jheel below Santagong. The most destructive
and numerous bird is the wild pigeon, which is to be found in plenty
in almost every village, and in literal swarms in the castles and
palaces: they do a great deal of damage to the poor ryots, who are
not allowed to destroy them, on account of their being sacred. This
exclusion holds good very strictly about the residences of the chiefs ;
and, although the villagers were in all cases delighted to see them shot,
yet they keep no check on their increase, as they have no means of
destroying them, and appear never to have thought of doing so by
means of their eggs. At Byagur, the place of this bird was supplied
by another very curiously marked species, which, it is said, likewise
occurs about Simla.
* Scirus beng-moricus, McCl.
274 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [AprRin,
None of the wild birds are made subservient to use ; indeed the
natives appear to be very deficient in means for procuring them. The
sacredness of life may be one reason, but even the most superstitious
will eat any bird one shoots, provided it be large enough to promise a
substantial repast.
The same remark is applicable to fish, which are common in most
streams below 4000 feet. The two most common are the Bookhar,
which is searcely found higher than 2000 feet, and the ddoee, which is
found as high as 4000 feet, and perhaps higher, but its habits render
it difficult to see. The Bookhar abounds in the Deo Nuddee below _
Dewangiri ; it is from the sport it affords, and the great readiness with
which it takes a fly, to be considered as the trout of India. The Adoee
is said to refuse all bait, and I have found this to be the case not only
in this instance, but in all those which have a similarly situated
mouth, such as the Sentoosee, Gurriah, and Nepoorah of Assam. At
Punukka, where the Adoee is plentiful, it is caught by nooses ; such as
were so caught were all small, and the young anglers were obviously
afraid of detection. At this place I saw a solitary instance of the use of
a casting net, but I suspect that it was under authority ; elsewhere I
observed none even of the ordinary rude expedients for catching fish.
Both of the above fish are nutritious food, and are so plentiful that they
really might form a valuable acquisition to the miserable diet of the
lower classes ; but this would not suit the benevolent ideas of the priests,
who however appear to eat stinking dried fish from the Plains with
great sang froid. ‘To the poor in Bootan every thing is denied. Bees
appear to be plentiful, but their buildings are passed with indifference
by the lazy Bootea.
Of the vegetable productions that occur naturally in Bootan, the ap-
plication for purposes of life is confined to timber, fuel, and dyes.* Of
the various kinds of timber trees I am quite ignorant ; they are
used chiefly for rafters, planks, and troughs, either for aqueducts
or for mangers. A great part of the planking is derived from fir trees,
which are always preferred for fuel. Of the turpentine procurable
from their various species of Pinus they seem to make no use, so
that they are ignorant of one great value of these valuable trees ; that
of the Pinus excelsa is very abundant, and highly fragrant. In the
lower ranges the bamboo becomes of almost universal. application, and
constitutes the greater portion of the huts of the inhabitants of these
districts ; baskets of various sizes, and implements for clearing the rice
from the husk by agitation, &c. are likewise manufactured from it.
* Although the Bogh Puttur, or path, is found in abundance on the higher ranges,
yet it is not resorted to for furnishing an article of trade. The tree is a species of
birch, and the thin flakes of its bark are used in the composition of hookah snakes,
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 275
In similar places rattans are in demand, and several valuable
sorts may be procured. They form the fastening ‘of all the bam-
boo work, are used in some places to secure the roofs from the
effects of the violence of the winds, and form a great portion of the
baskets in which loads are in this country universally carried. These
are very convenient receptacles, forming a rather narrow parallelogram ;
they are frequently covered with hides, they open at the top, and are
the most convenient hill baskets I have hitherto seen.
The Booteas depend on the plains for supplies of betel-nuts,
etherwise they might advantageously cultivate the tree on many
of the lower ranges. So far as I had an opportunity of judging, they
possess few wild palms of any description, excepting rattans ; I ob-
served one, which grows on inaccessible places as high as 2000 feet,
and which will probably prove new, but I did not succeed in obtaining
the specimen requisite for actually determining whether it is so or not.
Ficus elastica, the caoutchouc tree, occurs about Dewangiri, but not
in abundance, and may be expected to occur throughout greater part
of the ranges between the Plains and an elevation of 3000 feet.
They are aware of the properties of the juice, and use it to make
vessels formed from split bamboos, water-proof. The Simool tree
likewise occurs within similar elevations, but they make no use of it,
although in Assam the cotton is used for the manufacture of a very
light and excessively warm cloth, excellently adapted for quilting.
A solitary mango tree occurs here and there in villages even as
high as 4000 feet. The finest occurs at Punukka, in the royal
gardens, which are emblematic of the poverty and want of hor-
ticultural skill in Bootan. It bears its fiowers there at a time when
the fruit is fully ripe in the Plains.
Jack trees occur every where about the villages on the lower ranges,
and is one of the few fruit trees from which they derive any
gratification. These trees thrive remarkably well at elevations of
2000 feet, particularly if within the influence of the Plains.
In villages at similar elevations two or three species of fig may be
found, but the fruit is not edible; no oranges are cultivated with a
view to the market ; a few occur in some of the villages; the tree does
not occur above 5500 feet, and in such altitudes it requires a sheltered,
sunny place. The oranges which we received as presents, all came
from the Plains. With the orange, the shaddock also occurs in toler-
able frequence.
_ One of the most common fruit trees is the pomegranate, it does
not thrive however above an elevation of 4000 feet: I saw no fruit on
00
276 Capt..Pemberton’s Mession to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
the trees, which were however loaded with flowers; very fine ones.
occur about Punukka.
They likewise possess peaches, (perhaps the almond) and pear trees :
but I am unable to say of what nature the fruit may be; we saw the
trees during their flowering season.
The Bheir also occurs at low elevations; and in the gardens of
Punukka I observed another species, forming a handsome good sized
tree, but like most of the others, it was not bearing fruit. In the
same garden there is cultivated a species of Déospyros with edible
fruit, which also I did not see, and in fact we did not appear to have
been in Bootan during the fruit season. The only fruit which we en-
joyed were walnuts ; we procured these only at Punukka, most of them
in presents from the Deb, and a few by purchase, but these were of in-
ferior quality ; these walnuts are very good, and would be much better
were care taken at the time of gathering. The trees are said to be cul-
tivated in orchards at considerable elevations, but we saw no attempt
at any thing of the sort, although we met with a few isolated trees
here and there.
On the lower ranges, but scarcely above 3000 feet, the papaw occurs,
but so far as I could see did not promise much return. Pine-apples,
which occur so. profusely on the Khasy hills, and are of so much
use to the natives, are very rare in Bootan, as well as in those parts
of the Dooars which we crossed.
On our return, we met with a fruit which promised under improved
cultivation to be agreeable enough ; it was about the size of a pigeon’s
egg, with a large smooth shining black seed ; in flavour it approached
somewhat to the Sappadillo, to the natural family of which it would
seem to belong. The only ornamental tree to which the Booteas are
particularly attached is the weeping cypress: these occur about all
the castles and palaces, and especially about religious buildings. It
is as Ornamental a tree as can be well conceived, and as it thrives
between elevations of 5000 to 7000 feet, I was very anxious to obtain
seed for introduction into England ; but all that I did obtain were bad,
and I imagine that the female tree was alone met with. Of the grami-
neous plants found wild in Bootan no use seems to be made ; wher-
ever such plants are in requisition for thatching, the Plains are resort-
ed to, as these, at least under the admirable management of the Bootea
government, abound with Oollookher, Kagara, Megala, Nol, and Iko-
ra. The plants of the hills themselves are chiefly coarse species of An-
dropogon, not serviceable for thatching ; among these the lemon grass 0c-
curs abundantly. I am not aware whether the natives of these mountains
use any plants occurring naturally as vegetables, cooked or uncooked ; I
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mession to Bootan, 1837-38. 277
never saw any of that scrambling into the jungle on the part of the
coolies which so generally occurs in Assam and Burmah, where every
second or third plant is a favourite dish.
Of their medicinal plants I am quite ignorant. Our guide, Chillong
Soobah, who had a great leaning to the practice of physic, assured me
that the Booteas were quite ignorant of any medicine whatever ; but
this is so contrary to the prevailing practice among barbarous and semi-
barbarous nations, that I place no confidence in the assertion.
Of the mineral productions of the country I had no opportunity of
learning any thing. The only article of this nature that I saw turned
- to account was clay for pottery ; and this was only met with at Punuk-
ka. In short, whatever the resources of the country are, one thing is
at least certain, that they have not yet been developed ; and I give
the greater part of the nation credit for being amongst the most idle and
most useless on the face of the globe.
Of the agriculture of Bootan little is to be said, as so very large
a proportion of the supplies is derived from the Plains. The state
in which the little agriculture is, that is carried on, argues as little
in favour of the amount of agricultural skill they possess, as the uh-
cultivated state of the Dooars does in favour of their numerical extent,
or of that of their Plain subjects.
Of Cerealia, or culmiferous plants, they have the following sorts:
rice, wheat, barley, raggy, millet, maize ; and of farinaceous grains,
not the produce of culmiferous plants, they have buckwheat ; and
of Atriplex, one or two species of the leguminous grains. They
cultivate one or two species of Phaseolus, one of which is the Phaseo-
lus, Max ; the Oror, Cytisus Casan ; the Pea, Pisum satirun.
The only oily seeded plant I saw, and of this only fragments, was
the Tel, Sesamum orientale ; Isaw no reason however for supposing
that they manufactured this oil themselves.
Of the culmiferous plants, rice forms the staple article of food, and
is perhaps exclusively used by the chiefs and their adherents, and the
very numerous establishments of priests. It is only the staple article
viewing the Dooars as forming part of Bootan, for in the interior
the proportion borne by this grain to that of either wheat or barley
is very small.
Most of the spots available from situation and elevation are cultiva-
ted in rice, but in all I saw, judging from the remains of the stubble,
the crops must have been small. The cultivation is conducted in the
ordinary manner, as is likewise the mode of preparing the slopes for
irrigation, or in other words, terracing : as might be expected it is
generally a summer crop, and in all places of sufficient elevation, is
278 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [ Apri,
made to alternate with winter crops of wheat or barley. The highest
elevation at which we saw it cultivated was about Tongsa, to the
north of which village there is a slope cultivated with it from an
altitude of 5500 feet to one nearly of 7000 feet.
It is principally used boiled in the ordinary manner, and in the pre-
paration of their fermented and spirituous liquors. They do not seem
to prepare it for eating in the dry state, as is so generally done by
Hindoos. Wheat is perhaps the most common grain cultivated in the
interior, yet I saw no instance of the promise of fine crops; it is
cultivated as low as 3500 feet, and as high as 9000 feet, but the fields
we saw at this elevation were miserably poor, from the effects of the
bleakness of the winds. No particular steps are taken to favour its
growth, except in the three elevated valleys, where manure is employ-
ed from some attention to agriculture being absolutely indispensable.
The grain is, I think, of inferior quality ; it is principally eaten in the
shape of chowpatties, or cakes of heated dough. The flour is ground
in mills turned by water, but the meal is badly cleaned.
Barley is nearly of equally extensive cultivation, and I think
arrives to somewhat greater perfection than wheat; the cultivation
is precisely the same, and probably its application. ‘Two or three sorts
occur ; of these the finest indisputably is a six-rowed barley, but I
am unable to say whether it is identical with the Hordeum hexastichon,
the bear or bigg of Scotland. This sort occurred in great perfection
along the raviné of the Teemboo, especially about Chupcha; it was the
only crop, really worthy of the name that we saw in the country. _
Of the remaining grains of this nature, Raggy,* Bodosa of Assam, is
the most common ; it is of a very inferior nature, and is only used as
a makeshift. Millet and maize are so limited in extent, as not to
be worth consideration.
Of the other farinaceous grains, buckwheat is the only one culti-
vated to any extent; it occurs throughout the greater part of Bootan,
but especially about 4000 feet. This grain is either a great favourite
with all Hill people, or it is of such easy cultivation as to compen-
sate for its inferiority to some others. The Booteas do not appear to
feed their cattle on it, and ours by no means approved of it. It
is probably used as a bread corn.
The species of Aér¢plex, and one or two of a nearly allied genus,
Chenopodium, are scarcely worth notice. They occur in Bootan, as in
most other mountainous countries in the East, and are more valuable
as affording sorts of spinach than for the grains. Equally unworthy
* Cleusine Coracana.
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 279
of notice are the leguminous grains of Bootan ; and the few species
I saw of the produce appeared to me more probably derived from the
Plains than from any labour of their own. The only actual cultiva-
tion of such I saw was a small plantation of oror below Benka or
Tassgong, and this we were told was more with aview to the produce
of lac than dal; and of the pea, I saw one flourishing field of small
extent between Tumashoo and Oongar.
Of their various other “ plants cultivated as vegetables for the table,”
I am quite as ignorant ; every thing in fact is derived from the Plains.
We did not even meet with yams or kuchoos, both of which I have
seen among other Hill people in great perfection. They are unaware
of the value of the potatoe. _
Every body has heard of Bootan turnips, but very few have, I ima-
gine, seen them. With the exception of a few we obtained at
Dewangiri we saw none, nor when we reached the interior did we
ever hear ofany. There is no doubt however that excellent turnip
seeds have been sent to some from Bootan, but whether from this
bhote ka moolkh or the far finer one to the westward, I cannot state ;
I only state their extreme rarity, so far as the Mission was concerned.
Far more common is the Mola, or radish, which I suspect Turner
mistook for turnips, for one has only to imagine that an actual Bootan
‘radish is a real Bootan turnip, and it is so. The Bootan radishes
grow to a large size, but they are very coarse and spongy, and heavy
of digestion even to a Hindoo stomach. The cultivation chiefly
occurs between 5000 to 7000 feet.
Of plantains they possess a few specimens, which may be seen
struggling for existence as high as 3500 feet. I did not even see any
of the wild plantain, easily distinguishable from the white powder
with which the under surface of the leaves is covered, and its large
stature. This is common on the Himalayan range to the eastward,
and ascends as high as 5000 feet.
Of that most useful family the Gourd family, I saw no sorts under
cultivation. Asthey depend on the Plains for all that in their opinion
makes life tolerable, so do they depend upon their jungles for all
flowers to which they may have a fancy, or which may be considered
as agreeable for offerings. There is no such thing as a flower garden
in the whole parts of the country we saw. The royal gardens at
Punukka are scarcely an acre in extent, and stretch along ther iver
from the bridge to the village. It was made originally with a view to
use, never for ornament, and possesses now neither the one nor the
other recommendation, although it has an Assamese gardener: oranges,
shaddocks, pomegranates, the mango, jack, bheir, &c. &c. are to be found
280 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-88. [Arnin,
in it. The Booteas shew some taste in their selection of wild flowers,
which is more than can be said for the natives of Bengal, who
approve of such vile things as Ganda, and Champa, and many other
equally strong or equally gaudy productions. With Booteas rhodo-
dendrons, especially the scarlet and the white arboreous sorts, are
favourites, and I observed formed the greater part of some offerings
lying in the presence of the Dhurma.
The only cotton, and it was a miserable specimen, that I saw, I have
mentioned as occurring along the Monass; yet we were told that a
good deal was cultivated in similar places throughout Bootan. That
we saw none is accounted for by the bulk of the population wearing
woollen cloths, and by the remainder obtaining their supplies from the
Plains. No plants were observed used for making cordage, the ropes
used for fixing the loads being either made of twisted rattan, or horse.
hair. On emergencies the bearers resort to the jungles, in which
some very tenacious creepers may be found; but they appear to
prefer the species of Daphne for this purpose, as the inhabitants of
Upper Assam do the Ood-dai, a species of Sterculia.
No sugar is cultivated in Bootan ; a few solitary specimens occurring
about villages being the only specimens we saw. The cane itself is
imported from the Plains, as well as ghoor. The same is equally appli-
cable to tobacco, large quantities of which must be consumed, as all the
men are great smokers.
They do not appear to me to be great pan eaters ; their supplies
of this are also derived from that source, which they do not scruple to
drain so freely. A few straggling plants of hemp are to be met with
amongst most villages at rather low elevations, but I never saw any to
an extent sufficient to warrant me in supposing that any use was made
of it.
Of plants cultivated for dyeing, I am not aware that any cultivation
is carried on. At Phullung, one villager was attempting to rear a few
plants of the wild indigo, so much used in Upper Assam, and which
I have elsewhere stated is a species of Ruellia. Of this plant which
appears to abound in colouring material of a deeper, but less brilliant
hue than that of indigo, I have not been able to meet with any ac-
count that can be depended on. I have seen that in one of the volumes
of the Transactions of the Agricultural Society it is mentioned as
Ruellia carnosa: no good authority for the name is given, and on
that of the book itself few, I imagine, will be willing to adopt it.
The most common dye in Bootan is that furnished by the mungisth,
it appears also to be the favourite colour. As the supply obtained from
the jungles is plentiful, no means are resorted too to cultivate it. It
1839. ] Capt. Pemberion’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 281
forms one of the few articles of export from the country, and is gene-
rally exchanged for dried fish. In Bootan at least two species are
used, one of these is Roxburgh’s Rudta mungista. Of the different
species of Rubia very little is known, and that little is a good deal
confused. From Mr. Royle’s account it would appear that the article
Munjeeth is the produce alone of Rubia cordifolia (R mungistha Roxb.)
The two species used in Bootan are very distinct, and very general con-
stituents of other mountainous floras; one of them has leaves without
stalks.
Agriculture being in such a poor state, we need not look for im-
provement in the implements by which it is carried on. The plough is
a lumbering article, on the ordinary Indian principle, and the others are
equally bad imitations ; but as the Booteas pride themselves on being
warriors, they are not inclined to turn their swords into ploughshares,
and until this is done no improvement can be expected. Manures, so
far as I had opportunities of judging, are chiefly confined to the three
great valleys; they consisted chiefly of rotten fir leaves, and appeared
to me to be of a very poor description. In these parts ashes of stubble
and weeds are likewise spread over the surface, but the greatest por-
tion of labour was expended in pulverising the surface. The natives
likewise make use of the accumulation of filth under their houses,
which judging from the depth of the layer is not always removed annu- —
ally. This is excellent manure, and is principally used about the little
plots of ground attached to most of the villages.
Of fences they are generally very regardless, or at best, place them
where they are of no use. Thus the yards of many of the houses,
and in some parts what are called gardens, are surrounded with stone
walls ; some few rising cropsare protected by branches of thorny shrubs,
but generally the only defence exists in the shape of a herd-boy,
who is regardful only of damage done by his own charge.
In domestic animals they cannot be said to be rich. Chowry tailed
cows certainly are not common, and would appear to be kept chiefly
by the officers of high rank. As their range is restricted to very
high elevations, they must be in Bootan of very limited utility.
I only saw one sufficiently close to ascertain what kind of creature
it was, and I was much disappointed in finding it an heavy, clumsy-
looking animal; the specimen, however, was not a fine one. The
only herds seen by the Mission were at elevations of nearly 10,000 feet.
The Chowry tails exported to the Plains probably come from Thibet ;
and judging from those which we saw, they are of very inferior
quality. The cattle are used as beasts of burden.
A much finer animal is the Mithun ; this is the same as the Mithun
282 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-88. | APRIL,
of the Mishmees, or the animal so known in those parts to the
Assamese by that name, but is very different from the Mithun
of the Meekir hills. This animal is not uncommon: the finest we saw
were at Dewangiri, and none were seen after leaving Tongsa. Nothing
can exceed the appearance of a fine bull ; it appears to me intermediate
between the buffaloe and the English bull, but the cows have much
Jess of the heavy appearance so characteristic of the buffaloe. Their
temper is remarkably fine, and their voices or lowing very peculiar,
resembling a good deal some of the cries of the elephant. I am
not aware that they are of much use to the natives: the oxen are
employed at the plough. As the Booteas do not seem to care for milk,
they are probably kept with a view to sacrifice, which is with an
Asiatic not unfrequently another word for feasting.
The other breed which they possess, and which we only saw
between Punukka and the Plains, assimilates much to the common
cattle of Bengal ; it is however a much larger and a much finer animal.
Sheep are not very common: the most we saw were rams, which
formed a standing part of the russut. The ewes are used by the
Kampas as beasts of burden, but I am not aware that they are of any
use to the Booteas. Throughout Bootan I only saw two flocks.
Goats are common enough, and appear to be of the ordinary Plain
breed. We saw no Khussies, at least live ones, unless I except the six
shawl goats sent by the former Deb as presents to the Governor
General. By
All these animals are turned out during the day, either alone, or at- -
tended by boys. The cattle are picketted at night either in yards or
about the villages: the goats find their own quarters in the ground floors
of their owner’s houses. Either no fodder at all is given, or they are
provided with coarse straw, which evidently requires great effort to
be eaten. During the rains their condition is much bettered; in the
cold weather it is bad enough, as the looks of the beasts testify.
Pigs of ordinary customs are common enough, and were the only
animals I saw slaughtered: they are kept with more care than
either ponies or cows. They are generally treated to a wash once a
day, consisting of a decoction of herbs, of which the common stinging
nettle appears to be a favourite, and radish peelings. Most of the pigs
we saw engrossed the tender cares of the women, who certainly paid
much more attention to them than they would appear to do to their
own children. They have peculiar cries well known by the pigs, who
are generally very obedient, particularly if they see the wash-tub ; at
night they also occupy the ground floors. The ponies of Bootan are
sufficiently well known, and are I think much over-estimated. They
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 283
are very inferior to the Ghoonts of Simla, in size, strength, and ap-
pearance. Like all such creatures they are spirited, and sufficiently
headstrong: they understand their duties perfectly, and are orderly
enough on a line of march, unless the road is particularly easy. Very
few first class ponies are to be found in Bootan, and none are to be
obtained except, perhaps, at most exorbitant prices. The Booteas
patronise nothing but stallions, the mares being almost exclusively
used for breeding or for carrying loads; in such cases they are not
led, but follow their leader quietly. Ridden ponies are always led ; in
difficult ascents they are assisted by pushing up, and in descents they
are equally assisted by vigorous pulling at the tail. They form a part
of all out of door ceremonials, and are dressed out with gay trappings ;
their switch tails are then converted into regular cock-tails, and or-
namented -with chowrys. Three or four ponies were selected as
presents to the Mission, but as the hour approached for presenting
them, the liberality of the Deb rapidly fell, and one alone was given
to the Governor General. This creature never reached the Plains, for
after falling twice, once a height of 15 to 20 feet, it expired above Buxa:
we heard afterward that it had been very ill for a long time, so that
the Deb thought it a capital opportunity of getting rid of him.
The mules are fine, and of much more reasonable price than the
ponies : they are chiefly kept for riding, and are mostly of good size.
Both ponies and mules are stabled and provided with litters, not as
may be supposed of the cleanest description. Their food varies a good
deal; on some rare occasions they partake of Indian corn and wild
tares ; still better off are those which have participated in some religi-
ous ceremonies—for these, the green corn of the poor ryot is not consi-
dered too good ; generally, however, they are fed on the worm wood,
which is so common throughout Bootan below 5500 feet, and which
is cut up, and then boiled ; and in some places they are fed on the
young boiled leaves of an oak, not unlike the celebrated English tree.
We saw few in good condition. It is probable enough that the ponies
of the Deb and his chief ministers are occasionally treated to paddy
husks, as the Deb very graciously sent us a handful or two of this nu-
tritious material, in compliance with our requests for some grain for
our ponies. Of grass they are deprived except during the rains, al-
though Doab grass is to be found about Punukka in sufflicience to feed
siX or seven ponies a day.
The ordinary dog appears to have been brought from the Plains,
but its pariah qualities are not improved, neither is its condition. Of
this, one was so convinced, that he took advantage of our escort, and
returned to his native country with us, evidently highly pleased at
ae
284 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Arnrit,
his escape, and very grateful to us for our good offices. Many of the
better orders keep Tartar dogs : these are large, shaggy, powerful beasts,
apparently very fierce, and the most incessant barkers I ever met
with; they are always kept chained up. At a white face they appear
perfectly furious, but perhaps they rely on the chain. Turner says they
are not so bad if one is armed with a bludgeon. Mr. Blake found
that in almost every instance their eyes were of different colours.
Of domestic birds, the common fowl is the only one: in many places
it reaches considerable perfection ; about the capital the breed is as bad
as can be imagined. They all appear to be low-bred, and the old
birds, especially the cocks, are generally lame from corns. Their crows
are most curious, and very unlike those of any other variety I know
of; it is of inordinate length, and when once commenced can not be
stopped, for fright only changes it to a hasty gobble. The bird, while
he is undergoing the process, walks along with neck and tail at full
stretch, and with his beak wide open, totally absorbed in the business.
No care is taken of the fowls, or at most, they are allowed to stand
round when rice is cleared or pounded.
They have no ducks or geese, a want they share with all the moun-
tainous tribes I have seen. A peacock is occasionally to be seen in
the castles, and at Tongsa we saw one associated with a tame jacana.
Fine Arts.—The ordinary form of houses in Bootan is that of a rather
narrow oblong, disproportionately high, building: the better order are
rather irregular in shape. They are built either of slabs of stone,
generally unhewn, or of mud well beaten down ; the walls in all cases
are of considerable thickness, and almost universally slope inwards.
They are for oriental houses well provided with windows, and are
further furnished with small verandahs, of which the Booteas seem
very fond. There is little or no ornamental work about them, with the
exception of those infested by priests, in which there is generally
a rather ornamental verandah. The roofs throughout the interior are of
bad construction ; they are formed of loose shingles, merely retained
in their places by heavy stones placed on the top of each; this
necessarily requires a very small slope, but even small as it is, the
whole roof occasionally slips off. In some few places where bamboos
are available the roofs are formed by bamboo mats, placed in several
layers, and secured either by stones or rattans. In the better order
of houses the great perviousness of the roof is compensated for by the
imperviousness of the ceiling of the uppermost story, which is well
laid down with mud; houses situated near the asia where proper
grasses are obtainable are thatched: (the most common grass is the
Oollookher, Saccharum cylindricum), such roofs from their slope,
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 285
thickness, and projecting eaves are excellent. The generality of houses
have a court-yard in front surrounded by a stone or mud wall, the
entrance to which is, or has at one time been, furnished with a stout
door. Access to the first floor, (for the ground floor is invariably
occupied by pigs, goats, &c.,) is gained by a rude sort of stair, inter-
mediate between real stairs and ladders, and rather dangerous: a
greater degree of safety is sometimes insured by the presence of a
banister. Each story is divided into several apartments, which are
generally defective in height; no regularity in their distribution
appears to be ever observed ; they are not provided with chimneys,
and in many instances we found the smoke almost intolerable.
The houses of the poorer orders, situated near the plains, are
miserable habitations, but still are better than those in common use in
Bengal and Assam, in as much as they are built on muchowns.
The castles and palaces are buildings of a much superior nature ;
indeed it is said that they are erected by Thibetans or Chinese. They
are of immense size, varying a good deal in form, according to the
nature of the ground on which they are built, and-which is invariably
a spur or tongue of land situated between the junction of two streams.
If the ground be even, the form chosen seems to be parallelogrammic,
but if it be uneven, it has no form at all. They are, particularly in
the latter case, ornamented with towers and other defences, either
forming part of the building or detached from it.
The national walls and roofs are preserved ; the former are of great
thickness, pierced in the lower part with narrow, utterly inefficient
loop-holes. In the interior there are one or two large court-yards.
The first and second stories are the chiefly inhabited ones, the ground
floor, however, is not so profaned as in other houses. Most of them are
ornamented with a raised square or oblong tower or building, in which*
* * take up their quarters. ‘That of Punukka is the largest and
loftiest, consisting of several stories, and several roofs gradually
decreasing in size—an obvious imitation, except in the straightness
of the roofs, of the Chinese form; it is in part covered with copper,
as the Booteas assured us, gilt.
All these large buildings, as well as the summer-houses attached
to them, the houses of recluses, or active priests, the resting houses
of chiefs, and religious edifices of every kind or description, are white-
washed, and most are ornamented with a belt of red ochre, not
far from the roof. The residences of the great men, and some of
_the religious edifices, are distinguished by a folded gilt umbrella
stuck on the top, resembling a long narrow bell, rather than that
for which it is intended.
* A blank in the M.S.—Eps.
286 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [Aprit,
In none do there appear to be any particular accommodations for
sleeping, but in each house there is a cloacus. One room is set apart
for a cook-room, and constitutes the principal inconvenience in a Bootea
house ; no use is made of the uppermost story for this purpose,
as the Booteas consider it sacred ; and as they have no chimneys, out of
pure reverence they are content to bear smoke in its blackest and most
pungent forms. Their fire-places, that is for cooking, are good
and powerful; these are likewise used as furnaces for their stills.
A good representation is given of them in Turner’s Bootan. The fleor-
ing of the houses is generally good, of many really excellent; the
doors are folding, and the fastenings of the windows of similar construe-
tion; the only very deficient part of a good Bootea house exists in
the stairs and want of chimneys.
To the castles, stables are appended ; but in spite of their being de-
prived of this copious source of filth and vermin, the deficiency is made
up by the number of inhabitants.
Of their religious edifices, some are of picturesque appearance, being
ornamented with carved window-frames and verandahs. The most
common are the pagodas, which approach in form to the ordinary
Boodhistical forms, such, at least, as are universal throughout Burmah.
Those of Bootan are, however, vastly inferior in size, form, and
construction, and are mostly such as an ordinary Burmese peasant
would be ashamed of building. They are built of slabs of unhewn
stone, and are not much ornamented, particularly as they are not
provided with a red belt. The handsomest and the largest* we saw
was that close to Chinjipjee, this was ornamented with small pagodas at
each corner, and had the umbrella, which was of curious form,
garnished with bells, with the usual long tongues. In the upper
portion each face had a nose of portentous dimensions, and two Chinese
eyes. I am not aware whether, as in Burmah, they contain images or
not, but slabs of inscribed slate are very generally let into their sides.t
Appended to these are long walls of poor construction covered with
roofs ; on each they bear inscriptions, and in some instances paintings
situated in recesses. The other forms generally occur as small square
buildings ; they are either built up over large idols or are empty, but
decorated with paintings of gods, much resembling, especially in gau-
diness, the common sorts of Hindoo deities ; or they contain the peculiar
cylinders which contain incantations, and which are constantly, or at
* The name of this, Chiotackari kocho.
+ The pagodas are always surrounded by poles either of bamboo or fir, to which
are attached longitudinally long strips of coarse cotton cloths, entirely covered
with inscriptions,
1839. ] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 287
least ought to be, kept in motion by the action of water. In some
places where running streams are not obtainable, as in the Soobah’s
houses, these are revolved by the hand.
There is nothing particular in the construction of their flour mills,
which are very small; the pivot is vertically attached at the bottom
to an horizontal water wheel, and passing above through two horizontal
stones, of which the upper one alone revolves, the flour is hindered
from falling off the under stone by the person in attendance.
Of bridges they have two kinds, the suspension and wooden ; the
latter are, I think, of better construction than the former, although not
of equal ingenuity. The finest suspension bridge in Bootan is that
across the Monass, below Tassgong, and has a span of about sixty yards.
The chains are slight, and the links too long; the masonry by which
the chains are supported is massive, and built into tall respectable
looking towers. The motion is very considerable. The great fault in
this bridge, and in this respect it is inferior to that of Chicka, is. that
its bottom or platform is not flat, but forms the segment of a circle, and
is continuous with the sides, which are made of bamboo matting.
The wooden bridges, which are thrown over all the second class
torrents, are solid looking, and impress one with the idea of great
strength. Considerable pains are taken in the selection of such spots
where the span is less, and where solid abutments either exist, or may
be readily made. The supports are large beams placed in pairs, with
a cross timber between each, and which pass through the abutments,
on which towers are erected for the purpose of giving stability. ‘The
beams gradually increase in length from below upwards, so that each
projects somewhat beyond that immediately below it. On the upper
pair, which form a slightly inclined plane, planks are placed. As the
upper beams only project over perhaps one-third of the span, the centre
of the bridge is made up of horizontal beams and planks ; if quite com-
plete the bridge is covered with a chopper, and provided on either side
with a stout open balustrade. Small streams are crossed by planks, or
timbers, the upper surface of which is rendered plane. From the consi-
deration of their buildings it would appear that they possess consider-
able architectural genius ;* but we were told that all those of superior
construction are built by Thibetans or Chinese; this was certainly
the case with the bridge erecting over the Deo Nuddee, not far from
Dewangiri. ss long as nature supplies rocks of easy and perfect cleav-
* Turner in mentioning their aqueducts draws a comparison between the Booteas and
the wonderful ancients; he compares afew wooden troughs, applied end to end, and so
badly constructed that one kick woulddemolish considerable portions, to those master-
pieces of master minds which laugh at time.
288 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [_Aprin,
age, the houses are built of such materials, and these are used perhaps
in all cases in the constructions of rank or sacred character. In many
places mud is resorted to; the mud is pressed tightly between planks,
and then assiduously beaten down by feet and clubs ; in this they shew
great dexterity, five or six persons, chiefly women beating at once a
piece of mud of small dimensions. The mud is beaten down on that
which has been previously so treated, so that when they come to any
‘height, there must be considerable danger of falling, particularly as the
beaters make most extraordinary antics. When each piece is sufficient-
ly compacted it is allowed to dry. As portions of mud of a parallelogram-
mic form are thus treated, the house presents lines, which at first lead
one to suppose that it is built of blocks of coarse sand-stone. The
process is very tedious.
The sculpture they possess would appear to be Chinese: some of the
figures were really excellent ; the finest we saw were at Dewangiri,
especially that of the Dhurma, before which it is considered impossi-
ble to sin, and this may be the reason of the natives striving so strenu-
ously todoso. All these figures were well dressed. The few figures
of Boodh that I saw were rather rude, in the usual position, and with
the usual long fingers and toes. - These people certainly have an idea
of drawing, and this was very pleasing. Toa native of the Plains you |
may shew a drawing which you have every reason to be pleased with,
particularly if you have done it yourself, and he says, “kya?” or he
mistakes a house for a boat, or a tree for a cow. In Bootan, however,
the case is very different ; our sketches were recognised immediately,
no matter what subjects we intended to represent. They are also
ready at comprehending charts. And with regard to their own per-
formances we had opportunities of judgment presented to us by the
walls of many houses, which were covered with scrawls ; they excel in
the representation of animals, particularly when the shape depends
upon the will of the artist.
Music enters into most of their ceremonies, and the favourite instru-
ment emits a sound like that of a bassoon. Another favourite instru-
ment is a clarionet, particularly when made from the thigh bone of a
man: the sound of this is equal to that of any Bengal musical instru-
ment, and is as disagreeable as it is continuous, the skill of the per-
former depending entirely upon his length of wind. One of these in-
struments generally heads every procession of sufficient importance.
At two of our interviews with Soobah we had an opportunity of wit-
nessing the mode of dancing, which was done entirely by women, and
as certain qualifications for dancing girls exist to a remarkable extent
in Bootan, they are chosen indiscriminately. The dancing merely
consists in slow revolutions and evolutions, and outturning of the
1839.) Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 289
hands. They danced to their own music, which consisted of a low
monotonous chanting, of a much more pleasing nature that the al-
tissimo screeching so admired in India.
Of their manufacturing skill I saw few or no instances. All the
woollen cloths of ordinary quality are imported from Bengal or
Thibet ; their own manufacture being, it is said, confined to the pro-
duction of coarse, often striped, blankets, scarcely a foot wide. They
make but very little cotton cloth, and the manufacture of this appears
to be confined to the villages near the Plains; the article is of poor
and coarse quality: all their silks and many other parts of their fine
apparel are Chinese.
I have. before mentioned the use they make of bamboos, and rattans :
in the work of articles manufactured from these materials they are not
superior to the wildest of the Hill tribes to be found about Assam.
Their ordinary drinking cups are wooden, and look as if they
were turned ; and they are perhaps the best specimens of manufacture
we witnessed.
Their workers in metal are very inferior; we saw some miserable
blacksmiths and silversmiths, provided with utterly inefficient appara-
tus ; however there is not much demand on their skill, as all their
arms, and all their better sort of utensils are of foreign manufacture,
principally Thibetan. They are said to manufacture the copper pans
used for cooking or dyeing, and which are frequently of very large
dimensions ; and they went so far as to point out the place of manu-
facture, viz. Tassangsee. But I doubt this, for in the first place the
vessels resemble much those made in Thibet; and in the second, I
saw nothing like any manufacture going on at Tassangsee, except that
of burning charcoal, which is much used in cooking. Paper they cer-
tainly do make, and in some quantity : I had no opportunity of seeing
the process. The material is furnished by two or three species of
Daphne. The article varies much in size, shape, and quantity; the
finest being white, clean, and very thin; the worst nearly as coarse as
brown paper. If bought from the manufacturers themselves it is cheap,
the price being six annas for twenty large sheets ; if from an agent the
price of course increases in acentesimal proportion. It is well adapted
for packing, as insects will not come near it, always excepting the
formidable white ant, who however consumes the contents of the
paper, not the article itself. This paper appears to be precisely the
Same as that manufactured to the north-west and south-east by the
Shan Chinese.
The only potteries, I saw were near Punukka, but although they
supplied the capital, there were only two or three families employed.
The clay is obtained close to the potteries, and is of tolerable quality ;
290 Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. [ APRIL,
it is pulverised by thrashing with a flat club, and is then sifted. Itis
subsequently kneaded by means of water into the proper consistence.
The operations are conducted entirely by the hand, and the dexterity
which is shewn in fashioning the vesscls is considerable. Of vessels
for containing water the upper half is made first, and the under is
added afterwards. Those made during the day are burnt at night, be-
ing covered with straw, which is then set on fire ; the finishing opera-
tion, if required, and which is intended as a substitute for glazing, is
rubbing them over with tarry turpentine ; they are then packed and
carried off to market, or rather to the palace: the artists are the poorest
of the poor, and as filthy as any other class in Bootan. They live
close to the potteries, in the most miserable hovels imaginable. The
wares they furnish are of several sorts—dishes, and pans, (some of which
have very small inefficient handles) gurrahs, and large oblong vessels
for containing water; of these one family consisting of ten or twelve
can make a considerable number, say sixty in one day.
Of their manufactures of leathern articles I can say nothing: the
only articles I saw of this nature were the boots, which are of untan-
ned hides, and the reticules for holding tobacco, which are of decent
fashioning, tanned and coloured. And I believe I may here close the
list, meagre as itis, for the sugar, oil, ghee, &c. they use, is all brought
up from the Plains. As their manufactures are at so low an ebb, not
much is to be expected in the way of commerce; and this must con-
tinue to be the case so long as they derive every thing from the Plains,
and make no returns whatever ; so long as they may live an idle life
at the expense of others. Throughout the country indeed there is but
little evidence of frequency of intercourse. The busiest place by far
was Dewangiri, but this depended chiefly on the steps taken for the
provision of our party, and on the daily assembling of the Kampas —
prior to descending to Hazoo. The Deb is stated to be the principal
merchant, but we only met two coolies laden with his merchandise !
All the Svobahs likewise trade, but I apprehend their dealings are
altogether insignificant ; for excepting their followers, who are disin-
clined to pay, even had they money, and the priests who wilf not pay,
I know none from whom advantage in the way of traffic could with
any reason be expected. .
The exports from Bootan to the Plains are generally exposed for sale
at annual fairs, of which Hazoo and Rungpore are the principal.
The articles are ponies, mules, woollen cloth, and rock salt. To these
I must add a peculiar spice, known in Assam by the name of
Jubrung, and which is used, I believe, to some extent by the natives
in their cookery. It is very fragrant, very aromatic, and excessively
pungent, and if kept in the mouth but a short time, occasions a
1839.] Capt. Pemberton’s Mission to Bootan, 1837-38. 291
remarkably tremulous sensation of the tongue and lips. It is the
capsule of a species of Zanthoxylon found on other mountains to
the north-east, although I am not aware whether it is used as
a spice elsewhere than in Bootan. Captain Jenkins first pointed it out to
me, and I had several opportunities of seeing the shrub producing
it during my visit to Bootan. All these are of inferior quality,
scarcely less so, perhaps, than the article in which they pay the greater
part of even their nominal tribute. From Thibet they obtain all their
silks and tea, there is, however, very little intercourse between the
countries.
I am afraid that this very imperfect account will be considered
as prejudiced; but I believe it will be found, if put to the test,
tolerably faithful. I went into the country prepossessed in favour
of every thing bearing the name of Bootan—I expected to see a rich
country, and a civilized people. I need not say how all my ex-
pectations were disappointed. Whatever ulterior benefits may be
derived from the Mission, one, and that by no means inconsiderable,
has already resulted—I allude to the demolition of the extravagant
ideas entertained, even by our frontier officers, of the prowess and
riches of Bootan. As the Mission will have been the means of reducing
this people to their proper level among barbarous tribes, we may
expect their demeanour will become more respectful, their behaviour
more cautious, and the payment of the tribute more sound and
more punctual. In a word, they will understand that they are tolerated
by—not the equals of—the gigantic British power. I have stated
my opinion of them with some severity, but with impartiality ; and my
conviction is, that they are in all the higher attributes very inferior
to any other mountainous tribe I am acquainted with on the north-
east frontier.
It must not be supposed that, however disgusted with the inhabi-
tants of the country, the Mission was not a source of great gratification
tome. It afforded me an opportunity of visiting a very alpine coun-
try ; and, what is much more important, of fixing, through the kindness
and skill of Captain Pemberton, the localities of nearly 1500 species of
plants with such accuracy, that the collection will be of much inter-
est to all students of botanical geography. It afforded me too an
opportunity of profiting from the valuable instructions of Captain
Pemberton ; so much so, that it will always be a matter of regret to
me that I was so ignorant of so many essential requisites during the
other journeys I have had the honour of performing.
WILLIAM GRIFFITH,
Asst. Surg. Madras Est. in Med. charge Bootan. Mission.
Qq
292 Aceount of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. [| Aprit,
Art. II.—Account of Tamba Patra Plates dug up at Baroda in
Goojrat; with Facsimile and Translation.
(Laid before the Meeting of the Asiatic Society of 5th June, 1839.)
The Tamba Patras now submitted to the inspection of the members
of this Society were placed in my hands by Mr. W. P. Grawrt, who ob-
tained them from Bent Ram, of Baroda, and whose account of the
method of their discovery as derived from that person, was, that they
were dug up in excavating the foundations of a house in that city.
The grant is peculiar in many respects. It is in a character not
exactly corresponding with any previously observed, but sufficiently
similar to that of the grants decyphered by Mr. WATHEN to be easily
made out by persons accustomed to the work, after a little study and
comparison. The pandits and antiquaries of Baroda, indeed, were
baffled in their attempts to make out the character, and the plates were
put into my hands as undecypherable ; but KamuaxanrTa, the pandit
who assisted our late Secretary in his discoveries, undertook the task of
reading them with confidence, and accomplished the complete trans-
cription into Devanagri in about a fortnight. The plates are sub-
mitted to inspection with a transcript, fac-simile, and close translation,
the latter made by Saropa ParsHap CHAKRAVARTI.
They are found to be the record of a deed of grant made by Karka’
Raja of Ldtéshwara to Bua’nu Braunin, son of Ss/mMapiTya, in the
year of Saka 734, corresponding with 812 a.p., that is, just one thousand
and twenty-seven years ago. Their state of preservation is wonderful
for such a period, but that may be owing partly to the purity of the cop-
per, and partly to the care with which the edges have been beaten up ~
so as to take all the friction, and prevent the faces of the plates from
rubbing against one another. Their present appearance is owing to an
acid having been used to clean them.
Although uniformly clean and bright, the marks of corrosion will be
observed in several places, which are the effect of antiquity ; but for-
tunately the letters are so deeply engraved that scarcely any are com-
pletely effaced.
The historical facts deducible from this Tamba Patra are the
following :— ;
First, That towards the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th
century of our era, that is during the reign of CuarLEMAGNE of France,
Hindoostan and the Dukhun were divided into four kingdoms :—The
Gaara Raj westward—the Malwa Raj centrical—to the east the
Gourha Raj, (including Bengal and Behar)—and the Ldtéshwara Raj
1839.] Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 293
to the south; of which last the reigning Raja in 812 a.p. was Karka’
Raja, the maker of this grant.
Secondly, That in the Ldtéshwara Raj the following kings, ancestors
of Karka’ Raja, had successively reigned :—
1. Govinp Raja.
2. Karka, Raja, his son.
3. KrisHna Raja, his son.
4. Durvuva Raja his son, who obtained the beatitude of dying at
Allahabad where the waters of Jamna and Ganga unite.
5 Govinpa Raja II, son of Dhruva.
6. Inpra Raja, brother of Govinda.
7. Karxa, Raja II, son of Indra Raja.
Thirdly, It further appears that in 812 a.p. Karka Raja had no
son ; but his brother Dantr VarMa signs as heir presumptive.
Fourthly, The capital of the Ldatéshwara Raj appears to have been
Elapir, where a magnificent fort and temple of Siva are stated to
have been erected by the third of the above race—the Krisuna Raja.
It remains to identify this dynasty. Of all the lists of Rajas and
races collected in the late Secretary’s useful tables, the one, and indeed
the only one, which contains names corresponding with those found in
the present grant is that given in Table XLIV. page 121, headed
* Rajas of Chera or Konga,” (comprehending Salem and Coimbatore )
and stated to be taken from the late Colonel Mackenzie’s manuscript
collections.
Amongst the twenty-six princes of that dynasty, taken from the Kon-
gadesa Raja Kal,* all the names of our list are found except that of
InpRA Raja, the father of Karka Raja II. This latter name, Karka, I
take to be identical with that of Koneant, which occurs thrice amongst
the twenty-six. The period assigned inthe useful tables for the Rajas of
Kongadeés corresponds exactly with the date of our grant ; nevertheless
I do not feel quite satisfied with the evidence to the identity of Latésh-
wara with the Kongadés, and I should wish the attention of the learned
and curious to be directed to the determination of this point, and to the
ascertainment of the locality of the famous fort of Elapiur.
HH. bee.
* The notice of this work will be found in page 198 of Professor WiLson’s printed
account of the collection of Col. Mackenzix’s manuscripts, and again in the Rev. Mr.
TAYLOR’s more recent examination of the manuscripts at Madras. There are, it ap-
pears, two copies of the work in Tamul on Palm leaves, from which Mr. Taytor has
had a copy transcribed on paper, and deeming the work yaluable, he has translated it.
294 Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. [Aprrin,
a at qrewaraiat sarfaaratfaa: |
EC IT AMACAAA TATHT! 11
eafer AMATHTAAMA TT SCTSGATTA TT STAT |
FATT: MACHA TaeTTT: Fafa THA 112!
qeairaaraafaat: feaaieaey
SATU eAAITYS Cee |
wal T WRT ctaUat
~
qaeeaTHTAALaT A] AAT 3/1
THATY SI Te AAAATSTL
sia matueeredt
al tuaraafarcaare Te
SPAACTATAT YTS MTS: 1131)
wuss waa weiss fasaTTETT |
Tied ae gare aaa featfaetty yar TET YI
Weugiannea aia: aAfawaaT qaHIT |
wet Fe aT aaratagrat wryqearerfawst elt
fac) aaqawat Hay awn faa aeAaATAaeT |
UFATHAME FT TA Ta CUAT SA FULT: {ISI
a haa fase cst wi aafears aH
aaa cer se AIT anifearsy ar ATAATA TAT WN
1839.| Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 295
Sefeaaiagage: wearqeraanta aa |
salfataa attaart wat aa aafa aq Fa 1
waTeafecdy cafes wa THis VaaTAT Ne
Aagargfaqhaqa: deities |
ARATE CeMqAe « ATSaHATA: VATIAFTT: oH
wayqUaaTaT Ara faas
aarea faftaafaarrauatest:
wad aay Maa AAA aa
aN ° LS
€ Uritia dad aw Wea QU
yreaaifaraal AACA ETA
Laeaal AIS Talacraneara |
anita ae ae feeaaara fret
ARMA AAAH AT FA TAT VR
agate feadttufaantege
TARATACUA: AAACSAT
ATA SATU ACTA
aa feae: eaqqaaeaey Fa Wey! 11 RI!
FIET ALT YACIFAAT AETATAATAAT TY |
quiaararer woaae ywaafeteaal STS VBI
sentra ta ura aa ta weet
afyray waaeterst Hares: |
faars faaaateqeerrt a:
Tega pap aY aaa FAMTT AYN
296 Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. [| Aprin,
TT ARTA AT HSA Yaa ALT: Tai
aratfastaaa SiaaaS T: UTTaTAsae |
qurefaaanaica que aafgfest
qraeaer aye AT Eat MTCC TA: 1X!
veuqrayaaaarst Treats wafsa4ri
aatfe at are TRC wT HAMAUSTAACTAT Lo
seRfarlayatse TM
ARACHIAATSTTT: |
caseifrarat afearqatt
aart at ata fas: Fate ei
Pedic fafaacuyscurraaty
Fal aaa fagegqaraey Ty
am aaife a aay ad wea
AO A |
aTetehe ara waa aaTaRTT: We
ALITA TUTARATMA CAT
EN i rae
AAATARARAHATAATL |
FeAAAUSACHAATATAT
AQAA CIAT LAST AATT Rell
mal q MARTA es: Paras earafateegesy |
Weal RaTgra haere FT ASIATATSATET 112UI
aan seq acfaacfeganay
faqracitaraay qerearata
Tafa Heqaafyawagres
VARA TEAC AEA: [RR
1839.] Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 297
aaa Tasca y VATA
Weagaaea qa va fast fent aft |
Marware AUTITTA Sala THA
cararafaaaqara fans SaTeAATSUT RAI
aeqrens: ufaafamaatcast
SATU ECI HIATT
sPlaANcisrapcaraaqarg CM:
wrarraaafcarfaaarssya: Ril
UIs TAT T TMATLA safer: wafayar
e « oN nO
qua ay fares afeat aalretga: |
ret saa; warafaaarsyarfcaates Bt
a} fazqufcafegeyt waafa act a@arai afa: eu
aseginafafasactaey
ULUSHCMCMAAATY TET |
aren asi fagaataacaurey
wart aateaata crsqmenia aa REI!
dag faquqaaraig wad Patra Tor waft
TLAIASTA| TY Te waa Ua ire TEA ATAAT
furfaqataasfancsed ayieeraraata | cresafa
faranfamaqatfaari tare aay CATA ATCA:
dfafed waa fagueaearafeaad atathrsaeaas tS
ary haaqerast gga fret fafataaatafaaqaaies
TRA ATTA TATA (CAAT TAT CH YUNA AAT AAT Sea
298 Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. [Avrin,
TATAT HERA CM CAAT AAT TAT TATA AAT TSAI
gaat seqatfantaredar efaual TeTEAAT SAR TAT
afyadt: Giga TATA aUTEATA Tara] WCTANSAT
waa = - wafeat: WaaTaNeaTa: WeUSTMIATTY:
aergqaaafen: wzarafecudiga: wacrsaara
eeaMAIT TT qeginwaalepraaaareta: TaVAy
gama: waurdeaaraeattedt yfafwgeaa
aaqearerttadaqecsitg ae aafdaztuty Fal
aurea = eTeuieae afaqehazarfadatatars
aeaamaiaargqares afaatfed: | aat veitfeaar
qTazakgen vada: vfafeadt a ae ary
a Fala Naaru HAT ARITf aces MAT Say STAT
sry fazaane fg fae atetes freareasaeafuquras ast
afaeqegay sftfaatacer wersfafada aera:
qa: watery! aaqraratatacazargaafaciise-qi
aaquiag raat | W way rarer: TTTATTY aa
weeIAy | ATTA AMA | BTA
fasaisdicraiares senaiscatfaa: |
aoureay fe maa yfagarrertem: i
ACI WT Tau aa wrt SATAY, ATT! |
aaad Ct HTT THT aATAA ATA aACy Taq
aa fara wat croft: aarcrfetar: |
Tey TE AA HaMAEY aty TST HSI
1839.| Account ef Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 299
arate Taft TAGE tale VRATIT AMAT
faearerarearataartea attr at ata ay: TaCTSS TAT
MASA Vs al al Taig aA TeTyey |
wet adeiai Ve eaTRaTITAA I
cirarageqarat faaaafyecs aqeasifarg |
afafaraaais teats yen: weatatay featean: 1
SAY AAA UWaasU | Wanaata arfaa: afs
Sega Yat Hal asa TA! | TATA we
quiet artararwradtat aR gaA_Ts cua
efaraent | eet AA MAA =aferscuissa
wy fafeagarra aeefeufarerfuqagararagia
Taq Aarfeerafa | aay aaa
carafe azz afwanfa aasaifatsaratta
fearon aieet sucrateaes Hifafrewafaaa
dfeatasfaata ofadteuar woltwannaaaay
fea: STATA TATA TAT ATATITATATS ATA AT TTY
ufasisten vata afafaeer atsa stacarfuat wet
qe areata
Rr
300 Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. [Arrit,
TRANSLATION OF TAMBA Patra PLATES.
1. May he in whose lily-like navel Brahma took his abode, and with
whose wife’s brother (i.e. the moon) Siva is ornamented, protect you.
2. There was a Raja named Govinpa Raja who was the superior of
his race, and the ornament of the Surastra kingdom ; he was sprung from
a spotless line, a hero in enterprize, and most valiant in war.
3. He (Govinpa Raja) was most gallant, intelligent, and victorious at
his first glance over all. His armies were like ploughs rooting up the
royal families (of his enemies). He never adored other gods but Siva,
the god of gods.
4. From him, anxious to obtain children, was born through the favor
of Siva, Karka Raja, who was possessed of all good qualities. The
name was well adapted to him.
5. His (Karka Réaja’s). kingdom, (which lost the appellation
Sowrdjya through the ruin that had fallen upon it, but the remains of
the splendour of which are esteemed by the universe) was formerly
governed jointly by the descendants of this race, but afterwards by him
alone.
6. Men were struck with surprise by his restoring the Vrisha to its
four legs, which had been reduced to one by Kaui’ (yfiga), and by his
making it to walk without limping.*
7. It is not wonderful that he governed his people with propriety,
(being so gifted) ; having placed Vishna as the object of his meditation, —
he (died and) was succeeded by his son named Krisnna Raja, who was —
virtuous, and like the son of Daarma (Ju/pHIsTHI’RA): he expelled
those who were addicted to evil, for the prosperity of his line and reign.
8. His devotion to Brahmans was unspeakable and confirmed, and
those who were only nominally Brahmans (i.e. who had fallen off from
their religion) resumed their former rites through the greedy desire of
obtaining gifts from him, which were due to more perfect Brahmans.
9. By his constant liberality the minds of his attendants were
refreshed like those of farmers by exuberant showers.
10 He who was like a lion among Rajas, and powerful in sovereign-
ty, overcame his boar-like rivals like deers ; though their teeth, curved
like bows, were radiant with the rays of heroism, and they itched with
the desire of fight.
11 The immortals walking on the firmament, being astonished with
* This is a figurative mode of saying ‘That he restored to virtue the three parts
which it is supposed to have lostin the Kali ytiga,”’ the word for quarter “Te being the
same as for foot, makes the conceit which gives point to this expression,
| 1839. ] Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 301
the view of his fort of Hilapur, declared continually that the beauty
of that fort was no where to be found but in the works of Swayambha,
Siva, and Bamana.
12. The architect of it was himself struck with wonder at its beauty.
His name has been proclaimed every where by the king himself.
13. The image of SamBuv’ (Siva) established therein, though wonder-
fully ornamented with the symbols of Ganga, the crescent and the
kalakiita (a kind of poison), yet was further adorned with ornaments of
gold and jewels, and several other materials.
14. His (Krisuna Réja’s) son was Durv’va Raja: his enemies, who
were humbled by his might, were burnt by the fire of his spirit.
15. He was successful in his endeavours to bring Laxsumr to sub-
mission, how wonderful !! for even Siva, though lord of all, was unable
to make his wife obedient to him without resuming his godhead.
16. From Durvu’va Raja, who established peace with all his enemies,
and who attained the final and the highest rank of gods (dying) at the
junction of the waters of Ganga and Yamiund, immersed in them with
remarkable signs, and whose merits covered the universe, was born
Govinpa Raja, who was famous.
17. He deprived all the kings of antiquity who had their communi-
cation with different countries of their fame, and destroyed all his
enemies.
18. He was in all circumstances irresponsible, and resembled the
Creator in his conduct, destroying all rival claimants to royalty in his
time, and setting them at defiance.
19. He did such wonders in battle, that his foes acknowledged that
they had been taught by men ignorant of military affairs. He was like
Pa’rTHA, the only hero in the three regions who never deprived his ene-
mies of their lives.
20. The elephants of his enemies which came forward in battle and
were pierced with his shafts, resembled the wall mountain of the world
shaken by the winds at the end of ka/pa (during the deluge.)
21. His brother Inpra Raja, a king powerful like Inpra, governed
the kingdom of Ldtéshwara. He performed many wonderful deeds.
22. To this day, the Gods, Kennaras, Siddhas, Saddhyas, and the
Vidyadharas, who have heard of his qualities, are singing his kunda-
flower-like fame, lost to all sense of shame in their transports, and put-
ting their hands on the breasts of other’s females, (i. e. they are so
deeply engaged in song that they have become out of sense.)
23. He soon reduced the king of Gwjjara, who prepared to engage
in war with him, and who raised his head with bravery, to fly skulking
like a deer, and after plundering all his estates restored him again, out
302 Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. { Apri,
of compassion, saving his chieftains from ruin who were afraid of (him)
and scattered in different places.
24. His (Inpra Raja’s) son was the Laxusmi enticer, whose mind was
devoted to the lily-feet of Hara (Siva), and whose spirit was felt by his
enemies, like the moon in disposition—Karxka Raja who preserved
mankind.
25. There was no robber in his kingdom, nor any sort of mortifica-
tion, nor famine, nor fear, accidental or natural. All kinds of vice
were reduced to a low ebb, and his enemies were humbled ; none had the
presumption to show disrespect to those who were learned.
26. The owner of Mdlava, in order to defend his kingdom from the
invasion of the king of Gourha (Bengal) used the (uplifted) hand of
Karka Raja as a stay on the lord of Gaara, and thereby enjoyed all
he desired. |
27. He having considered life to be fickle as the lightning, and the
virtue of giving land durable, executed this religious gift.
28. He, the king of Ldtéshwara, possessed of armies and many chief-
tains, brought into submission in different countries, and in whose reign
there was a shower of gold, thus proclaims to all his statesmen, the
treasurers, the functionaries, and those who have the care of castes,
with the respect due to them.
Be it known to all of you, that for promoting the virtue and fame
both here, and in the next world, of his father, and mother, and himself,
he, the said Raja, has presented for continuing his five jagnas to the
Brahman Bua’nv’, who belonged to the line of Va/Tsa/yana, and was
acquainted with the four Vidyds, and who was a religious student, the
son of Soma’piTya, the fertile village called Parranak, part of the tract
containing eighty-four angkotans (each 100 begas) bounded on the
east by the village of Jambubabikd, on the south by Maha Sanaka, on —
the west by-a nala (ankootaka), and on the north by the village
Bagghachha. The land within the above boundaries is to be enjoyed
with all marriage and other fees from cultivators, with all fishing
and fruit privileges, with all that may be washed or deposited by |
torrents, with all fines for petty offences, with all free labour privileges,
with all rights of treasure-trove and mines, without interference of
any kind from government officers. It is to be enjoyed in full pro-
perty as a perpetual inheritance by the ‘said Brahman, his sons, and
posterity for ever, go long as the sun, moon, and rivefs, and the moun-
tains shall endure! It is not to be touched by the hands of the king’s
servants, nor to be claimed on the part of gods and Brahmans, by whom
it was heretofore possessed. Given in the year of Saka’s death 734 on
the 12th of Bysakh (24th April, 822 a.p.)
aa
ia = Soc’. -FACSIMILE of the 2™* PLATE
Jour’ As*® Soc”.
Yn G>
LYM Yi
Primedat the Oriental Lith? Prece
a SO
ee
1839.] Account of Tamba Patra Plates found at Baroda. 303
Let none obstruct his (Bua’Nnv’s) enjoying, or letting others enjoy it;
or his ploughing, or letting others plough. After this, let future Rajas
of our race, or of any other race, reflect that wealth and life are unstable
as lightning, and fickle as water in the leaf of water lilies, and so let
them respect this our grant, and confirm the grantees in possession. He
only whose mind is blackened by the darkness of ignorance will resume,
or be pleased at seeing others molest its possessor, reckless of the guilt
of the five deadly sins and other heinous crimes, as described at length
by Ve’DAVYA’SA.
He who grants lands lives 60,000 years in heaven, but he who con-
fiscates or resumes, or allows others to do so, is doomed to hell for a like
period. .
Those who resume lands granted by others will become black serpents
in the dry holes of the forest of the Vindhya mountain.
Gold is the first offspring of fire, and the earth the wife of VisHnu,
and cows are the daughters of the sun. He who grants these things
gives also the three regions.
The earth has been enjoyed by many kings, as the Sa’cara Raja and
others, and he who rules it in his turn, is the sole enjoyer of its fruits.
But what generous man will take again the grants made by Rajas
who have gone before him, and whose gifts are like wreaths of flowers,
spreading the fragrance of a good name, and of the reputation for
wealth and virtue. |
Oh ye virtuous kings, respect the grants of lands (given by
others), for to preserve their grants is better than a fresh donation.
Men whose minds are cleared from sin, considering life and wealth
fickle as water in the leaf of the water lily, will never destroy the fame
of others.
It is further, said by Ra’m BaaprRa—You who are the best of Rajas,
are hereby repeatedly prayed by Ra“m Cuanpra to preserve this bridge
of virtue for ever.
Confirmed by the counter-signature of the presumptive heir and
brother of the king, Dantr Varma, and signed with the autograph of
myself the Karka RaAja, son of Inpra Raja, and prepared and engrossed
by the hereditary servant of the king for peace and war, NunaDITYA,
son of Durga Buatra. For the good of my father and his ancestors have
I made this grant to the Brédhman Bua’nv’, who has served my family
with his prayers for many years. May he enjoy the grant, and profit by it !
N.B. There are several counter-signatures, apparently autographs, in the last four
lines of the last plate, which besides that they are of doubtful reading, it would be of
little interest to transcribe. On the outside are the words ‘“’Tis for the good of my
father and mother.’’
304 Alexander’s exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. [ Arnit,
Arr. III.—Collection of Facts which may be useful for the comprehen-
sion of ALEXANDER THE GREAT’S exploits on the Western Banks of
the Indus (with map ).
By M. A. Court, Ancien Eleve de ? Ecole Militaire de Saint Cyr.
(Translated for the Journal of the Asiatic Society from the French Original M.S.)
The military achievements of Alexander in the regions which lie be-
tween the Indus and the Cophenes form one of the most brilliant episodes
of his history.
Those regions at present are known by the name of Yousoufzeis,
Kooner, Suwat, Dhyr, Bajore, and Moumends. More northward lies
Kaffristan, which occupies the southern and northern sides of the gigan-
tic snow-topped chain of mountains which bounds this country to the
north, and is but an extension of the Himalayas, and to the west
reaches Hindo-Koosh at the Khound, an enormous ridge, the tops of
which are flat, and almost perpetually covered with snow, a circumstance
which renders it observable at a great distance: there are likewise
visible the banks of the Indus, from which it is about eighty koss
distant. %
Those regions are bounded on the east by the Indus, on the south by
the river of Cabul, which is no other but the Cophes or Cophenes of
the Greeks, placed by Arrian at the eastern extremity of Paropamis,
and the source of which Pliny collocates in the north western part
of this mountainous province, assigning its course eastward, and sta-
ting that after its confluence with the Choes near Nyssa, it falls into
the Indus to the south west of Taxila below Ambolima (probably Amb)—
data that perfectly combine with the Cabul river, which I have des-
eribed in my journey through Affghanistan. This name Cophes, by
which it was known to the historiographers of antiquity, seems to have
been given it by the Greeks, who may have derived it from Cophenes
who perhaps then governed the country it washes in the name of his
father Artabazus, whom Alexander had appointed prefect of Bactria.
This is at least what induced Arrian to adopt the above opinion, who re-
lates that Alexander was accompanied, on his arrival at the banks of the
Indus, by Cophes and Assagetes, UTrapxol or sub-rulers of the pro-
vince situated to the west of that river. Or perhaps it is the name
which it originally bore, and from a corruption of which the Mahometans
formed the word Kaffristan.
This vast extent of mountainous country is very little known to Ku-
ropeans. The geographical details which Quintus Curtius gives of it
are too succinct, and it is a matter of much regret, that the veracious
1839.| Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. 305
Arrian has been incomparably dry, when treating this subject. Add
to this the disastrous conquests of the Mahometans, who spread through-
out trouble and confusion, besides the custom that prevailed, wherever
the Greeks of Alexander’s army were to be found, of changing the names
of the places which they traversed, and we must unavoidably conclude
that it is no easy task for a traveller to discern true from false.
Among the Oriental works (that treat on this subject) we have only
the commentaries of Baberch on which we can rely for exact informa-
tion. The few modern travellers extant are vague and uncertain.
Those regions would procure for any European who would survey them,
the glory of throwing a brilliant light on Alexander’s march, and of
enriching science with hitherto unknown facts relative to the Bactrians ;
in as much as they are overspread with ruins, cupolas, and inscriptions,
all referring to those conquerors, and attributed by their actual in-
habitants to the Caffrans. They are alluded to by the Chinese Religi-
ous, who traversed those countries in the commencement of the 7th
century of our era, and whose manuscript exists in the Oriental Library
of France. But whatever European may undertake a similar journey,
must expect to encounter numberless dangers, and almost insur-
mountable obstacles from the barbarity of the tribes who inhabit them,
and above all from the jealousy of the chiefs, who, naturally suspicious,
are always inclined to form sinister judgments of the projects of any
stranger who travels through their district. This was the lot of Dr.
Henderson, who desirous of crossing those regions to repair to Badak-
chan, although he was disguised as a fakeer, and had a perfect know-
ledge of Persian, was seized, stripped, and beaten, for having put his
foot in Suwat, and was compelled to return to Peshawur, where I had
the good fortune to attend him. Subsequently I myself having become
intimate with the chiefs of those regions, had cherished some hope of
being enabled personally to explore them ; but unfortunately the rank
I hold in the army of the Maharajah of Lahore occasioned them so much
terror, that they imagined that my researches, far from being actuated
by curiosity and an interest for science, were only directed to explore
the country, so as to facilitate its conquest by Runjeet Sing. I was
thus constrained by their earnest remonstrances to abandon my inten-
tion of undertaking such a journey, and to content myself with having
recourse to the people of Peshawur to survey secretly the country, so as
to acquire some knowledge of its geography.
The items which I have had here transcribed in Persian were col-
lected by them, and I only give them publicity in order to fix the at-
tention of the geographers and archeologists who may happen to come
hither after me, and to facilitate thereby the combination of modern
306 Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. [ Apri,
with ancient geography. I may possibly avail myself of these materials
hereafter, to furnish a complement to my conjectures on Alexander’s
marches through Bactria.
The country which I am about to describe, is intersected by three
principal rivers, viz. the Khonar, the Pendjecooré, and the Suwat.
The first directs its course S. S. W. along the southern side of the
snowy chain above alluded to, dividing Caffristan from the cantons of
Bajore and Dhyr, and after rolling its impetuous waters through
a bed strewn with rocks, wherein it would be difficult to meet any sand,
it falls into the Cabul river, almost opposite the city of Jellalabad. I
know not where it rises; some place its source in Cachgar, which it
intersects. The proximity of the snowy chain, and the direction of the
river’s course, denote that it must necessarily have more than one influx.
During the liquefaction of the snow it acquires so great a volume of
water that it cannot be crossed but on rafts. This river, as I have stated
in my memoirs, is denominated Sind by the Kaffrees who inhabit its
banks, and Ahonar by the Affghans, a name borrowed from a town that
is the capital of a canton or district situated on its western bank, be-
tween Jellalabad and Bajore. Some travellers improperly give it the
name of Khameh.* This may be possibly the Choes of Arrian, which
Alexander coasted on his march to Swastus, to which his troops may
have given the name of Choes, a corruption probably of that of Cheva, a
canton situated at its confluence with the Cabul river, which may have
anciently given its name to this river, as the town of Khonar gave its
own. As the Greeks sometimes translated the names of foreign places,
and liked to call them by particular ones somehow connected with the
traditions they indiscriminately adopted, they may possibly have baptized
with the name of Choes one of the rivers of those regions, in memory
of the festival of Choes (Xdec) or of the libations which the Athenians
celebrated in the month of Anthesterion in honor of Bacchus, and which
they also styled “AvOesnoua,
After what Strabo relates, we would be led to suppose that the
river in question is his Choaspes, which disembogues, according to him,
into the Cophenes. |
The Penjecooré rising in Ghilghit, flows between the Khonar and
the Suwat: its direction is from north to south. It is called Penjecooré
because it is formed from the union of five other rivers, viz. the Tal,
the Laori, the Awchiri, the Neag, and the Jindé ; the first of which is the
most considerable of the five. Besides those influents, it receives
7
* This river is marked ** Kama R.”’ in Tassin’s map:
1839.| Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. 307
several others of inferior note, such as the Berravol and the Caron ; the
latter intersects the district of Penjecooré between the Awchiri and the
Suwat. :
The river of Penjecooré is the most considerable in those regions
next to that of Cabul ; hence I have to say of this also, that during the
liquefaction of the mountain snows it cannot be crossed but with rafts.
Without being very deep its current is extremely rapid, and its bed is
so sown with rocks and slippery stones, that of ten persons that wade
it when its water is low, half are sure to stumble. After leaving
Dhyr until its confluence with that of Suwat, it is known by the name
of Penjecooré, and thence, until its union with the Cabul river, by
that of Suwat.* Iam inclined to think that it is the Gurcus of the
Greeks. |
Respecting the Suwat, Iam at present unable to speak of it, being
occupied at this very moment in getting its source explored. The
Hindoos only know it by the name of Sihon pedra nadi. ‘The latter is
undoubtedly the Soobah Vastoo of the Chinese Religious, and the
Swastus of Ptolemy. I would have it here observed, that the Suwat
and Penjecooré rivers are frequently confounded with one another by
the inhabitants themselves of lower Yousoufzeis, because they mix their
streams before they disembogue into the Cabul river, i.e. the Cophenes.
This mistake only takes place below their confluence, which occurs at
the point of Goozar Mamani, situated six or eight koss from the
ruins of Talache, in as much as above it they retain their distinct
denominations.
The Suwat is indisputably the Swastus of Arrian, on which Alexan-
der sailed after coasting the Choes.
Of a vast number of ruined cities which those regions present to
one’s view, those that most deserve the attention of geographers and
archeologists are the following :— _
Ist. The ruins of Valache, situated between the confluence of the
Penjecooré and the Suwat. In the midst of these massy and immense ruins
exists an enormous cupola, of much more elaborate architecture than
other monuments of that description, because it is said to support
around its base a number of basso relievos.
2nd. The ruins of Berikoot, attributed to the Caffre Béri, on the
eastern side of the Suwat, not far from the city of Manglore, or
Mangar, near which is the cupola of Chinguerdar, attributed to
_ Abou-Padsha, and equally remarkable with that of Talache. A beaten
* « Lundye river’ of Tassin. The “ Penjecooré R.”’ of M. Court has no representa-
tive in Tassin.
ss
308 Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. [ Apri,
track through a rock leads to those ruins which are delineated on the
back and top of the mountain. Farther on, on the same grounds, are
those of Hira and Badakhel: the latter, being the vastest of all,
are assigned to Doomma Padsha.
3rd. The ruins of the city of Aritchend, improperly denominated
Artchend by the Mahometans. They are observable on a height
environed on all quarters by deep ravines. They are eighteen koss
north of Peshawur, and six east of Fengui. They are attributed to the
Kaffrans, and may possibly be the Arigeum of the Greeks, which was
razed by them, and whose advantageous position induced Alexander to
order Craterus to demolish its walls. To the west of these ruins, and
on the western bank of the Suwat and. Penjecooré united, lie those
of Khound, which reach down to the river.
To the north of Aritchend are the ruins also of Sakout, where the
impression of a foot is visible, and those of Diguer, situated on the
southern side of mount Malekan. To the south of Aritchend are also
observable those of Radjer, or Razor, of Seidabad, and Kalader: they
are attributed to the Caffre Farikhi.
4th. We cannot consider with equal attention the ruins of Béhi,
attributed to the Rajah Verrat, which according to the inhabitants of
the place were the former sojourn of the monarchs of that country.
They lie to the north east of the present city of Achtnagar, and are
situated on the level of mount Béhli, insulated as it is, in the centre of
the immense plain of Yousoufzeis. There are visible there, it is said,
grand traces of massy walls, some basso-relievos, and the ruins of a
subterraneous aqueduct, (which conveyed thither the water of the Penje-
cooré) after leaving the ruins of Radjer situated close to Achtnagar.
Directing your course thence towards Booner you meet, at twelve koss
distance, mount Mahram which contains also some ruins, and may
probably be the Meros of Arrian, which Alexander ascended with all
his army after taking possession of Nyssa, by our geographers supposed
to be identical with Achtnagar. But what destroys this probability is,
that the district the Macedonians recognised with jubilee is not disco-
verable in those parts, and cannot be traced out, but in a more northern
latitude beyond the Malekan ridge. I must however here remark, that
there are several mountains in those regions called Mahram, and among
the rest one in Bajore, and another at Cashmeer close to the city.
5th. The ruins of Meidan, where a rather unimportant inscription
has been reported to me to exist, merit not to pass unnoticed, in conse-
quence of their extent and proximity to the Penjecooré. The same must
be said of those of Ganchal, situated in the canton of Tal, three days
journey north east of Meidan, and twelve koss from Dhyr, as well as
1839.| Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. 309
from the castle of Soun, observable to the south of the river Awchiri, and
containing lead mines in its vicinity.
6th. The ruins of Doomma, situated on a very lofty mountain, whence
the surrounding country is discernible ; those of Dankool are a little fur-
ther up. Those cities bear the names of the monarchs that founded them,
and are situated in the eastern part of the Yousoufzeis, not far from the
Indus. Ks
7th. I shall draw attention in the last place to the ruins that are
two koss to the west of the present town of Dhyr, and which are
assigned to the Kaffrans, who were dispossessed of them by the Ma-
hometans, when that city was governed by the Caffer Kirkat. These
merit that the greatest attention should be paid to them by travellers,
in as much as, after the relations of Kazan Khan, chief of Dhyr, and on
account of the combination of the latter name with the Dyrta of Arri-
an, I have scarcely any doubt on my mind that this is the city which
Alexander passed, when he was pursuing the brother of Assacanus,
and whence he set out for the Indus. If my opinion could be borne
out, with such a cue it would be extremely practicable to deter-
mine the true positions of Ora, Bazira, Massaga, and other places men-
tioned by the above historian, concerning which I have been un-
able to obtain any precise information, notwithstanding the thorough
researches I have made. Nevertheless I shall observe that the Hin-
doos of those districts assured me, that a city called Massangar, known
also by the name of Maskhiné, exists on the southern frontier of Kaf-
fristan, close to Baba Kara, twelve koss from Bajore, and four from
mount Mahram, which is in that canton. They also added that the
tribe called Assacenis exists in that country. If such a relation were
well-founded, we should discover there the Massaga of the Greeks,
the capture of which cost so much blood to Alexander, and the mas-
sacre of whose intrepid garrison cast a blemish on the exploits of that
conqueror. I am not aware if this Massangar be identical with the
one alluded to by Forster, who travelled through Suwat.
I have been similarly assured that there exist in the district of Boo-
ner the traces of a town called Oora, which has been also denominated
Doora, and which on account of its proximity to the Indus may proba-
bly be the Ora of Arrian, (although Bazira has not been yet discovered
in its vicinity) especially as that river is not known higher up, but by
the name of Ab Sind, whence it may be conjectured, with some proba-
bility, that the country it washes in that part may have been the region
of that Abissares, on whom our historians waste so many hypotheses,
and who, according to Arrian, sent resources to Ores, when Alexander
was besieging that city. Apropos of Abissares, I do not deem it here
310 Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. [ Aprtt,
superfluous to remark that there is a mountain two days’ journey N. of
Dhyr, by name Ser-Adkamoos-Ouré, situated on the route leading to
Badakchan, a region near which is a place called Hissar. This latter
word in Hindee signifies a fortress, whence the present city of Achtna-
gar is also known by the name of Hissar.
I had also had scrupulous researches made concerning the Aornos,
but with similar mal-success. Alluding to this rock, I have already
observed in my journey through Affghanistan that a similar mount
presents itself (with all the peculiarities described by Arrian) in the
canton of Maoghi, near Bajore, where the vestiges also exist of a city
named Ambar, which is probably the Ambolima of Ptolemy, placed
by him on the lower branch of the Choes or Cophenes.
The persons I commissioned to explore the country about Dhyr
reported to me, that in the canton of Laori, near that of Dhyr, there
exists a mountain corresponding in all its particulars with the Aornos.
Others have assured me that there is a similar one in the canton
of Booner, a region, like all the rest of Yousoufzeis, interspersed with in-
sulated mountains, whither the inhabitants take refuge in case of immi-
nent danger, and which, considering the proximity of the city of Amb,
capital of a canton situated on the Indus, renders such an opinion
sufficiently probable. I must also subjoin, that beyond the territory Mo-
la Goori, situated below the confluence of the Penjecooré and the Suwat,
to the west of both those rivers united, a mountain is observable called |
Salata, and’also named Azarno, which on account of its insulated posi-
tion and elevated form, resembling a flattened or headless cone, may be
easily taken for the Aornos. This mount is quite perceptible from
Peshawur, behind the defile of Fengui, as its summits far surpass the
Malekan ridge. I shall also observe that on mount Guendeguer, to
the N. E. of Azerou, places situated to the east of the Indus, there is the
fort of Serikoot, a name bearing a striking resemblance to that of
Sisicotte, to which Alexander confided the garrison of Aornos. The
former is a renowned stronghold of those regions, having cost the
Seiks a great deal of blood, and being the place whither the inhabi-
tants of the surrounding countries resort for shelter in cases of peculiar
peril.
After surmises of this sort, we must infer that it is extremely dif-
ficult to know which opinion to embrace, especially as the ancient
historians themselves are not agreed on this important point, which
constitutes one of the most brilliant of Alexander’s exploits. Arrian
collocates Aornos near Bazira; Strabo towards the sources of the
Indus ; and Quintus Curtius on the banks of that river. With reference
to the latter opinion, I would observe, that a rock exists opposite
1839.| Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. 311
Attdk, with all the peculiarities described by him, on a mountain that is
topped by a castle, attributed to Rajah Hody. It cannot be ascended
but on the side of the Indus, by a steep passage hewn through the rock,
and enclosed by two walls of defence, running up zig-zag according
to the protuberances of the mount. The space immured by those
walls is filled with ruins of habitations gradually rising from the brink
of the river up to the castle. Those works are all entire, and have the
appearance of great antiquity. The three heights whereon Alexander
sacrificed to the gods still exist, but I must avow that no arable ground
or spring can be discovered. There are only two reservoirs built
by the vizier of Zamenchah. The heights are at present occupied by
small forts defended by the Mazbis, an Indian sect in the service
of the Maharajah of Lahore.
Of the great number of cupolas existing in those regions I shall
distinguish the following :—
Ist. That of Talache, which I have already alluded to, and the five
or six others that are discoverable not far from those ruins, in the
defile that leads from the Suwat to the Penjecooré.
2nd. That of Chinguerdar, situated between the ruins of Berikoot and
the town of Manglore. Another is observable more to the south-
ward. |
3rd. That of Charbag, present capital of Suwat.
4th. Those that exist among the ruins of Sedougany to the east
of Manglore.
5th. Those of Berikoot, situated near the village of Nakmira.
6th. That of Charkootlia, fifteen koss to the east of Aritchend,
as well as that near the ruins of Seidabad. The latter is as large
as that of Chinguerdar.
7th. That of Sepel-banda, near the village of Khari, and as large
as that of Chinguerdar,
8th. Those of Heniapoor, one of which is near the village of Fooraseuk,
and the other under mount Jaffer.
9th. That near Sonigheran.
10th. The two existing on the ruins situated at the foot of
mount Sookker, near the village of Riga.
11th. Those in the villages of Fakttahind and Caboolgheram.
12th. Those, in fine, of Chammely, situated on the top of a moun-
tain.
All those massy cupolas which I am describing, are in the Yousoufzeis
territories, by which is meant all the territory comprised between the
Indus and Penjecooré, from the snowy chain to the lower branch of the
312 Alexander’s exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. [ Arr,
Cabul river, viz. the Cophenes, and which includes Yousoufzeis proper,
Booner, upper and lower Suwat, Penjecooré, and the dependencies of
Dhyr. .
Remarkable places being points that may serve for comparative geo-
graphy, as well as rivers and mountains, I shall select the following for
observation :— |
Ist. The cave Cashmeer Ghar, situated in the territory of the Baboo-
zeis, on a mountain which cannot be ascended but by a steep passage,
hewn in a great measure out of the rock. This place is also called
Peliey, and is sixteen koss from the town of Soukhor. The cave is said
to be of an immeasurable depth, and to have so large an aperture, that
it is impossible to discern the direction by casting in a stone. As both
sides of the entrance are of solid masonry, and the front is encumbered
with enormous cut stones, one would imagine that it is one of the sub-
terraneous temples attributed to the Pandoovans, or to the Caffers. At
present it is a place of shelter for myriads of wood-pigeons. Quite close
to it are visible the traces of a town or castle, whence idols are some-
times dug up ; a basin also is observable there continually supplied with
water. I had been assured that an inscription was discoverable, but my
men could trace out none whatever. I am not aware if this cave be
identical with that of Roostam, to which I have alluded in my des-
cription of Yousoufzeis.
2nd. The sandy cave of Dekia, situated at the foot of mount
Ghardoom im the district of Dhyr, on which there are the traces of a
town.
3rd. The Khial cave, near the ruins of Meidan, in the canton of
Bajore.
4th. The vast basin that exists on mount Bikary, to the west of Dhyr,
being a place of pilgrimage for the Hindoos, who give out that their
Pir disappeared on that spot.
5th. The basin situated to the east of Dhyr in the district of Tal, where
a fire exists under a cupola maintained from time immemorial, and kept
up at present by a Guebrian woman.
6th. Lake Mansoroor in Bajore, situated on a mountain fifteen koss
from Bendy Berravol, which is continually supplied with water in conse-
quence of the perpetual snow.
7th. Mount Hilo, situated in Yousoufzeis, by the Mahometans deno-
minated Hilum Pilum, and by the Hindoos Ramtakt. This place is
much frequented by the latter, who perform an annual pilgrimage
thither during the month of April, in memory of Rajah Ramtchend.
Those Hindoos likewise make the pilgrimage of Chamra, situated near
Ootchan, country of the Samoozeis
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1839.] Alexander's exploits on the Western Banks of the Indus. 313
Prior to my drawing this article to a close, I deem it an interesting
topic, to make an observation on the region of Tchélas, situated on the
eastern bank of the Indus, four days’ journey (more northward) from
Pakhley and Dembor. This region is said to be highly remarkable for
the number of ruined towns it contains. Although situated in the
neighbourhood of the snowy chain, it may well have been the Tuktcha-
shilas of the Chinese Religious, a word which may be decomposed into
takt, a throne, chah, a king, and shilas a corruption of Tchelas ; and
thus form a ground for a probable hypothesis, that the Greeks thence
derived their Zaxila. The inhabitants of Upper Suwat who repair
to Tchélas, cross the Indus at Goozer Chekhi, whence is visible on the
eastern bank mount Mehoor, situated almost opposite the Cabool-Ghe-
ram ruins, which are discoverable on the contrary beach.
Higher up, on the upper branch of the Indus, lie the regions of
Ghilghit, Ashoor, Gorei, Khélooman, and Balooman, formerly inhabited
by the Caffers.
The ferry points of the Indus from Attok to the snowy ridge are
the following: Attok, Bazar Hound, Monari, Pehoor, Notchy, Kabbel,
Chetabha, Amb, Derbend, Chetterbahi, Mabera, Toohara, Marer,
Didel, Kamatche, Behar, Pachetlehi, Guendoo, Mattial, Battera,
Jendial, and Manial, Kallehi, Palles-pattan, Pohoo-Goodje, Koonchir and
Jalkoot.
Art. [V.—Remarks upon the Rain and Drought of the last Eight
Seasons in India. By the Rev. R. Everest, Landour.
In two former papers I endeavoured to trace the variations of the
past seasons, as to drought and moisture, by means of the prices of corn,
_having assumed that the wettest years produced the most abundant
harvest, and the driest the reverse. An examination of the subject
shewed that the more extensively the averages of prices were taken,
the greater approximation there was to a regular ascending and de-
scending series, or curve, with recurrent periods of from six to ten
years; thus leading to the belief, that, if the average of certain atmos-
pherical phenomena over a surface sufficiently extensive could be taken,
the result would exhibit recurrences nearly or altogether regular. I
- will now shew how far the Register of the different Rain Gauges cor-
roborate or not this opinion. The following are the annual depths of
Rain that have fallen in different parts of India during the last eight
years.
314 Rain and Drought of the last Eight Seasons in India. [ Avriz,
Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Dehli,
inches. inches. inches. inches.
1831 58°78 40°30 99°64 ee ‘ :
Ads. Chases ilyeeiskcins-20 " To obtain the average varia-
1833 60°36 36:99 71:00 1415 tion, let us take the maximum
1834 68°73 40°17 66°59 = =36°85 d@ mini
1835 85°50 37°96 ©6219 g7-70.-~=« @._ MInimum at each place, and
1836 45°66 47°59 87:99 35:00 divide the whole difference be-
1837 43°61 49°27 64°99 10°55 :
+8 53-02 5433 «50°78 «20°31+~«C Ween =them into one thousand
parts; then for the number itself substitute the proportional part
of the difference.
1835 1837
Thus at Calcutta we have rs a ay 85°50 43°66
1835 1837
These will by the proposed substitution become ... 1000 O00
and the whole will stand thus :— .
Calcutta. Madras. Bombay. Dehli. Average.
1831 362 4295 769 ol 475 ;
seco ant aa: Bee ae It appears from this average
1833 400 246 452 137 309 that the minimum has recurred
1834 600 293 401 1000 573 : : ae :
1835 1000 250 359 659 563 in five years, which is a period
1836 050 4014 635 929 504 somewhat shorter than we should
1837 000 425 376 000 200 —
1838 295 499 216 371 328 have been led to expect from
an examination of the prices of corn for many years back.
I have before stated, as one of the results of such an examination,
that there was a more perfect recurrence at the end of fifty six years than
at any other period. Thus comparing together different years with that
interval between them, we have the following :—
Maxim : or years) ...... 1815......1822-28......1829...... 1835-36
of abundance. f ...... LS cmscrtO teasraeka linc
Minim: ov years\ ..sseeees TS19=20 1.5. OAs a. nanens 1882
Gr scarcity, <<" si.a¢esnmens EyGo woos: L702 RR ETS
In searching for data to elucidate this part of the subject, T obtained —
sight of an old manuscript Register in the Surveyor General’s Office,
from which I was enabled to compare the annual amounts of rain for
the last eight seasons with those fifty-six years before. The Register
appears to be imperfect, and, unfortunately, to have been kept by an
illiterate person. The daily entries begin towards the latter end of
1776, but, from a note we learn what had been the annual amount of
rain both in that year, and in the year previous. I here subjoin them,
and place by the side of each the depths registered 56 years afterwards.
1839.] Rain and Drought of the last Light Seasons in India. 315
Annual depth of rain at Calcutta in inches.
Rain inches Rain inches
1775. 55°24) «58°78 1831 It will be observed that the depths
1777 62:07 60°36 1833 are mMuc ess 1n e eariler perio 1an
tes 59°30 68°73 ae in the later. This is partly owing to
1779 «=64°51 85H 1835 5
1780 64°20 45°66 1836 the height of the Gauge above the
1781 59°90 43°61 =: 1837— ground in the former case, for which
—1782 41°07 53°02 182 . :
che Batouiiins 6 et allowance might be made, but this would
1784 ie c+es eeee not be worth while, as there are other
1785 6 s 5 eeee .
A le 4 sources of error which could not be cal-
culated. For the years 1784-85 we have another register published
in the Asiatic Researches, which gives the annual amount thus :—
Year, Os FPR 1785.
Inches, SPO sss. ies
Let us now recapitulate the principal maaima and minima for
56 years. They are—
ie V779...1786...1796...1806...1815...1822-23...1829...1835—386
Min. . . 1782-8...1792~3...1802...1811-12...1819-20...1826...1832
The maxima for Bengal are generally earlier than the above. They
are, 1784-5 1794 1804 1813.
On referring to the list we see that no menzmum recurred at the end
of 56 years from 1782 viz. in 1838; but somewhat earlier, viz. in
1837. It was not, however, to be expected that the recurrences would
happen regularly in the same locality, and our lists are much too few to
enable us to estimate the average effect over the whole surface of the
country. The maxima above stated shew very nearly four equal in-
tervals of seven years each = 28 years; one of ten years, and two of
nine years each == 28 years.
Admitting the case to be as we have supposed, then we might
reasonably expect that similar phenomena would be observed in other
parts of the world, in particular, such lakes or large natural reservoirs
as the Caspian, and the North American lakes would indicate, by their
increase or diminution, the variations of the seasons over an extended
surface, better than any other artificial means that could be devised.
In Brewster’s Edin. Journal of Science, vol. 7. 1827 (July to October),
we find a paper by Mr. De Witt Clinton, on the periodical rise and fall
of the North American lakes. . Unfortunately no record has been kept
of the changes, but it is stated that there is arise for three years, and a
corresponding declension—being altogether a period of six years. It is
added, that some extend the time of rise to five, and others to nineteen
Tt
316 Rain and Drought of the last Eight Seasons in India. [ Apri,
years. Probably these periods would be more correctly stated at 42
_and 92 years respectively, which would give recurrences at the end
of nine and nineteen years. Some particular times of maxima and
minima are stated ; they are— |
HALOS... P77 MIP eee EG Los
DW a. Ae es eee LOU R= LO Lee as se Ooo
These numbers (except the last) nearly coincide with our own, which
are for the same period—
Max. 1D TOG HANG Oo Le BOG ITE. FONE LBL SP Gee 22,
Min. restr eae LOGOS Sens heen Loma
It must be recollected that these periods of the North American
lakes are only stated from the memory of the inhabitants; and besides
it is almost too much to expect that the changes in distant parts of the
world should be exactly contemporaneous.
Art. V.—WStatistical Record of the duration of diseases in 13,019
fatal cases in Hindoos.—Extraordinary mortality among Lying-in
Women— Compiled by Dr. Duncan Stewart, Superintendent Ge-
neral of Vaccination.
Nore. The Table is compiled from the Bills of Hindoo Mortality
kept by the Police authorities at the different ghauts where Hindoo
obsequies are performed. The information is derived from the relatives
accompanying the body to the ghaut, and is therefore not liable to sus-
picion, although there may be some little laxity on particular points.
The registers thus obtained assign the name, age, sex, caste, occupation,
and residence of every individual—the illness whereof he died, and the
number of days he was ill—also the names of his father, of his nearest
heir, his priest, and the doctor who attended him. Some of the former
items I have elsewhere tabulated for the information of the Municipal
Committee, in illustration of the localities in Calcutta most favorable
1839.| Duration of Diseases in 13,019 fatal cases in Hindoos. 317
to the generation and concentration of disease, and of the ratio of mor-
tality in each Thannah, as also the influences of age, sex, and season
upon the course of disease among the natives.
The present Table has reference chiefly to the comparative preva-
lence of particular diseases, and to the duration of these in a majority
of cases before they Ai//. It must be remembered that none of the sub-
jects here classified enjoyed the benefits of Hospital treatment, and but
very few probably of Dispensary aid, or of European skill in any form ;
yet the Table will be interesting, if on this account alone, by exhibiting
in comparison with similar Tables, the results of Hospital or Dispensary
practice here and in Europe.
The rapid fatality of tropical diseases in their early stages, is remark-
ably shown ; and with reference particularly to the diseases of child-bed,
there is more than sufficient to compel the conviction not only of the
existence of many unhappily fatal habits and prejudices on the part of
the people, but of most barbarous, perhaps sinful, obstetricy on the part
of the practitioners. The mortality in child-bed is one-tenth of the
whole ; that is, equal to one-fifth of all the deaths among females.
Of the fatal cases, more than half occur during the three first
days, in other words “in the birth,” and of the remainder a large ma-
jority fall victims to puerperal diseases within 15 days. So frightful a
picture is not to be met with in the records of humanity ; yet so little
has it been known or suspected, that only two years ago the India Com-
pany’s examining Physician in London actually struck out of the medical
indent from this country the entire of the obstetric instruments, stating
as a reason, that “ the relaxing effects of the climate rendered the use
of instruments at all times unnecessary.”
The subject has lately attracted attention here in an influential quar-
ter, and such disclosures as the present will, it is hoped, lead to the in-
stitution of measures calculated to prevent the fearful waste of life from
such causes.
| Table shewing, Se.
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1839. | Description of four new species of Olter. 319
Arr. VI.—Summary description of four new species of Otter. By
B. H. Hopeson, Esq., Resident at Catmandu, Nepal.
To the Editor of the Asiatic Journal.
Sir,
One of the most remarkable features of the mammalogy of Nepal
is the great number of distinct species of Oéter characterising it.
There are at least seven species, I believe, though not one of them
is numerous in individuals, at least not in comparison of the common
Otter of commerce, which is produced in the neighbourhood of
Dacca and Sylhet. This rarity of species, added to the circumstance
of the animals not being regularly hunted for their skins, renders it
very difficult to procure live specimens ; and without live specimens—
which may be slain and their osteological as well as other characters
thus accurately examined—the discrimination of specific differences
is a work of extreme labour and delay. Many years ago I announced
to Mr. Bennett, the late Secretary of the London Zoological Society,
the fact that there are several species of Lutra in Nepal, and before
he died he was nearly convinced of the correctness of the statement,
though I could not then, nor can now, give a full exposition of even
those with which I am best acquainted.
Waiting, however, for the perfect knowledge when the materials
of it are not under command, is, I find, like waiting on the river’s
side for a dry passage after the waters have flowed past; and I shall
therefore offer no apology for briefly characterising those four of the
seven Nepalese species of Otter of which I have considerable certainty,
leaving the remaining three to some future occasion.
Genus LUTRA.
ist. Species—TARAYENSIS NOBIS.
Size, medial. Structure, typical. Scull and head much depressed.
Lower incisors ranged nearly in line. Tail equal to two-thirds the
length of the animal, and much depressed. Form, robust. Nails
compressed, exserted from the finger ends, and acute. Fur short and
smooth. » Colour—above, clear umber ; below, and the hands and feet,
pure yellowish white ; the yellow tint deepest on the limbs; the pale
colour on the head and neck extending upwards to the line of the ears
—less so on the body ; and the distinction of dark and pale hues very
decidedly marked. Tail above and below, dark.
320 Description of four new species of Otter. [ APRIL,
2d. Species—MOonTICOLUS NOBIS.
Size, large. Structure, upon the whole, similar to the above.
Tail equal to more than two-thirds of the animal, and less depressed.
Scull and head less depressed. Intermediate incisors of lower jaw
ranged entirely within or behind the line of the rest. Colowr—above,
deeper than the above, or bistre brown ; below, sordid hoary, vaguely
defined, except on the edge of the lips and chin; limbs nearly as
dark as the body. Fur longer and rough, or porrect from the skin
in a considerable degree.
3d. Species—INDIGITATUS NOBIS.
General form and proportions of Leptonyx, to which it is affined.
Habit of body more vermiform than in the above. Tail but half the
length of the animal. Toes very short, and more than half buried
in the palmary mass. Nails short and worn, but not depressed nor
‘truncated, as in Leptonyx. Size, medial. Colowr—same as in the
last, but deeper still, or dusky bistre; paler and ruddier on the body
below, and albescent on the head below; but the colours not well
defined, and only really distinct (except in shade) on the inferior
surface of the head. Character of the fur as in the last, and indeed
in all the mountain species.
4th Species—AURO-BRUNNEUS NOBIS.
Size, small. Habit of body still more vermiform. Tail less than
two-thirds of the length of the body. Toes and nails fully developed.
Fur longish and rough, as before. Colowr—rich chesnut brown (the
fruit) above ; and golden red below and on the extremities.
Remarks.—The three last species are confined to the mountains, as
is the first species to the plains at their foot. The dimensions in
inches, and the weight of the four species are as follow :—
1 2 % 4
Tip of snout to } :
fone oF Gal” i 26 to28 30 to 82 22to24 20 to 22
Tau. : ae WO 20 104 12 to 13
Weight. 16 to 20 lbs. 20 to 24 11 to 13 9 to ll
T am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Nepal, May, 1839. B. H. HODGSON.
1839. | Distribution of the Vulturide, Falconide, & Strigide. 321
_ Art. VII.—On the Geographic Distribution of the Vulturide, Falco-
nide, and Strigide ; being the first of a series of memoirs intended to
illustrate the Geographic Distribution of the Ornithological Kingdom.
By Wn. Jameson, Esa. Assistant Surgeon Bengal Medical Ser-
vice, &e.
Of all the departments of zoology, there is probably not one which
has attracted less the attention of naturalists than that of the geogra-
phic distribution of the animal kingdom; although from a study of
it many details may be derived of essential importance to several of the
other branches of natural history. To elucidate partially the distri-
bution of one division of zoology, viz. ornithology, is the subject of
the series of memoirs intended to be presented to the’ Society.
In entering upon a subject like the present, we do so with the
greatest diffidence, from the confusion which has existed, and still reigns
in the systematic department of ornithology. The number of synonymous
genera—some authors applying a certain suite of characters to a parti-
cular genus, others another suite either more or less extensive, and some
applying the name, but at the same time ignorant of the characters
upon which the genus is based, of which we have many examples, and
these too in works published at the present day—have presented to us
difficulties of no ordinary nature. ‘To overcome these, we have exa- .
mined minutely the magnificent collection in the Edinburgh Royal
Museum, as well as the principal public and private collections
throughout England.
The system of arrangement we have adopted is that of the Baron
Cuvier, with certain modifications, which is undoubtedly the best at
the present moment. The system of Macleay, when properly followed out,
will probably however supersede all others. The attempts which have
as yet been made are very unsatisfactory, the best is that of Vigors.
Mr. Swainson in trying to find out his analogies, does not on many
occasions at all take into consideration the possibility of many groups
of birds having disappeared from the surface of our globe. His views,
no doubt, are very ingenious, but must be received with due caution.
We have adopted several of the new genera lately proposed by Vigors,
Lesson, Swainson, &c. these we shall notice in their proper place.
When we take a general view of the ornithology of Asia, Africa,
Australia, North and South America, we find that it is in a manner
unknown. Of Europe and North America we have no doubt complete
lists of the species, but the remarks on their distribution are of a loose,
and unsatisfactory nature. The local Fagmnas published are few in
322 Distribution of the Vulturide, Faleonide, § Strigide. [ Apri,
number, and in general they have not been drawn up with that care and
precision, and upon the system, now necessary, authors being content
in mentioning the mere occurrence of the species. In regard to the
birds of Britain, we have some good details in the works of Montague,
Yarrel, Fleming, Selby, Jenyns. Again the works of Temminck,
Naumann, Buhm, Berger, Gould, &c., afford us some valuable informa-
tion upon the birds of Europe generally. The ornithology of Asia has
not attracted the particular attention of any naturalist, at least we have
no complete work. In the writings of Horsfield, Raffles, Sonnerat,
Leschenault, Duvaucel, Diard, Sykes, Vigors, Franklin, Gould, Hodgson,
Dussumier, Belanger, Boié, Kuhl, Van Hasselt, &c.,—some of whom
forfeited their lives in the pursuit of this their favourite study—we have
many valuable details.
In regard to the birds of Africa, the works of Le Vaillant stand pre-
eminently forward, and which have increased much our knowledge in
this department ; but his researches are almost entirely confined to the
southern part of that continent. To Dr. Smith we are also indebted for
much valuable information, and we look forward with much interest
to his work, which is soon to issue from the press. Mr. Swainson has
added a little to our knowledge in regard to the birds of western
Africa, but there is still a vast deal to be done in this quarter. Rup-
pell has published some excellent observations on the birds of Nubia
and Abyssinia, and the ornithology of Egypt has been partially elu-
cidated by Savigny in his great work.
To Australia the same remark applies. We have no complete general
work. From the writings of Brown, Lewin, White, Vigors, Horsfield, King,
Phillips, Lesson, Quoy, Gaimard, Poren, Lansdorf, Gould, much valu-
able information may be obtained. The last individual mentioned is
at present engaged publishing a work, illustrated with figures of the
heads of the birds of New Holland, and we hope soon to have a
complete Fauna from the same author, who is at present travelling
through that country in order to illustrate its zoology.
The northern half of the new world has received much greater atten-
tion, and its ornithology is better known than any other continent
with the exception of Europe. For this we are indebted to the inde-
fatigable exertions of Wilson, Audubon, Prince Lucien Bonaparte,
Nuttal, Ord, Richardson, Swainson, Sabine, Ross, Douglass, Lich-
tenstein, &c. |
With regard to the ornithology of the southern continent of America,
we are lamentably deficient in information. From the writings of Spix,
Prince D‘Neuwied, D’Orbigny, D’Azara, Swainson, some information
may be obtained. f
1839.] Distribution of the Vulturide, Falconide, § Strigide. 323
From numerous general works much valuable information may be
received, to notice all of which would occupy too much space. Among
the authors we may mention Temminck, Cuvier, Latham, Shaw, Buffon,
Vieillot, Lesson, Wagler, Jardine, Selby, Drahiez, Lichtenstein, Illiger
&e. To Illiger, however, we are indebted for having first taken up
the particular subject of ornithological distribution, and which he has
handled in a masterly manner, in a paper published in the transactions
of the Royal Academy of Berlin ; nor did he direct his attention to the
distribution of the ornithological kingdom alone. In the same tran-
sactions we find him discussing mammalia in a similar manner. _ Illiger,
however, in his paper on birds only notices the distribution of about
three thousand species, being little more than one-half of what is now
known ; and, moreover, most of his observations are now inaccurate, our
information in this department being much more extensive. Prince
Lucien Bonaparte has lately published some observations upon this
subject, but probably too general to be of much value; and, lastly, we
may state that Mr. Swainson has lately devoted some attention to this
subject, with what success, we shall afterwards have occasion to point
out ; in the mean time we may remark, that most of the observations
which he has published seem to be more for the purpose of supporting
a favourite theory, than tending to advance ornithological geography.
We cannot omit noticing that several excellent monographs of parti-
cular families have been published, among which we would particu-
larly mark out those of Wagler and Kuhl, upon the Psittacide—Lesson
on the Trochilide—Gould on the Rhamphastide and Trogonide—and
also Wagler’s System a Avium, which may be considered as a series of
monographs brought into one focus. A continuation of this work will
be found in Oken’s Isis. Numerous papers on genera and species have
been published in the transactions of various Societies and Periodicals,
which however we shall notice when we have occasion to consult them.
Having now given a rapid sketch of the present state of ornithology
as far as the distribution of birds is concerned, we shall proceed to
the subject of our communication.
Birds, considered geographically, may be divided into four grand di-
visions, viz. Ist. Those which are universally distributed; that is, found
in all the great continents of the world. 2nd. Those which are gene-
rally distributed, or found in three or more continents. 3rd. Partially
distributed, or those found in two continents. And 4th. Continently
distributed, or those found in but one continent; which last division
may be again subdivided with those which are generally distributed
throughout the continent, or confined toa part, or island, belonging
to that continent.
UU
324 Distribution of the Vulturide, Faleonde, & Strigide. [ Arrit,
For these four grand divisions which we have now proposed, and for
the purpose of simplification, and to prevent repetition, we have adopted
the following terms :—To the first division we apply the term Katho-
liko-dianamial ; to the second, Geniko-dianamial ; to the third, Adiko-
dianamial ; and to the fourth, Toptko-dianamial.
In illustration of this arrangement, which we think, in conjunction
with a continual tabular view, is well adapted for tracing the distribu-
tion of the ornithological kingdom, we may notice a few examples.
Belonging to our first, or Katholiko-dianamial division, we have the
genera Falco, Turdus, Anas, Columba, Fringilla, Muscicapa, Corvus,
Hirundo, Ardea, &c. To our second, or Geniko-dianamial division, be-
long the genera Vultur, Picus, Mycteria, Pheenicopterus, Trogon,
Upupa, Oriolus, Tetrao nacifraga, &e. To our third, or Adiko-dia-
namial division, belong the genera, Bucco, Trochilus Ocypterus, Ac-
centor, Buceros, &c. And to our fourth, or Topiko-dianamial division,
belong the genera Sericulus, Buphaga, Eurylaimus, Menura, Alectura,
Musophaga, Calyptomina &c.
No doubt objections: may be thrown out against the system of ar-
rangement now proposed, in particular in regard to the last two divisi-
ons; for in nearly all the continents we have tropical, temperate, and
arctic climates ; and it is seldom that genera extend throughout all these ;
nor do we mean to infer this ; all that we suppose is, that species belong-
ing to any particular genus noticed extend more or less over that
continent. .
Birds of prey from the most early times have been divided into
two grand divisions, viz. the Diurnal and the Nocturnal; the former
comprehending the Vultures and Hawks; the latter the Owls. We
shall therefore first notice the Vultures.
Vultures taken as a whole belong to our second, or Geniko-diana-
mial division, being found in all the continents of the world, with
the exception of New Holland; true Vultures never being found in it,
as far as we are aware, their distribution not extending further in that
direction than the Indian islands. No doubt Mr. Swainson has des-
cribed his rasorial type of the Vultures as peculiar to this continent.
With all due deference to Mr. Swainson as a naturalist, we cannot but
state that we have here a most extraordinary instance of the danger of
being misled by a favourite theory, for in this instance Mr. Swainson is
as much entitled, in fact more so, to consider the common wild Turkey
of North America as his rasorial type of that group; it presenting -a
greater analogy to the Vultures than the Alectwra, Latham, which in its
habits and manners is a true gallinaceous bird.
But although the Vultures considered as a family present a very
1839.] Distribution of the Vulturide, Falconde, § Strigidde. 325
extensive distribution, yet in their subdivisions they are more restricted ;
for we find the Vultures, properly so called, entirely in the Old world,
their place being supplied in the New by the species of the genus
Sarcoramphus. Nor do the different divisions of the Vultures stand thus
alone in representing each other in the different continents, it being a
law extending through many groups of the ornithological system. ‘Thus.
the Platyrhynchi of the New world are represented in Asia by the Lury-
laimede. The Pardalotide of Australia are represented in Asia by the
Calyptominede, and in the New world by the Pipring. The Buccomide
of Asia are represented in Africa by the Pogonide, and in the new
world by the Tamatiade. The Rhamphastide of South America are
represented in Asia and Africa by the Buceride, and in Australia by the
Scythropide. The Oriolide of the Old world are represented. by the ©
‘Quiscalide in the New, which group, with one exception, as in the Pi-
prine, is confined to America. The Melleagride of America are repre-
sented in Africa by the Mamide, in Asia by the Phananide, and in
Australia by the Alecturide. And, lastly, the Struthionide of Africa are
represented in America by the Rheade, in Australia by the Casuaride,
and in Europe and Asia by the Otide. Numerous other examples could
be given, but there are still a great many genera which form as it were
isolated examples to individual continents, and for which we cannot find
any representations. Thus we have no tribe in New Holland to represent
the Piciane ; no tribe in Europe to represent the Pszttacide ; no tribe in
Asia, Australia, or America to represent the Scopide of Africa ; and, in
fine, no tribe in any of the other continents to represent the Musopha-
gide or Gypogeranide of Africa. Whether there ever existed in the
different continents groups representing each other to a greater extent
than we have at present, will probably remain a mystery, even although
organic remains should be found; birds not presenting in their osteo-
logy, at least in many cases, sufficiently marked characters. Comprehended
in the genus Vulture, properly so called, we have eleven species; of
those, three are found in Europe, but none proper to it, being also found
in Asia and Africa; in Asia six, three of which are properly, one of
them being also found in the Indian islands; in Africa eight, five of
which are proper ; supplying their place, as already stated, we have in
the New world Sarcoramphi, of which there are four species common
to North and South America, if the opinion of Nuttal is correct in
regard to the occurrence of the Condor in the North American con-
tinent. It is probable however that it may have been confounded with
the Sarcoramphus Californianus, a nearly allied species. The Sarco-
ramphus papa seldom goes as far north as the United States ;
Bonaparte states that it is occasionally met with in Florida, which is pro-
326 Distribution of the Vulturide, Falconide, §& Strigide. | Apri,
bably its northern limit. It is described by D’Azara as common in
Paraguay, but he states it does not pass the 32° of south latitude ; in
the intermediate countries it appears to be very abundant. The genus
Cathartes, consisting of two species, is also confined to North and South
America, its place being supplied in the Eastern hemisphere by the genus
Neophron, represented by the Neophron perenopterus, a species common
to Europe, Asia and Africa. .
Adding together the species belonging to the different divisions of
Vultures, we have thus only eighteen known ; a small proportion when
compared either to the Falcons or Owls, but the numbers in which they
occur fully compensate for this. The warmer regions of Africa and Asia
must be considered as the metropolis of the Vultures, properly so called.
We now enter upon the second division of the /alconide, which has
been divided by the Baron Cuvier into two grand divisions, viz. the
noble and ignoble Birds of Prey; the former comprehending the
Falcons, properly so called, the latter the Eagles, Hierofalco.
The falconide considered as one group, possess very extensive
distribution, belonging to our Katholiko-dianamial division, occurring
from the 80° of north latitude to the equator, and from the equator
to the 55° of south latitude; and in all the intermediate spaces; yet
when taken generically, many of them, as in the Vultwride, have a
rather restricted distribution.
Of the genus Falco, properly so called, we have representatives in
all the different continents, but in Europe we meet with the great-
est number of typical species ; not one of which, however, is confined
to it. Thus of the forty-four species contained in the genera Falco,
Hierofalco, Hierax, Harpagus, Lophotes, and Erythropus, nine are
found in Europe, of which two are proper to it, belonging, one to the
genus * * * the other to the genus Erythropus ; in Asia twelve,
five of which are proper, three of these found also in the Indian
islands ; in Africa eighteen, eleven of which are proper ; in Australia
five, and four proper; in North America five, and one proper; and
in South America twelve, and of these ten proper. Of the other
seven species found in Europe, but not proper to it, three are common
to Kurope and Asia, one common to Europe, Asia, and North America,
one common to Europe and North America, one common to Europe
and Africa, and one common to Europe, Australia(?), North and South
America. |
It may be laid down as a well ascertained fact, that birds of temper-
ate, and many birds of arctic, countries—that is, those birds which are
known to breed there—possess a much wider distribution than those
* Word illegible in M.S.—Eps.
1839.| Distribution of the Vulturide, Falconide, & Strigide. 327
of tropical countries; for in very few instances do we find birds of
tropical countries extending their migrations to temperate countries,—a
statement which is applicable to more than a third of the birds of
Europe. But although we find these European birds inhabiting re-
gions within the tropics, yet we in general find them in those places
whose mean annual temperature is little above that of Europe, caused
either by the position or form of the country. To this rule however
we have several exceptions, as in the Sturnus vulgaris, Pastor roseus,
Oriolus galbula, which inhabit both tropical and temperate regions,
although probably more abundant, at least the last two mentioned, in
the former. It may also be noticed as a curious fact, the reason for
which is yet unexplained, viz. that the European species which are
found in tropical countries are in general smaller, although identical
in every other character with the same bird found in Europe ; in other
cases we find them not only smaller, but at the same time undergoing
slight modifications, which, however, are permanent, and therefore
entitling us to consider them as new species and the representatives,
in the particular regions in which they are found, of the European. Such
is the case with regard to the Nut-hatch, Blackbird, Goldfinch, Siskin,
Nut-cracker, Field-fare, Music Thrush, &c. all of which are found in
India. ( To be continued. )
Art. VIII.—On the use of Wells, Sc. in foundations ; as practised
by the natives of the northern Doab. By Captain Cautiey, Su-
perintendent of the Doab Canal.
Piles and caissons being the usual means adopted for foundations
in Europe, where the soil and substrata are insufficient, I will ven-
ture a few remarks on the system adopted in northern India* for the
same purpose, especially in the application of hollow cylinders, or wells
of masonry. The plan of undersinking wells does not appear to be
totally unknown, although it is not practised in England ; in fact the
only approach to the method upon which I am now about to occupy
the pages of this Journal, is exhibited in the works at the Thames
Tunnel, at the descent to which Brunel has sunk masonry cylinders
* fifty feet in diameter, strongly clamped with iron, &c.” the process of
effecting which I have no means of describing. Our Upper Indian
system, however, is so admirably adapted to the purposes for which it is
intended, and so much superior to pileing (caissons I put out of the ques-
* The undersinking of wells, and their use in foundations, is not confined to the
northern Doab; it is practised in Bengal and other parts of India.
328 On Wells used tn Foundations in Upper India. [Apnrin,
tion) that a few remarks, drawn from practical observation, may per-
haps induce others, with more information than myself, to attract the
notice of English Civil Engineers to a resource well worthy of their
attention. The Hindoo religion in deifying the great rivers, and incul-
cating on its disciples the necessity of constant ablutions, and the re-
wards held out to those who multiply the shrines and temples on the
banks of the sacred waters, have been the cause, in all probability, of
the adoption of this system of foundation. In an alluvium so exten-
sive, and so moveable, piles, were they used, would have been found
inefficient ; the native engineer, however, has no machinery with
which piles of a sufficient length could be driven ; timber, moreover, at
those places where the greatest demand would have existed, could not
have been procured without great difficulty, and very great expense.
The means of making bricks, on the contrary, were at hand; the labourers
required to build masonry and to sink wells were to be found in the
neighbourhood ; the solidity of structure was withal more pleasing
both to the projectors and to the builders ; and the idea once adopted,
the use of wells not only on the edges of the river, but in all places
where the badness of the soil and the height of spring water render-
ed excavation impracticable, has been acknowledged as the standing
resource in the system of hydraulic architecture of Upper India. At
Muttra, Bindrabund, &c. where flights of steps or ghats sweep the
whole line of the Ganges within the limits of the respective towns,
wells have been extensively used in foundations. The Mussulman build- _
ings at Agra are largely indebted to wells, where the proximity of the
~ Jumna made a depth of foundation necessary ; the Doab Canal works
have paid equal homage to this admirable native conception, and it is
from these works that I shall collect data to enable the reader not
only to comprehend the method which is put into practice when wells
are used, but also to draw a comparison between their value as the
means of foundation, and that of piles and other methods in use else-
where.
The Chah-kun (from sla a well, and aS the affix from ris to
dig,) or well-sinker is a distinct trade scattered throughout the
villages of Upper India. Its followers are called into requisition either
for sinking new, or for clearing out -old wells ; in the former case,
generally doing their work by contract, at a fixed rate per hath or
eighteen inches of depth of sinking, and in the latter by the job, or
so much for clearing out the well and rendering it fit for use. The
expertness of this class of people depends very much, of course, upon
practice, and the depth of wells to which the Chah-kun has been
accustomed. Ina country where the undersinking does not exceed
1839.] On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India, 329
ten or twenty feet, the well-sinkers will profess their inability, or de-
cline to contract for greater depths; in fact where cylinders are .re-
quired of from thirty to fifty feet, the Chah-kuns above mentioned
would decline the undertaking altogether; the tools and method of
- using them in such a case, being quite different from what they have
been accustomed to.
The tools in use by the Chah-kun consist of the Phaora, or com-
mon Mamooti,* as it is termed in the Ordnance Magazines, and the
Jham, a large species of Phaora. The size of the Jham appears to
vary according to the fancy of the well-sinker: in the cases which
have come under my own observation, the blade has been usually
twenty-seven inches wide by thirty-six inches long. The handle,
which is short, but similar to that of the Phaora, is tied to the blade
by a rod of strong iron wire, providing a support and means of attach-
ment for the rope by which the machine is put into operation. The
apparatus is a rough looking and barbarous affair, but well adapted
to the use to which it is applied, and to the people by whom it is
approved of.
In village well-sinking for the use of irrigation, or to supply the
inhabitants with water for drinking and other purposes, where the
supersoil is tenacious, and resting upon loose strata, in which the
springs are found, it is usual to excavate through the upper soil down
until water is reached ; a ring of timber adapted to the thickness of
the walls of the cylinder is then placed horizontally, upon which
the masonry is built to a height of three or four feet above the surface
level of the country ; as the masonry advances, the outer surface is -
rubbed over with mortar, and the whole is allowed to obtain a mo-
derate degree of induration by remaining untouched for at least ten
days; at this period the Chah-kun, or well-sinker’s aid is put in re-
quisition. In the earlier stage of the proceedings, the Chah-kun
carries on his work very easily, it is only when the cylinder has
reached to a depth beyond that of himself, that the tedious and diffi-
eult part of his labours commence. After descending the well, and
having in the first instance fixed a string and plummet to the top so
as to secure a regularity in the depression, he commences by removing
the soil from the centre, and then from the four sides respectively ; the
soil is brought up to the surface in baskets, and the Chah-kun at the
top is in sole charge of the plummet and its movements. For the first
three or four feet of sinking there is little fear of accident, and little
trouble ; in fact, up to this point I have frequently employed common
labourers, who, with a little care and superintendence, have done the
* Query.— Whence this word ?
330 On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. [Arrit,
work as efficiently as an experienced well-sinker. On the application
of the Jham (vide supra) the top of the cylinder is loaded with logs of
wood and heavy articles that may be at hand; a fork-like prop with a
pulley is fixed in the ground, so that the rope which runs over the
latter, and to which the Jham is fixed, should run centrically over the
well; the Chah-kun then descends with the Jkam, and with his hands
and feet (for the natives use both with equal facility,) forces the
instrument into the soil until it gets properly loaded, when it is
drawn up, the contents removed, and the same operation is continued
until the work is completed. After the soil has been removed beyond
five or six feet below the surface of the water, the Chah-kun’s duty is
constant diving.* I have known them to remain half a minute and
nearly a minute under water without any respiration. Each man is
relieved at the end of the hour, and in hot weather the cold that they
suffer in their escape from the well is severe to a degree; large fires
are kept burning for them to recover themselves at, and a liberality
on this point is one of the chief agreements between the well-sinker
and his employer. In the cold season the annoyance from change of
temperature is infinitely less, and the people themselves have often
assured me that they could in this weather do twice the quantity of
work, and with one-half of the labour to themselves, that they could
do when the weather is hot, and when the evaporation was so rapid.
In describing the process required for the sinking of one well for
common village purposes, we have only now to shew how the applica-
tion of a number of these wells in conjunction can be turned to account
for the purposes of securing a good foundation ; for this purpose I shall
give plans and sections of some of the works on the Doab Canal,
explaining the method adopted in these works, and also shew how,
under different circumstances, the same plan of foundation has been
used with equal effect. }
The course of operations depends on whether the wells used in
foundation are placed close together, or at a distance. For piers of
bridges with extensive waterway and heavy superstructure the
former is usually adopted; in other cases, the wells are placed four
feet apart, and connected together by masonry arches, upon which
the wall, pier, or building is constructed.
In Canal works, however, it is often an object to obtain a running
line of wall for foundation unbroken by divisions or points of separa-
_tion, through which the substrata, when consisting of a loose sandy soil,
* In very deep wells, where the neemchuck exceeds twenty-five feet from the water’s
surface, the Jham is worked by long poles fixed to the handle, and the work is most
tedious.
1839.] On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. 33l
might escape, especially where there is a head water with springs
opposed to it. In locks or descents, for instance, constructed in sand,
where the subsoil in addition to its own natural spring water has
that of the Canal to act upon the flooring of the lower chambers, there
is a considerable tendency to the removal of the sand under these
lower floorings, which seriously affects the stability of a work, and is
only to be provided against by enclosing all the subsoil in continuous
lines of foundation. I shall hereafter describe a remedy invented by
Col. John Colvin, C. B. of the Engineers, formerly Superintendent of
the Delhi, and Superintendent General of, Canals; but in the mean-
time it is evident that where wells or cylinders are used, the continuity
of a wall is imperfect under any circumstances ; for place them as close
together as possible, there is still a separation—the curtain so much
desired is wanting. The methods adopted by me in the two cases,
first, where wells are sunk close together, or leaving a space of six or
eight inches, which is the least that can be safely given, and, secondly,
when at a greater distance apart, are these—piles, and as the English
engineers now term it, concrefe (an article which, I may observe in
passing, has been in use in Hindoostan from time immemorial) ; the
former in the works on the Doab Canal’ varying from sixteen to five
and a halffeet in length, and the latter laid in as deeply as possible be-
tween the piles, and allowed to stand for some days to settle and in-
durate. The piles are made of young Saul trees ( Shorea robusta) cut in
the forests in the northern slope of the Sewalik hills, in the Deyra
Dhoon ; or when only five and a half feet long, of the species of rafter
called by the natives Kur7z,.the smaller sort averaging from ten to
twelve feet long and three and a half inches square, sawed out of Saul
timber in the forest, and imported in immense abundance into the
plains swung on the back of bullocks by the Brinjarris, or class of people
who lead a roving life, employing their cattle in this species of work.
The concrete consists of Aunker, an alluvial lime rock peculiar to In-
dia—of stone boulders from the river broken into fragments—the guéfa or
refuse of lime kilns, mixed with a proportion of cement, consisting of
two or three parts of soorkhee, or pounded brick, and one part of the
best stone lime thrown in and well mixed together with a pole,
sharp at one end and blunt at the other; the former to stir up the
mixture for a certain time, and the latter to ram it down until it is
properly placed in position. —
The figures in plates 1] and 2 represent these methods in detail,
with the neemchuck and tools used by the well-sinkers ; and in plate
4, which is a plan and section of falls and locks as constructed on
the Doab Canal, the application of both will be easily recognized.
xx
332 On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. (CAprnrit,
The depth to which a cylinder of six feet in the diameter can be
sunk duringthe day by oneparty of well-sinkers through a sandy stratum
as far as ten feet, varies from two and a half feet to four inches. It is
desirable when the well has to be sunk to this depth only, to expedite
the depression of the three or four last feet as much as possible, so as to
get the cylinder to its full depth, without leaving it during the night,
and allowing the loose soil to settle round it, and give it a firm
embrace. It is very difficult at times to free the sides of the cylinder
from‘ the hold which the sand has in this case upon them, but even
with a very heavy weight applied to the top half a day may be
expended in this way, without getting the well to move at all—a re-
mark equally applicable in pile-driving through sand, where the
advantages of driving the last pile that is driven during the day to its
full depth, is well known. I have seen a pile, length twenty feet
and diameter eight inches, which has been driven ten feet on the
previous evening, resist on the next morning the weight of the pile
engine for forty successive strokes—the weight of 250 ibs. falling
through a space of ten feet, the head of the pile becoming perfectly
shattered and useless. The following table will give an approxima-
tion to the expense of sinking cylinders of the above mentioned
diameter to a depth of ten feet, and although the difficulties attending
the operations from whieh this table was formed were greater than
would be generally experienced, a very tolerable idea of the expense
of well-sinking will be exhibited.
Soil, sandy, mixed with clay, but free from stones or kunkur; full
of springs, with the canal head water ten feet above the point at
which the cylinder commenced sinking ; outer diameter of well six
feet, and in some instances eight feet, and inner diameter four and six
feet respectively ; machinery employed night and day in keeping the
water down to the level on which the wells were built; windlass
used with the Jham ; period of operation between January and May.
——
i
4\3 ae Sundries, Length of
SSiss| 2 18.| 3 |Rope, lon, | Expense in Total well or cy-
Se Aa} 3 |23| = |Leather, Oil) labour. expense. |linder sunk in
aA sie] & &e. &e. running feet.
OF Sis |e re
SS
BS.!A.
1267/1688 358 30 |} 30 10 iol" 2 a 3)
P.| RS
10
A. leks
0| 0 | 0 2022
Or average per running foot Rs. 2:0: 4
The cost of building a cylinder of the above diameter, viz. 6 feet
and 10 feet high, may be thus—
1839.] On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. ddd
abourers,702 2 Fag. GeO! 0
2050 bricks, 12x 6x2 ..10 4 O
16 maunds stone lime, .. 6 0 O
Neemchuk or curb, .. .. 212 O
Total cost,.. 28 O 0, or per foot 2:12:10
giving the average cost of well-sinking, using a cylinder of six feet
in diameter and carried to a depth of ten feet at Rs. 4: 13:2 per
running foot. In the above table, however, as I before remarked, the
items are dependent on difficulties which in well-sinking from a plain
surface—from the level of a garden for instance—would not be met
with. In wells situated in this way, and of similar dimensions in
every respect to those upon which our data are formed, the expense
varies at from three rupees six annas to four rupees per running foot,
the difference depending on the cost of labourers—the price of materials
remaining constant. ‘The masonry of well-building I have generally
found to vary from eighteen to twenty rupees per 100 cubic feet.
In wells. of from. sixteen to twenty feet depth the expense per run-
ning foot has been found to vary from Rs. 7-8 to Rs. 8-8, using the
cylinder above noted ; toa greater depth, however, they require to be
of larger dimensions; but it would be interesting to discover the pro-
gressive advance in expense on each ten feet of well-sinking ; it would
possibly advance in a series with a common multiplier of two, leading to
the following table as an approximation—the upper line representing
depths of cylinder in feet up to fifty, the second the cost per running
foot, and the lower the actual cost of well at each depth as noted in the
upper line. :
*
10 ft. 20 ft. 30 ft. AQ ft. 50 ft.
4 Rs. 8 Rs. 16 Rs. eceee econ
40 Rs. 160 Rs. ASO Re ee eh Nia
The two first columns are formed on my own practical observation,
and the third is from the cost of village wells, extracted from the sta-
tistical notes of the Revenue Surveyors in the upper portion of the
Doab, plus the expense of undersinking the first sixteen or twenty feet,
-which in village wells is generally built up. Whether the progression
which holds in these may be extended further, as I have proposed in
the fourth and fifth columns, may be easily shewn by reference to the
Engineer officers who built the bridges on the East Kallee Nuddee,
and Hindun rivers; (to Captain Debude, and Lieutenant Alcock,
* The M.S, is blank in these spaces.—Ebps.
334 On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. (Apri,
these notes are especially addressed) ; the piers of the Hindun bridge
resting on wells up to the limit of the table above proposed.
It must be recollected that the cylinders are supposed to be under-
sunk from the commencement through a sandy soil, and with spring
water at the surface—as must usually occur in foundations where the
application of them for that purpose would be necessary. The cost of
village wells, which although thirty or forty feet deep are only under-
sunk on reaching the springs, is proportionably less. .
With reference to the value of obtaining a connected curtain, or line
of running wall in foundation, where the interference of spring water
renders undersinking necessary, Colonel Colvin, C. B. of the Bengal
Engineers, proposed a plan of sinking square masses or parallelopipe-
dons of masonry, piercing these masses by wells, as represented in Fig.
1. P]. 3. The plan succeeded in every respect. In those of from ten to
fifteen feet long and four feet wide, undersinking to a depth of ten feet
in sand mixed with small shingle was carried into execution with
perfect success in the foundations of the dam over the Somhe river.
Water was, at the point where the dam had to be constructed, immedi-
ately on the surface ; the object of the dam was to retain the supply of
water to a considerable height to throw it into the Delhi Canal, and
maintain a supply during the dry months. Circular wells were opjéc-
tionable for the reasons which I have before explained, and it was a
desideratum to get such a foundation, that the head pressure of water
should affect the leakage wnder the dam as little as possible. Fig.
]. Pl. 3. will explain the method adopted, the spaces between the
boxes on the first row being covered by those in the second line.
The method put into practice in sinking these masses is similar to
that in cylinders, but greater care is required in regulating the opera-
tion of the well-sinkers, so that the mass may be lowered equally. The
curb, or neemchuk, is a platform of wood equal in size to the base of
the masonry, with round or oval holes cut for the wells, as shewn
in Fig. 1. Pl. 3. I have used these masses in lengths of twenty-one,
feet, by four feet wide, to a depth of ten feet, with perfect success,
giving three wells in each. I should however limit the dimensions to
fifteen feet by four feet, with two wells elliptical, five feet by two anda
half each, which with proper care will be sunk to a depth of ten feet
through sand without any difficulty. There appears no reason why
a whole foundation of a work within certain limits might not be sunk
in this way. It is often a difficult matter to obtain foundation for a
bridge with an arch of twenty feet span where the soil is sand
although the drainage is not liable to freshes or any violence of cur-
rent. A bridge of this sort, with a roadway of fifteen feet, would
1839.] On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. 335
require a mass in superficial area equal to twenty-eight feet by eighteen,
to a depth say of from six to ten feet, which would be quite sufficient,
even if the mass rested on sand. ‘There is no reason why, by piercing
this block with cylinders, the whole might not be lowered, and a
foundation obtained of infinitely greater security, and certainly not at
greater expense, than any of the methods now adopted. The great
advantage however of this plan over others, is its simplicity ; all the
apparatus, machinery, &c. of pileing are thrown aside ; a few carpenters
procurable at every village, and masons to be had without difficulty,
with some Chah-kuns to sink the mass, are all that is required.
Where stone in slabs is to be procured, a method is adopted by the
natives of forming what they call /othis, that is to say a caisson without
a bottom. The stones are clamped together, as shewn in Fig. 3. Pl. 3, by
wooden clamps ; these boxes are undersunk in the same way as the
cylinder, but the form is inconvenient, and the difficulty of sinking
them greater than either the cylinder or the block above described.
The circular form as regards friction alone, offers a much smaller
. surface than the square; but the square block of Colonel Colvin has
great weight to assist its descent, which the stone sothz has not. In
the foundations of the bridge over the Caramnassa river, laid down
by Nana Farnavis, these kothis were extensively used. These foun-
dations when laid bare for the ulterior operations appear to have
extended across the bed of the river on a width of sixty feet, the
kothis, which were fifteen feet square, being placed close together, and
sunk through sand to a depth of twenty feet. The reader is how-
ever referred to Vol. 3. of the Gleanings in Science, in which Mr.
James Prinsep has given a most interesting detail of the Caramnassa
bridge operations. I may however remark that the othzs in question
after being sunk are filled with grouting, or a mixture of lime, kunkur, |
&e. (concrete) forming an artificial conglomerate, upon which the
superstructure is raised. Mr. Prinsep uses the word dhoka, in this
part of India ghuéfa is the term usually applied to this species of ma-
terial. The jamat corresponds with the neemchuk of the northern
Doab.
Another species of kothz, which is also used not only in foundations
but in village wells, consists of frames of wood joined together at the
angles, as represented in Fig. 4. Pl. 3; this from the want of weight is
still more difficult to sink than the one before described ; it is however
convenient where wood is plentiful, and the soil to be pierced of a
light description ; they are undersunk precisely in the same way as the
common cylinder. In village wells, when the kofhz is from four to five
feet square and the thickness or scantling of the wood used four or five
336 On Wells used in Foundations in. Upper India. -LApriu,
inches, it lasts for many years, and merely requires repair in the upper
portion, where its exposure to the atmosphere tends to the destruc-
tion of the material.
The Szndook, or box, is another, and perhaps the most awkward of
all methods to obtain a depth of foundation ; it is adopted by the na-
tives, but generally where there are no experienced workmen. The
plan and form of this box is represented in Fig. 5. Pl. 3; the size
generally about ten feet long by five feet wide, and depth not exceed-
ing five feet. The size of the box being lined out on the ground
where it has to be sunk, a pointed timber six feet long, or thereabout,
and four inches square, is driven into the ground at each corner, two
inch planks are then nailed on the uprights, and the whole made as
strong as possible, either by additional uprights on the sides or by
transoms; the soil is then removed from the inside, and the depression
goes on by driving the uprights down with mallets, as fast as the
removal of the soil from the inside will admit of it. As may be supposed
the frame work is liable to disarrangement in every way ; when sunk
to its full depth the interior is filled with grouting (concrete) and the
heads of the corner piles or uprights sawed off. ‘These foundations are
allowed to stand for a year at least before the superstructure is com-
menced..
Pileing as the means of foundation, appears, as far as my observation
has gone, to be totally unknown throughout Hindusthan. I have
never met with it under any form, or under any modification. The
fact is, that labour is so cheap in India, that it is less expensive to adopt
any means for purposes of this sort with manual labor, than with
machinery! That the value of the latter would in the course of time
be most justly appreciated, there can be no doubt; but the philan-
thropy of the existing generation has not arrived at that point which
would lead the builder of a Ghat or of a Musjid to expertmentalize,
when he has before him a secure, and well authenticated method of
operation.
To recur to the wells or cylinders, it is usual to fill them with
grouting of lime, kunkur, and broken: brick, so as to make a solid
mass of the whole for the superstructure to rest upon. This may be ne-
cessary Where the wells are sunk to a great depth, and where the su-
perstructure is of great weight, but in other cases the value or necessity
of such an arrangement may be doubtful. The wells used by me have
never exceeded twenty feet in depth, the greatest number only ten.
From their position they are in some instances liable to be undermined
by a current setting in upon them when supporting a revetment or line
of ghat, or in the case of locks from under-currents, and I have inva-
1839.] On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. 337
riably filled the cylinder with large masses of kunkur, or vitrified brick,
without cement of any description, on the principle, that if the stratum
upon which the cylinder rested was at all acted upon or undermined,
the masses of loose material would sink and occupy the space caused
by the action of the water below ; in fact the hollow cylinders are quite
sufficient to support the superstructure placed upon them, the internal
space may therefore be well occupied by any means to counteract dan-
ger from the vagaries of the stream.
The varieties of lime procurable between the Himalayas and Delhi
are peculiarly favourable to hydraulic works. The beds of the rivers
which drain the valley of Deyra, situated between the parent moun-
tains and the Siwaliks, are loaded with boulders of lime rock ; the
shingle strata of the Siwaliks themselves contain also a plentiful sup-
ply ; these, with the main outlets of the Jumna and Ganges provide
lime for all the upper portion of this Doab. The boulders are collect-
ed and either burnt on the spot, or carried to the works ; in the former
instance the cost of the material from the Hills to points between them
and the town of Saharunpoor averages as follows :—
Rs.
Cost ® 100 maunds at the Kiln from 8 to 10 Rs. say, 10 O
Carriage of ditto to the works at ® mds. 3 to 33 As. say, 21 14
Custom levied at the Ghats or
passes in the Siwaliks, say, \, ananna ® bullockload 2 2
Total cost ® 100 mds. 34 O
Although this lime is in many cases pure, i. e. crystalline carbonate
without admixture—and by selecting the boulders previously to burn-
ing may be obtained sufficiently pure for the whitest stucco, or
white-wash—the article from the kilns is much adulterated with
clays and metallic oxydes, arising from the varieties of lime rock which
are thrown into the beds of the rivers. With the use of soorkhee
therefore (or pounded brick) this lime makes an admirable water-
cement. In wells and foundations I have generally used it in the fol-
lowing proportions :—
2 parts Soorkhee
1 ditto Lime, or
5 maunds, or 400 ibs. of Soorkhee
1? maunds, or 140 tbs. of Stone Lime
mixed well together in a mortar mill before it is used. Above the level
of the water I have found it advisable to reduce the quantity of
soorkhee ; the cement in this case consists of
13 parts of Soorkhee, or 32 maunds
1 ditto of Lime, or 12 maunds.
338 On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. (Aprit,
The lime in fact is so good, that where well burnt bricks are used,
bad masonry is entirely out of the question ; the builder cannot help
himself, and for this portion of his duty deserves no sort of credit
whatever.
This stone lime is used universally on the Doab Canal from the
point where it leaves the Jumna to Rampoor, a town twelve miles
south of Saharunpoor ; from this the marles and kunkur limes of
the districts come into use, although the stone lime is brought into
requisition on a smaller scale for arch-work as well as parapets; and
in plaistering masonry works it is solely used.
The marle, or earth lime as it is usually called, is in much greater
abundance on this line than kunkur. When extracted from the
quarries or pits, it is perfectly soft and friable, in which state it is
kneaded up into round balls about two or three inches in diameter,
which are placed in the sun to dry, previously to their being burnt
in the kiln, The marles differ very much in quality, but all of them
make an admirable water cement. That from Jussool, a village on
the Khadir of the Hindun river is the most approved of, and is deliver-
ed on the works within a circle of ten and fifteen miles at about twelve
Rupees per 100 maunds. These marles are full of fresh water shells
of species now existing in all the tanks, jheels, and rivers of the coun-
try; those of Melania, Lymncea, and Planorbis being in the greatest
~ abundance.
The kunkur limes are more numerous in the southern districts of
the Canal, they also make a good water cement, but contain no re-
mains of fresh water exuvie. :
Near a village called Hursoroo, twenty-five miles to the south-west
of Delhi, a very superior kunkur lime is procured—the formation
itself is intermediate between kunkur and marle, but the position of
the quarries from which it is excavated is similar to that in which
all this material is procured, in a low tract of country, the site in all
probability of a lake or jheel now filled up.* The same fresh water
shells as are found in the marles to the eastward of the Jumna, are
very numerous in the Hursoroo lime. It is exported in large blocks,
and is sold in Delhi at from twelve to fifteen Rupees per 100 maunds.
The cost after burning varies from twenty five to thirty Rupees per
100. This lime for a water cement is very far superior to any lime
that I have met with. When calcined it is of a very light color, and
* Hursoroo is situated on a nullah which rises in the small hills near the Kotub
Miner, and flows into the southwest end of the Furnuknuggur jheel. The town of
Hursoroo, or as it is more commonly calted Hursoroo ghurree, is about two miles from
the jheel.
1839.]. On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. 339
might be mistaken for the stone lime of the Northern Division. In
_ the locks and works on the Doab Canal, appended to them at Shuk-
ulpoor, Sikrani, and Jaoli, in the southern district opposite Delhi,
nothing but Hursoroo in the following proportions has been used in
the superstructure,
1 part of Hursoroo,*
13 ditto of Bujree,
and in the neighbourhood of Delhi the use of pounded brick, or soor-
Khee, has been almost entirely superseded by that of Bujree.t
The sand stone, which is an attendant upon the great Quartzoze
formation of the ridge upon which Tughlukabad, the Kotub Minar,
and old and new Delhi stand, varies from compact and crystalline, to
a loose and friable rock ; in this latter case it consists of an agglutina-
tion of minute angular fragments of quartz, with, in some cases, a
red oxyde of iron in such abundance as to give the strata quite a pe-
culiar character; in other cases the oxyde is wanting, and this friable
rock is of a light color. For roads and other purposes these varieties
of the sand stone are much in request, and amongst the natives obtain
the name of Bajree. Nothing could be a better substitute for soor-
khee, than the substance in question. The presence of the iron oxyde
is in every way favorable to its value in hydraulic works, and the
sharpness of the particle of which it is composed renders it an admi-
rable mixture with lime for plaister or stucco. In this form it stands
the effect of the climate much better than soorkhee or river sand.
In the proportion of one part of Hursoroo lime to one part of
bujree, mortar laid on with a float, as is used in sand, may be
considered very far superior to it, and with a much better appearance
than that practised by the natives, under the tedious process of beat-
ing with the thappa. This bujree is now universally used on the
Doab Canal works, at all points at which it can be delivered under
eight rupees per 100 maunds, this being the maximum rate of
* The following is the detail of proportions used in the cement at these works, and
as they were built in 1834-35, a sufficient time has elapsed to judge of the durability
of the masonry, no repair of any description having taken place up to this period.
i 7 1 B i eceoreeseeoeeeseeoenen 1 art.
Foundations including FOO TATE gn neihs cee eh ap fe
Floorings, &e. ae 9820000800 evceseeeee
Bujree,asecrecscece cece cocccese eeaoeene eeoaeoove 2 39
Hursoroo Lime,.... e@eeeeoe seeeee O08 FHF FH £8888 1 >)
Superstructure, eeovee2e8 BUJICC, voaccncccvcess caveenisees e@veseeoveoeere ls 95
ae errscea pula. «seven. Meee Site's oc eintaciseines jee Lk -.'55
Plaister,...... sseeee BUGREC) ceive vins'cns ciciyiv cieieivie sice eeo0ever7eee 2808 I 9?
dulla or outer thin) gione pated oe pe Sa eal ala sisi sie told tremeioye alsinie's Sa UN ta
coating given to the Soorkhee SS CR Cedar Teas
plaister, as a finish. RRR aN ae OHS ig Ciegaet
+ This has I believe been the case in the Delhi works for many years.
xy
340 On Wells used in Foundations in Upper India. [Aprin,
pounded brick. For water cement the Hursoroo lime with a proper
proportion of this red bujree may perhaps be considered as superior to
all others attainable in this part of the world.
In conclusion:—the Saul (Shorea robusta) which is found in
great quantities in the Deyra Dhoon, and especially on the northern
slope of the Sewaliks, is the wood chiefly used on the Canal works
for piles, rafters, lock gates, sleepers, windlasses, vanes, &c. &c. The
Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), Toon (Cedrela toona), Sirr (Acacia
' sertssa_.), are used in doors, door frames, mill machinery, &c. For
handles of tools, pickaxes, phaoras, arbors of mill wheels, &ec. the
Acacia catechu (or Ky7) the wood from which the Terra japonica of
commerce is procured, and which grows in great abundance in the
forests south of the Sewaliks, and the Acacia arabica (or Keekur)
are chiefly in request. For Neemchuks of wells the natives always
select the Dhak or Plass ( Butea frondosa.), and if this is not to be had
prefer the wood of the Ficus Indica, F Bengalensis, Bombax Mala-
baricus (Semmul, or cotton tree) ; the Horse radish tree (the Hy-
peranthera morunga of botanists) is also used :—in fact, all the light
woods which are valued as floats for rafting timbers are considered
better than others for the curbs of wells. The Neem ( Melia aza-
dirachta) is a useful wood for small rafters, door frames, &c. from
being Jess liable to the attack of white ants. A variety of Pine
(Pinus longifolia) which grows in extensive forests in the Sewalik
mountains is held in no esteem by the natives; it is good for making
light boxes and common furniture, but in attempting to bring it into
use on the works I have failed ; very capital tar,* ees is procured
from it, as well as turpentine. ¥
To Mr. acting Sub-Conductor John Pigott, Overseer of the northern
division of the Canal, under whose charge the greater part of the
works from which the above data on well-foundations have been form-
ed, I am indebted for much valuable aid; his introduction of the
windlass in sinking wells has not only led to a great saving of expense,
but added much to the facility of depressing them. His general quick-
ness, moreover, at resources under sudden and unexpected difficulties,
which can only be appreciated by those who have seen the effects of
the Roas, or mountain torrents in the rainy months, is deserving of
the best acknowledgment that I can offer him.
Northern Doab, May 8th, 1839.
* Vide vol. 2 page 249, of the Journal. The Editor here uses the word turpen-
tine for tar. The manufacture of tar, and not turpentine is described ; the error was
not corrected at the time.—Author’s note.
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- Physical.
Read a letter from Lieut. Col. R. Luoyp, Resident at Darjeeling, forwarding a
specimen and notice of a supposed Coal found near the Teesta river. On analysis it
was found to be tron stone mixed with plumbago.
After the conclusion of the business of the Meeting Mr. Jameson, the officiating
~ Curator, read his report on the specimens of Natural History contained in the Museum
of the Society.
The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. JamEson for the valuable service he has
yendered to the Society, for the short time he has had the management of the
Museum.
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 89.—MAY, 1839.
Art. I.—Notice of Inscriptions in Behar, communicated by Mr.
Ravensuaw. By the Editors.
We present our readers with a letter from Mr. Ravensnaw, with
which we received several copies and facsimiles of Inscriptions obtain-
ed by that gentleman during his tour in South Behar. We regret to
say, that the most important and interesting of these impressions
are so imperfect and confused as to baffle the attempts of the Pandit
Kamaua Kavunt, who aided Mr. James PrinseEp in his valuable dis-
coveries. We allude particularly to the inscriptions on the inverted
column in the fort of Behar. They are in the Sanscrit language, and
character. Nos. 1 and 2 are duplicates taken on sized paper. The
letters on the one have been inked on the obverse side, and on the
other on the reverse. The only word yet deciphered is “‘ Srenayah,”
_ “orders,” “files.” From No. 3 of the same pillar these Sanscrit words
have been discovered—“ labdhopdéya xetropari ku-kriya tya(jya) any
_ “evilact against land obtained by any means, should be avoided.”
Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7, are in the same character and language, taken
from the ruins of Baudhist statuary at Barahgaon. They appear to
contain Baudhist moral sayings ; example—
* Ve dharma hetu prabhavah tesham hetun Tathdgutam avagachchh.”
“Know Bunn to be the author of those things which proceed from
virtue as a cause.”
We suspect that the image at this place (so described by Mr.
_RAvVENsHAW) cannot be Buarrava. The terrific Srva would be cer-
tainly misplaced amongst the peace-loving divinities of the Baudhists.
ZZ
348 Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. [May,
. se
No. 8 is in the Deva Nagri, and belongs to a class of inscriptions
bearing the name of Na’yxa Prata’pa Daavaua Deva Raga of Japila.
They are described by Mr. CoteBrooke in the first volume of the
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society (page 201), on inspection of
the facsimiles taken by Dr. Bucwanan.
No. 8 is that translated by that distinguished orientalist. “It is (to
borrow his words,) “an inscription on a rock, denominated, from an
“idol delineated on it, Tdrdchdndi, in the vicinity of Sahusram, in
“South Behar; and contains the protest of a chieftain named Pra-
“ ta’pA Duavaua DeE'va, bearing the title of Néyaca and that of Raja
“of Japila, against an usurpation of two villages by certain Brah-
“‘ manas in his neighborhood, under colour of a grant, surreptitiously
‘“‘ obtained through corruption of his officers, from the Raja of Gddhi-
“ nagara or Canyacubja ( Candj), who was the celebrated Vesaya-
“cHanprRaA. Its date is 1229 Samvat, corresponding to a. p. 1173.”
The obliteration of the first digit has led Mr. RavensHaw to impute
to these inscriptions an age more remote by one thousand years than the
true era.
No. 9 belongs to the same class, but is not described by Mr.
CoLeBROOKE. The transcriber of No. 8 seems to have been no great
scholar; but the transcriber of No. 9 is evidently quite illiterate. He
introduces his own Lala letters where they differ from the Deva Nagri,
and is baffled by the conjunct letters. From what is deciphered, this
appears to commemorate, by the Raja the construction of a road, “like
steps” from the Pratabali river to the top of the adjoining hill, on which
are impressions of the feet of Visunu and Cuanpr. The seal of Buiku
Pandit, the composer of the inscription, is on the slab, which besides the
fact commemorated, records some notice of this redoubtable Raja’s
family. Parts of the slab are obliterated, but the transcription of what
is legible by a scholar, would enable us to give a more correct analysis
of its contents.
The impression of No. 10 is as imperfect and confused as those of
Nos. 1, 2, and 3; so that we must wait the receipt of a more correct im-
pression before we can hope to arrive at the contents of this stone.
The four Persian inscriptions communicated by Mr. RavENsHAW, re-
quire little comment in addition to the notice by that gentleman. From
the first, we learn that in the time of Aksar “ his servants had thou-
sands of powers,” and that Samp Surraraz Kuan, (one of them perhaps)
founded the Musjid, ‘a sublime shrine. He was a pious man, as it were
a sacred parterre in spring.”
From the second we learn, that Munir Raj built “ this tomb of the
Imam of age.”——In these verses the Prophet is piously apostrophized.
= obey ce 5 ee
1839.] Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. 349
The third informs us, that in the reign of SHau JEHAN the Just,
Hasire Sor (the Raj no doubt) constructed the basin of SHaraF-AD-DIN,
and “repaired (babast) and made this sublime /d-gah, and the brick
pavement.” Mr. RavensHaw informs us, that this saint died in 782. a. H.
The dedication of the basin is therefore a posthumous honor.
In the last line of the third couplet of the epitaph on Inrauimm Bayvu
we have hazarded a correction,—Kin-toz for Kin-loz. The first, however
unusual as a compound, may mean zealous or fervent, the second has no
sense. This good man it seems “‘ was royal in his disposition, and in re-
ligion as fervent as Abraham.” He died in the month of Hajj on a
Sunday. The line obliterated would have supplied the date. The
concluding line prays ‘“‘ that God may make easy his last account.”
A correct plate of Mr. Ravensuaw’s sketch ofthe tower of Jara’-
SANDHA near Girzk is annexed. Mr. Ravensuaw has detailed the
pauranic legend of this ‘ Asur,’ demon, (not Assyrian). The term is
given to the foes of Krisona. Kawsa, the slain son-in-law of JarasaNn-
pHA, and the uncle of Krisuwna, is so called, (See Wiison’s Dictionary. )
We are much mortified, in being obliged to send forth this Number
without an analysis of the inscriptions on the inverted column in the
fort and on the stone on the hill near Sasseram, now called Chandan-
Shahid,—of course from some Moslim devotee. They may, we think,
afford interesting historical facts. We wish Mr. RavensHaW, or any other
friend to antiquarian research, could find the opportunity of taking more
perfect facsimiles. Captain Burns would render important service
if he would describe minutely the best process and fittest materials for
taking accurate facsimiles from engraved slabs. In the meantime we
suggest that other impressions be taken on damp or sized paper, and
that they be sent to us without any attempt to delineate in ink the
letters either on the concave or convex faces. If they be sent in du-
plicate the chance of being deciphered is greater.
The slab to which Mr. Ravensuaw refers at the close of his
valuable letter has been received, and will be noticed in an early Num-
ber. We now pass on to that gentleman’s letter.
To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
Sir,
I have the pleasure to forward for the inspection of the Society,
a few inscriptions collected by me in a late tour through the district
of Behar, in the hope that some of them may prove to be new, and
useful in illustrating the history of the country. No. 1, is an inscrip-
tion on a stone pillar found among the ruins of the fort of Behar.
350 Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. (May,
The fort is supposed by Buchanan* to have been built by the Maga
Rajas, who during the first three centuries after Christ ruled over this
part of the country, then called Magadha, and indeed still called
Magad by the lower orders of natives to this day. The shaft of the
column is about eleven feet high, being a fragment only of the original
pillar. It is situated on the high ground, a little to the west of the
northern gate of the fort. Its original position is said to have been
in front of the gate ; on removing it to its present site, the pillar was
erected in a reversed position, with its base in the air, and its summit
in the ground. :
Various expedients were tried, in order to take off the inscription ;
but wax, sealing wax, and the ordinary method of inking the pillar,
and taking the impression on damp paper, alike failed. At last I had
recourse to sized paper, which being pressed while damp carefully into
the letters, retained the form of them when dry. In No.1, the cavi-
ties of the letters have been filled with ink. In No. 2, which is
another copy of the same inscription, the reverse or embossed side has
been inked. The latter appears the best copy, and if the paper be
held up to the light the characters can be as distinctly traced as on the
other. No. 3, is a copy of an inscription on the upper (really lower)
part of the column.
As I have never seen any characters which resemble those on the
Behar column, I shall be glad to learn from your Society by what
name they are designated, and to what era they belong. It is singular
that Buchanan should not have alluded to this pillar in his descrip-
tion of the fort of the Magas while giving an account of the numer-
ous Boodhist images, &c. scattered among the ruins.
There are several ancient Mahomedan buildings in the town
and its vicinity, which are likewise unnoticed by Buchanan. The
principal one is the tomb or Durgah of a holy saint, styled Huzrat
Mukdoom Ool Moolk Shah Shureef Oodeen. There is an inscription
in the Cujic character over the entrances to the Durgah, which, how-
ever, time has rendered illegible, with the exception of the date of the
death of the saint, 782 Hijree, (1380 a. p.) and of the erection of the
tomb, 977 Hijree (1569 a. p.) The Durgah is held in great venera-
tion by the Mahomedans, who at the Oors, or anniversary of the death
of the saint assemble from all parts of the country, it is said to the
number sometimes of 50,000. This ceremony takes place in Decem-
ber. The tomb, the adjoining mosque, and other buildings, are —
illuminated, and prayers are offered up for the dead and the living.
* Page 89, in Martin’s Eastern India.
oS ee
oe Oe Bi we ’
“iene dibiin. -— ee ee a
a
P ar
+
6
i
ae,
t
»
‘.
1839.) Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. 301
Extensive endowments of rent-free lands have been granted at differ-
ent times by Emperors, Amils, and pious Mahomedans, for the support
of the shrine, the administration of which, is entrusted to a Syjadah
Nusheen, an hereditary officer, to whom great reverence is paid by
the Faithful. But a great portion of the lands has been alienated
either to relations of the family, or in satisfaction of debts of former
incumbents, and a great part has become liable to assessment under
the Resumption Laws ; so that little now remains for the support of
the family, the splendour of religious festivals, or the maintenance
of the Moolvees who were wont to teach to the rising generation the
doctrines of the law and the tenets of the Prophet.
The following inscription is on the Joomah Musjid, date 1004
Hijree, in the reign of Akbar.
MSS WSS 54S, yas} Sle sli, ails am Q55\£ ys whey 3
leksta » 9S ons Lin idle a tetee?, Spd yore yl Bm ytrnd id
dS wane 3p ye jlo YRELL Slo
The Imambarah has the following inscription, dated 1175 Hijree.
Melee, ES re aie A) Uys” 5) , Jobat sabia na A
(ynhannc “ns lans Lyly eye Pe Gy
wrt 3 4S ra La os reat GS
"The subjoined is in a tank and Ed Gah, date 1065 Hijree, in the
reign of Shah Jehan.
eos Wie S59 aySly,,0 aver ws Sreslslylesals yor
N19 3.72 MAS pryrislogriwwrs A hs 2 yy tlleos ones
352 Notice of Inscriptions tn Behar. [ May,
P he ,
gaye Wl cys? Sle (hes a Bc
At the distance of about three miles west of the town is a singular
hill called Peer Puhury, from the tomb of a Peer, or saint, situated on
the summit. His name was Huzrat Ibraham Byjoo, who from the
subjoined copy of the inscription over the tomb appears to have died
in 753 Hijree, (1352 a.p.,) or nearly five centuries ago, during the
reign of the Patan monarch Feroz Sooltan, and about forty or fifty
years before the invasion of Tymoor. This inscription is so far im-
portant that it verifies the date assigned to Feroz Shah being Slara
Rajab by Ferishta.*
us yp? VOM xe
gee eel yp) Ci pd= cols y Fou
5390 be 0 wlee ya Jaly af ye whee sl&e Soe age
ja yed i BS Ulla S wlblo 5 5 53 Wle slides
SPS onl yel o> Wdy2 Oy 2S en S52 on? Kho Ls ype aK
5a)3! mainds x= 1.65 skys
(Line illegible.)
393 9 yep ah » KL dda y5 bao S aw net go HAKRD is sy
é’
320 yt ys} lw WTS sa Uhegs Udi: So, tos
The tomb is a common square building, surmounted by a dome.
The hill on which it stands is a very. remarkable one. It is composed
of cuboidal masses of crystallized sandstone having a fanciful resem-
blance to horn, and thence called by the learned, “ Hornstone.” The
upper part of many of the rocks is soft sandstone, while the lower is
crystallized ; this is probably owing to decomposition, but the natives
conceive it to be a new accretion, and maintain that the rock grows,
“* jeeta,” a not uncommon idea even in England.
* Vide Prinsep’s Useful Tables, page 147.
t) MY GA
. , ; by} 4 lb / ff LY if, Yy, 7 Et
‘ ng : : | / Mf » re, x Ze ,
; y ip Uy Pp, : Ww - M : f G- = i Mote. fa f
a : , wee a 4 YI Ps : , tt
ds : = é : ~ Yj Yih, yy) rN Lips By
_
Stas eal
UY 3 Ny ; ‘ "3 :
i NS , wil
omer
Bat ree
|
-paBbuezus eo1us0S
“HVHSTA ~ MAIUID + IMH LAT SVENVSVUWe
1839. ] Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. 303
The hill is about 300 feet high, compcsed of stratified masses of the
Hornstone. It is quite perpendicular to the east, and sloping down to
c B
t LOG b
the west at an angle of about 40° De<e<“we" IA E.
Other hills are generally in the shape of cones, but this seems to have
been upheaved by a sudden force in the direction a B or of c p,
snapping the subjacent crust, without disturbing the contiguous plain
EB. This perpendicular rock extends about a mile or more north and
south, and there is no other hill within twelve miles. The charac-
ter of the Behar Hills in general is very peculiar, being unlike that of
any other country I have visited. They rise up out of the level plain
in small conical isolated peaks from 200 to 300 feet high, apparently
unconnected with each other, or any range of mountains. They are
composed of a variety of rocks, coarse granite, hornstone, jasper,
hornblende, &c. all mixed together without order, and all appearing
to have undergone some degree of fusion. They suggest the idea
that they existed previous to the plain which surrounds them, for if
they had been forced up from below, the adjacent plain would have
been upheaved with them in some degree ; whereas it is as flat as possi-
ble up to their very base. It seems not improbable, therefore, that they
originally formed the summits of a range of mountains, the vallies of
which were subsequently filled up, forming the bed of some pre-
adamite ocean. But I have forgotten the inscriptions in this geologi-
cal speculation
The inscriptions numbered 4, 5, 6, and 7, were taken from the
pedestals of statues of Boodha found at Baragaon, about seven miles
west from the town of Behar, which Buchanan conceives to have
been the residence of the Maga Rajas. Three or four high mounds
composed of ruins of some large brick buildings are all that remain to
attest its ancient grandeur. The Boodhist images lying about in all
‘directions are very numerous ; that of Bhyroo is of colossal dimensions,
_ and made of granite.
Enclosed is a rough sketch* of a very remarkable tower about sixty
feet high, and as many in circumference, situated on the summit of a
hill 800 feet high, near Girick, about seven or eight miles from
Rajgeer (Rajgtr7) the ancient capital of Jarasanda, an Asur, or
Assyrian, the contemporary of Chrishna, and who is supposed to have
reigned over the country of Magadha, or Madhyadés, about 1200 years
before Christ.
* See Plate.
354 Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. — [ May,
According to tradition, and the Mahabharut, Chrishna murdered
the Raja of Mathurah, who was the son-in-law of Jarasanda, in or-
der to obtain his dominions ; upon which Jarasanda waged war with -
the Eastern Apollo, and compelled him to fly with all his milk maids
to the west coast of India. Some years after, however, having obtain-
ed the aid of the Pandava Princes he returned with an army headed
by Bheem and Arjuna. At Girick a pitched battle was fought, and
Jarasanda is said to have fallen by the hand of Bheem. A detailed -
description of the pillar is to be found in Buchanan, page 79. It is
called by the natives the Bythakz, or seat of Jarasanda; but it is not
improbable that it may have been erected either in commemoration
of his victory over Chrishna, or of his death in the final battle. It is a
solid brick building, without any inscription or image; about two-
thirds of the height from the ground there are three projecting cor-
nices about a foot apart, the intervals being decorated with carved
ornaments, the principal of which is a gurha, or vessel for holding
water.
The inscriptions of Nos. 8, 9, and 10, were presented to me at
Sasseram by Shah-Kubeerood-Deen, the Syjadah Nusheen of a reli-
gious endowment at that place.
No. 8 was taken at Tarachundee, two miles south-west from
Sasseram; the date is 3rd Jeyte 229 Sumbut (a. p. 172), and Raja
Dowul Pertab is the author.
No. 9 is an inscription on a rock by the same Raja, at a place
called Amjur, near Phoolevaria, ten miles south from Sasseram—the
date is Bysack 2nd, Sumbut 229, or a. p. 172.
No. 10 is an inscription found on a stone at the summit of a hill
near Sasseram, called Chundun-Shaheed. It is in the ancient charac-
ter of the Allahabad and Bettiah Pillars, the decyphering of which
has conferred immortal honor on the name of James Prinsep. The
following inscription is taken from the gateway of the palace on the
summit of the celebrated hill fortress of Rhotas. From this it ap-
pears that the palace was built in 1005 Hijree, (1596, a. p.) by Raja
Man Sing, viceroy of Behar and Bengal in the time of Akbar.
rw} Kided Gwlidy xeh3 Sx 85 Ig oy ae f
nb mein GES) 5 pan 83193 eled Mb om liz wnilo ails ya
no eno sis pw (abo amt, 5 I aS Exley o Syed gee uriyles Sls
. ee 2 R - 2 20 2 Ww <T
: hr | sry eaBouziay LOZ4PIAG a “lL ray Pr 4+ + ?
ME We ch |B » a) |e
are PER et
MER PPBPB WRPhh cit [ra
2RRRE BERRY R RReH‘D | ae sis
ERIBD wised : Sop Beal
Bh2BP Wweseo2 keiPb
iRDwB -- ER Wet
ShRUBRb whe tr) efes
7 aABvurcag wsapow YZIM perrdwos eae ayz yo yaqrydye aut "e@z1is 47n] ‘qeas uj,
AEDT NSE wIP) MPHIBPRV MSE) PSE
PEAY RNSU INES EL PLIES OMNES
« taf aY4Y3 4° VHOW Se PPAF AUF ie a
be Sadi Me
lant
a at | 4, ii oo, a 2 A
vial Me a a
xt
-) bah
Ca
a,
wh tat iowa
1839.] Notice of Inscriptions in Behar. 355
The Sungskrit inscription at the Kothoutiga gate of the fort, al-
luded to by Buchanan, page 432, was, I believe, brought to Chuprah
by Mr. Walter Ewer, and is at present in the grounds of Mr. Luke’s
house. I shall endeavour either to forward the original, or a copy to
the Asiatic Society.
I have the honor to be,
Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
CuHUPRAH, E. L. RAVENSHAW.
21st April, 1839.
P. S.—Since writing the above Mr. Luke has promised to forward
the slab by a boat which is about to start for Calcutta.
Art. I1.—The “ Mahimnastava,” or a Hymn to Shiva; nith an
English translation. By the Rev. Krisona Mouana Banerst1.
The well-known invocation to Surva, of which an English transla-
tion is presented to the public, together with the original, in the follow-
ing lines, is held in high repute among the Hindus. It purports
to be written by Pusupapanrta, chief of the Gandharvas, who was
in the habit of stealing flowers, for the purpose of worshipping Suiva
with them, from the garden of king Va’Hu, unseen by the keepers of
the garden. As he was gifted with the power of walking in the air he
baffled for a long time all the efforts of the keepers to catch him, who
observed every morning large quantities of flowers stolen away, but
could not ascertain how the thief got into the garden by night, in spite
of all their watchful vigilance. ‘They suspected at last that it was a
being capable of flying that committed the robbery night by night,
and left in several places some holy flowers sacred to Suiva, with the
hope that the thief might tread upon them in the dark and be depriv-
ed of his supernatural powers, in consequence of the curse which such
an insult to those sacred mysteries would necessarily bring upon him.
The plan had the desired effect. The Gandharva trod upon the sa-
cred flowers, and lost his power of riding on the wind. He was ac-
cordingly caught and taken into custody, when, through fear of the
king whom he had offended by stealing his flowers, he offered the fol-
lowing supplication to Suiva.
In the translation of this composition I have consulted the scholia
of a learned commentator, as well a version in the Bengalee language,
both of which have been printed with the text. As all classes of the
3A
356 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. [ May,
Hindus are allowed the privilege of worshipping Surva, this hymn is
distinguished from invocations to other gods by the liberty with which
it may be read and repeated even by the Shudras, and it is therefore
more widely known among the natives than the other prayers and
mantras with which the Brahmins alone are familiar, because they
alone are allowed to use them.
afer weed aeatagul aquest
afarendarata agers wate fart:
aaa: Ta: erataafcurarary yay
aaray wis et facwate: wfeAT: UI
If the offering of praise by one that does not comprehend the su-
preme limits of thy glory be unworthy of thee, then the language
even of Brauma’ and the other gods must be deficient. No one there-
fore that sings according to the measure of his understanding is culp-
able—and this attempt of mine too, O Hara! to celebrate thy praise,
may be excused.
aria: weg Ta WATS aTSATAAT
wager a afaa ahrrt afacha
ame eae: atafaaqe: ae faa:
Ue eaaraia Valea A AA: HET TTT: URW
Thy glory, incapable as it is of any definition, and described with
awe even by the Vedas, surpasses the utmost stretch of thought and
expression. Who then can duly set forth its praise? Who can compre.
hend its nature and properties? And yet as to its figurative illustra-
tions, vouchsafed by thee in condescension to the infirmities of the
faithful, who would not set his mind upon them and give expression to
them ?
ayRMATATS: weary fares:
waa way faarifa eras |
wa caat ael PRT aA:
mare aya qeret afgarafeat ei
1839. ] The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. 307
Can the word even of the chief of gods (Brauma’) be a matter of
wonder to thee who art the cause of the nectar-like sweets of lan-
guage? My mind is thus bent upon this invocation, O thou destroyer
of Tripura, to the end that I may purify my language by the virtue
of recounting thy attributes.
oN C.
qawaer FAST TAC AMAA
sata aed fray quirare aay |
aaararafensy ace Tataacaut
° ° AN
fase arattt facua cea sefaa: uel
Thy godhead, celebrated in the Vedas, and displayed in the three-
fold forms of Brauma’, VisHnu, and Suiva, distinguished severally by
the three properties of Saitwa Rajas, and Tamas, is the cause of the
creation, preservation, and annihilation of the universe; and yet there
are certain foolish and stupid men in the world who oppose this thy
godhead in an abominable way, however acceptable that way may be
to the wicked.
fate: fa ata: way faaota fea
Faararey erat asta faaaiea xfs |
EN
WAH WS AAACN CATA:
QC, ° &~
qaat a aifgeracata aera sara yl
“What is his attempt? What his form? By what means—with
what implements—of what materials does the Creator form the uni-
verse ?”’ Vain questions like these, unworthy of thy incomprehensible
glory, and therefore wicked, pass the lips of some infatuated men for
the delusion of the world.
aaa arat faarraazafa saat
afwerant fa wafafacatges wafer |
aafattar qenrgrarsraa a: afcat
Tal A Wal WeIATAT TATA TA li
Can this embodied universe be uncreate? Could its existence proceed
from any one except the Creator of the world? Or who else but the
358 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. — [May,
Lord could attempt the production of the world? The wicked, regard-
less of these considerations, indulge in scepticism concerning thee, O
thou supreme of immortals !
ant ARI ata: ama faad aoeraterta
afara weareat acfaeaz: warfare |
eA °
edtul tia qa eaaranmag ai
FUTAA TET IAT WTA ATTTT |i
While the Vedas, the Sénkhya philosophy, the Yoga shastra, the
system concerning the creature and the creator, the doctrine of the
Vaishnavas, &c. involve many conflicting theories and sentiments of
which some follow this, some that—and while there are consequently
different kinds of men pursuing various paths, straight, as well as
crooked, according to the diversity of their opinions—thou art alone
the one end of all these sects, as the sea is of different rivulets.
AEA GAY WC wer fea:
HAUTABANAIMT ACS AFATHLT |
acreat amt afg uta a wagaufufeat
afe areata faraqaqeut aaafa ei
A large bull, a wooden staff, an axe, a tiger or elephant’s hide, ashes,
snakes, and a skull—these, O thou dispenser of blessings, are thy
principal ornaments and furniture. The other gods are indeed tenaci-
ous of this and that enjoyment, all which thou mayest call forth by
a mere turn of thy eye—but a feverish thirst after such objects
cannot disturb a self-contented being.
ya ah wa wae aot eayafas
at areas sata vet Baas |
qaed Gaara yeaa afa tera £4
eqay fate al aay aq YET STAT Nici
One philosopher* says that every thing is eternal ; anothert says
that every thing here is perishable; while a thirdt maintains that in
* Kapiti, the founder of the Sdnkhya philosophy.
+ Buppua, the last pretended incarnation of the Deity, from whom originated the
sect which goes by his name,
~ Gourama the founder of the Nydya philosophy.
1839. } The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. 309
this universe, composed of various materials,.some things are eternal,
others perishable —Although I am in a manner bewildered by these
speculations, I am not still ashamed of setting forth thy praise, for my
tongue cannot be held.
aqasaen aearagure fafefee teu:
ufcwed aiaaae af TTT: |
aal Afaarreyaqug? fart aq
waa ae aA aa faaggha at were Xen
In order to estimate thy glory, who art fire and light, Brauma”™
attempted in vain to measure its upper and VisHNu its lower part.—
But when they sang thy praise with faith and devotion, then thou
didst manifest thyself unto them. Can then thy service ever be
pronounced futile or fruitless ?
sree furs aacartaant
TMA ACISAYT CWAHUSTTAM |
fae: aya ya TUT TTT:
fequa wigan feaqoac faoafsrafag ici
It was only owing to the unshaken faith with which he worshipped
thy lotus-feet with his heads, as with so many rows of lotuses, that, O
thou destroyer of Tripura, the ten-headed Ra’vana having gained
unrivalled and undisturbed possession of the world exerted the strength
of his arms, ever itching for war.
Sayer ceaqaaraafanaant yaaa
aad Vateta cagfuaady fanaa: |
ARIA Tara wwaagfaargrefucta
nfarer creat ya qafaat Tafa GA WRI
When he (Ra’vana) exerted against Kadldsha, even thy dwelling,
the power of those very arms which he had got as a reward for his
services to thee, (so true it is that the wicked forget themselves in
prosperity !) it would have been impossible for him to find any resting
place, even in hell, hadst thou only slightly moved the tip of thy toe.
LBut thy long-suffering remembered his former devotions, and spared
him. |
360 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. [ May,
rely Tate ITZ TUATATT UT
AYA ITT: ufeqafasatayaa: |
a afaa afera aftafaafe aacuay
at HEAT Baer wate faecaecazqaafa; tsi
That Va'na, who had reduced the whole world under his subjec-
tion, should pull down the dominion of INpRa, although so high, was
not a matter of wonder ; because he worshipped thy feet. What eleva-
tion is there which the prostration of the head before thy feet could
not procure !
FAUST AUS AAG f HAS ATTACH IT
frreandig faaua faa deraa: |
CHAT: RUS TT 7 HUA aA Barat
faarcta areal yranaayarafaa: sii
Does not the blue spot which coloured thy throat, when thou drankest
the deadly potion in pity to the gods and demons, who were all afraid
that the universe should have an untimely dissolution, serve to set
forth thy beauty? Surely even a disfigurement becomes graceful in a
person who undertakes to relieve the world from fear.
afagrn aa afaefa ezargcat
faa fart safe afaatt cea fate: |
ST WAAL CTTAATYCATAILT AI
WU wage are afay sea: afTT: UU
That victor, whose shafts were never discharged in vain in this
world consisting of gods, demons, and men, even KanDARPA, met
with dissolution when he looked upon thee, O Lord, as if thou wert
like any other common god. So impossible is it to despise the self-
controlled with impunity !
adrareratargarfi qual Ua
ag faeut arergaafcrenT eae
1839.) — The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. 361
ATA Tees aeafayasetareaaat
wagers eraete aq aaa fayAT Url
The safety of the earth became doubtful by the stamp of thy feet—
the firmament became giddy and unstable, with all its stars and
luminaries, shattered by the stroke of thy hand—and the heavens,
touched by thy clotted hair fell into a troublous state, when thou
dancedst in order to defend the universe from the Rakshases. How
mysterious and seemingly contradictory must be this thy providence,
by which thou didst thus trouble the creation while thou wert in
fact effecting its preservation !
faargrht arcrerear farang ae fa:
Taal art a: yaraage: facta a |
aTeaNt Taras wa TaAfa—
aaa ae YASH Aa TT! NVI
Those streams of the Ganga which extend far in the sky, whose frothy
appearance is that of clusters of sparkling stars, which replenished the
“mighty ocean, forming it like a great ring round the insular earth,
looked a small drop when thou didst sustain them on thy head!
What a glorious conception does this give of thy wondrous and ma-
jestic body !
Coes sat Wayracraxt VATA
Tals WHTal <aacuatfa: we cfs
feast et ala Paqequarseactaty
faua: ASM aA aT waa weyfys ici
When thou didst resolve upon consuming Tripura, the earth was
thy chariot, Brauma’ thy charioteer, the chief of mountains (Man-
dara) thy bow, the sun and moon thy wheels, and Visunu himself
thy arrow! What was all this preparation against a city that was
but as grass before thee? Not that the will of the lord was dependent
- upon any instruments, but that thou wert pleased, as it were, to sport
with those implements.
362 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. [ May,
afc area aacafaarng wat
aaa afeasy fayTataaAATS |
Tal wa sa: afcufs wel THAT AT
sare CaS FTC ET SAHA TATE UV
When Harti (Visunu), who was daily in the habit of worshipping
thy feet with a thousand lotuses, found on a certain occasion that the
number was short by one, he plucked one of his lotus-eyes to fill up
the want. Then did the fulness of his faith, thus tried and approv-
ed, become, by means of his wheeled body, the watchful principle of the
world’s conservation.
HAt Ga HIAaS wala AAT
aR Re Teed wef TERT Aa |
BACT WHST HITT Weretantaya
Wal Agi aT SSUKCAT: HAT FA: Roll
The sacrifice being ended, thou alone remainest as the cause of re-
ward to its performers. How can a work that is finished and has
ceased, be efficacious afterwards, except because of thy worship? It is
accordingly only by looking up to thee as the pledge of reward in sa-
erifices, and by reposing faith in the Vedas, that a person can be said
to commence a great work.
fanzaiga: Haafa TiteaTTyAT—
ARUTAT esses ULE AAT: TTT |
APALCITT: HTT WASTATA fT
yt at serfaye afarareras ferar 1a
Although Daxsua* so perfect in works, and lord of all creatures,
was the offerer—although Rzshés were the priests, and gods the assem-
bled partakers of the sacrifice, yet was it interrupted and rejected,
and Daxsua himself destroyed by thee ; for such oblations as are made
without faith in him, who is the giver of rewards in them, are produc-
tive only of evil.
* DAakKsHA was the father-in-law of Surva.
1839. ] The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. 363
WHAT ATT VAN aan wat great
aa Cfegat fray yore TTST |
uqeauand ferata qearaa aa
aad carte caafa a PATTI: RRM
When Brauma” lusting after his own daughter (that had through
fear of her father’s attempt against her virtue transformed herself into
a hind) became a stag, with a view to gratify his passion, thou didst
bend thy bow against him; and when he had fled from thy fear, even
into heaven, thy hands, like those of a chasing hunter, took him, and
have not yet set him at liberty.
CTATACATMATYA ATTA FUT
kes qu Segt Fea TTS ay
Nae aK
ate qu eat qafaca Selgazat
A
Safa AT AGI AT ACTS ATITTITT: 122
If, O destroyer of Tripura, even after seeing the flower-armedt
god of love reduced like grass instantly to ashes for audaciously
hoping to overcome thee by makingt Pa’rvartt's beauty as his instru-
ment, the goddess still looks upon thee as if thou wert subject to
animal passions, because half of thy body is joined with hers, then,
O thou self-controlling dispenser of blessings, young women must be
deceived.
TAU MIS ACE faura: Teaqa
fqarraras: arta qaciFiafcac: |
AAGKes wre TT aaq arava afiasi
aarfe equi ate wea AFAAT Rv!
Although owing to thy sports in the cemetery, with the devils as thy
followers—the ashes of the burnt pile as thy ointment—and skulls as
thy necklaces and drinking cups—thy disposition and very name must
appear evil and be awful—yet thou art the cause of supreme felicity to
all that call upon thee.
* Brauma’ is the first person of the Hindu Triad and the creator of the universe.
+ Ka’mapeva, the god of love, or animal passions, is supposed to use flowers as his
shafts when he strikes lust into the hearts of men.
t} Pa’rvatt was the wife of Suiva.
3B
364 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. [ May,
aa: wera VawAT TAT AAT TT:
WPA ATA: WAZATAAT eA FATH: |
UeTaATSS ET Ta THSATyATAT
eueameara faate afaaateaaaatsy |e yii
Thou art verily that incomprehensible truth which the self-control-
led devotees contemplate when they put their fingers to their nostrils
and fix their thoughts, abstracted from all external impressions, within
their minds, and when through joy their hairs stand on end, and they,
as if immersed in the sea of delight, feel themselves happy, plunged
in the waters of immortality.
rane Ciaeaala Wa wd BATT:
eqaraed ala cag actu creat cafafag |
ufcfmarad cafa afcwat fafa fae
a fag equa arfire fe aed a arate Rel
Thou art the sun—thou the moon—thou the air—thou thyself —
fire—thou art water—thou art sky—thou the earth—and thou the
spirit. With such expressions did the ancients define thy essence.
But as for ourselves, we acknowledge that we know no substance
which thou pervadest not.
aatfaagt fayzaaat Pufsgr-
angen feafarcfaceitfaata |
qoaed ura wafafrcaeaqraaa fe:
waed Yet cat ew, qureaifata WX WR
The mystical and immutible Om which being composed of the ©
three letters a u m signify successively the three Vedas (Rich, Yajus |
and Saman)—the three states of life (awaking, dreaming, sleeping) —
the three worlds (heaven, earth, and hell)—the three gods (of the triad,
Brauma’, Visunu, and MaursHwara)—and which by its nasal |
sound is indicative of thy fourth office as supreme lord of all—ever
expresses and sets forth thy collective and single forms.
wa wal ag: waufacaia: Tea
wal Hawafaa agimareafag
1839.] The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. 365
aa feng vera afracfa erafacta
oN ~A ~
faarares ater afufeaaawiea Aaa Re
Buava, Sarva, Rupra, Pasuurati, Ucra, Mana‘peva, Bui'ma,
and I’sua’na, of these thy eight names, each, O god, is celebrated in
the Vedas (or each the gods desire to hear.) With a humbled mind _
I bow and adore to thee who art called by these precious names.
ant afeeta faaza efavra a aa
aa: aifesta wacut afesrTa Waa |
aa afesra faaaa afaera a aat
aa Wawa A afezaaeara TAA Rei
Reverence to thee, O god of meditation and austerity, who art
nearest (i. e. to those that serve thee), and who art also farthest (i. e.
from them that disregard thee)—Reverence to thee who art the hum-
blest (i. e. to those that are humble), and who art also the greatest (i. e.
to those that are high-minded)—Reverence to thee who art old (as the
creator of the universe), and yet young, being independent of the decay-
ing effects of age—Reverence to thee who art all, and in whom all
things subsist !
awacaee frwaeaty wars Ta AA:
WAGGA TAeqest ASST AAA: |
WAAAAA ACT BUT AAA:
maEte ve freqes feats aAAA: RCI
Reverence, O Reverence, to Buava, who partakes chiefly of the
Rajas quality for the creation of the world. Reverence, O Reverence,
to Mripa, who partakes of the Satfmwa quality for the conservation of
the world and the happiness of men. Reverence, O Reverence, to
Hara, who is principally moved by the quality of Tamas in the
destruction of the world.
awfuufaaa: was aad
ag da quataratgey wage: |
ofa afar aaehtaea at afa cre
EUS WUT TTAITEGTTTE «—/2U!
366 The Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shiva. [ May,
How vast the difference between my understanding, capable of
grasping only little objects and subject to the perturbations of the
passions, and between thy everlasting glory, whose properties know no
boundary !—Hence my faith having led me, who am fearful of thee,
to this profitable exercise, casts me at thy feet with this verbal offering,
as with that of flowers. 7
afaatriced aq asset faequrs
TCACACMTAT AAT TF Fat |
fafa afe qhteat acer waarei
| azfa aa T UTATATST at a atta aR
O Lord, even if there were a heap of ink like a black mountain,
were the ocean itself the inkstand, and did Saraswatt herself conti-
nue to write for ever with the twigs of the Kalpataru* as her pens, hav-
ing the earth itself for her paper, Leven df there were such a writer
with such stationery, and to write for so long a time] still would it
be impossible to express the limits of thy qualities.
HAA euataqTAT TAAATA TS
faunas Saeaeg ere:
waqufasateet STARA CIT
waafazaaAr feaiesy afara: 331
Kusuuma Dasnana (Pusupapanta, or flower-teethed) the chief of _
all the Gandharvas, and the servant of the god of gods, who bears on
his head the crescent of the moon, being in consequence of his wrath de-
prived of his greatness, composed this excellent hymn of the lord’s glory.
acaca farsa waa AA TA
usta afte WC: 5 WrerraetreaaaT
aafa fare fart: tqTATA:
waaraagaalr FeUSATAUA 1BVI :
If a man, having worshipped the chief of gods, read with oe hands
closed together, and his attention fixed, this hymn, composed by Pusn- |
PADANTA, and of certain efficacy as the one only means of emancipa- _
tion in heaven, he will join the company of Surva, and will be ador-
‘ed by the Kinnaras.t
* A fabulous tree of mythological celebrity, which yields any fruits that are desired
by any one.
+ The Kinnaras were a species of celestial beings.
e
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’'s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 367
Art. III.—Account of a Journey from Calcutta vid Cuttack and
Pooree to Sumbulpur, and from thence to Mednipur through the
Forests of Orissa. By Linut. M. Kiros.
As the country west-south-west of Medniptr, for upwards of four
hundred miles through which the high road to Nagpur and Bombay
passes, is noted down even inthe most improved maps as fe7'7'a incog-
nita, therefore, by most considered as such, a brief account of my
recent travels in that direction may not be uninteresting.
I am unable, for many reasons, to give very minute details, first, in
consequence of the hurried manner in which I had to travel; next,
from the very inclement season during which I did so; and again,
owing to the great reluctance which the natives of Orissa have to afford
any information, and what is more, to their decided silence; it being
(as I have always had occasion to remark) more than the life of an
individual is worth were he to be detected by his chief in divulging
the scanty resources of his country.
About the middle of April 1638, Captain G. Abbott having fallen
an early victim to the deadly climate of the Keunjur and Mohur-
bhunj jungles, to the distracting knavery of the people he had to deal
with, and the annoyance and exposure they caused him to suffer,*
I was appointed to succeed him, and directed to proceed immediately
to Sumbulpir to take charge of the survey of the Medniptr and
Raepur post road.
There then being no possibility of travelling by dawk by the post
road with any degree of safety or comparative comfort at such a
season, I resolved on proceeding vid Cuttack and the valley of the
Mahanuddi, through the Burmool pass and onwards by Boad and
Sohnpur, i. e. following the course of the river, as the surest means of
obtaining the first necessary of life, viz. good water.
I left Calcutta for Cuttack by dawk on the evening of the 17th
April, where I arrived on the morning of the fifth day. I travelled at
night, and halted during the day at eo Jullaisir, Ballaistr,
and Bareepur successively.
On reaching Cuttack I found so much difficulty in procuring
bearers to take me to Burmool (where I expected a relay from
Sumbulpitr) that I resolved on going on to Pooree, and from thence
across the country to that place; but a set having at last agreed to go
for something more than the usual travelling rates, I struck the bargain
* Captain Abbott commenced his travels early in January, 1838, was taken ill
on the 22nd March near Keunjurgurh, and died two days after his arrival at Sumbul-
pir on the 3d April following.
368 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (May,
and sent them on to Badeswur, half way to Burmool. I went on
to Pooree, where I remained three days, being completely overcome
with the fatigue of so much dawk travelling, for it was but lately I
had returned from my tour in Orissa in search of antiquities, coal, and
minerals, &c. an account of which tour has already appeared in this
Journal.
While at Pooree, I tried again to procure more coins, but having
shewn too much anxiety, and paid too much for those I did get, on
former occasions, the suspicions of the Brahmans and shroffs were
excited, they would give no more, except a few sovereigns, shillings,
six-pences, and some Goah coins, which from their inferior standard
were unsaleable in such a market.
I did my utmost to procure facsimiles of the inscriptions in Jug-
gernath temple, also of those in the Gondeechagurh, but was, as
usual, unsuccessful.
The tide ebbing very low at that season of the year I was enabled
to collect a great variety of marine shells, but few however were suf-
ficiently perfect to be of any value, the violence of the surf destroying
all the more delicate species.*
I left Pooree on the evening of the 26th, and reached Koordah
early on the following morning. I took up my abode in a shady
mango grove near the ruins of the old Noor or palace, in the vicinity of
which are many modern temples all equally inelegant and unworthy
of notice.
When at Koordah in the previous month of March, I was unable
to visit the cave of PauNncH PANDEB, therefore I determined to do
my best on this occasion. About noon I proceeded on foot for a distance
of a mile and a half, having to crawl in many places through the
jungle thicket, and reached the foot of the ascent, which is by a
broad path, at a spot where under some stately Bur and Peepul
treest I saw a very elegant image of Su’rya, in his chariot with many
horses, driven by Aruna (his charioteer) ; I had no time to spare
to enable me to make a drawing of it.
After ascending a steep path for a quarter of a mile, I found myself
in a beautiful glen, in its centre is a small and rudely built temple
through which flows a beautiful spring of fresh water ; I was told that
there is an idol of Parsurri’ within, carved in the rock, from the
navel of which the water flows, however I did not think it worth
the trouble of examining, being more interested in the Pandeb Gurha.
* All that were of any use were presented to the Society, and haye been placed in
the cabinets.
t Ficus Indicus and Ficus Religiosa.
1839.) Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 369
Having therefore refreshed myself with a copious draught from the
erystal stream, I continued the steep ascent until I reached the top
of the hill, I had then to descend some way on the steep southern -
face; when I reached the cave I was sadly disappointed, for it was
a mere cleft in the rock, with “ asthans’ or seats for ascetics cut
within the cavity ; I had hoped to find some valuable inscriptions,
but there were none, excepting a few short sentences, and the names of
ascetics in various characters, from the old Kzézla of the 13th century
to modern Ooreya and Devanagri, which I did not think worth
transcribing ; I deemed it better to take rest in the cool .cave, and
recover if possible from the effects of my long walk under a burning
sun, at the hottest season of the year, so that after admiring the beautiful
and extensive view which the spot commanded of the sea and the
intervening woody plains, I laid myself down to sleep for a couple of
hours, which completely restored me; I then returned to my palkee,
and resumed my trip towards Badeswur, passing near the hot springs
of Atteiree.
As I left early in the evening I had time enough to see much of the
country, which undulates considerably, and is thickly studded with
trees and underwood. There is a gradual fall towards the Mahanuddi ;
from Pooree to the vicinity of the Koorda hills the country is exceed-
ingly low and flat, but it then has a gentle rise, caused by that curious
ironstone formation occurring every where at the foot of the hills of
Orissa.
The hill of Koorda is a rock which has been pronounced to be
sandstone, but I am by no means satisfied of this being correct; it
contains large proportions of lithomarge and quartz, it does not occur
stratified, but chiefly in irregular and disturbed masses, the inter-
stices are occupied with a coarse red loam resembling brick dust ;
the stone is variegated and speckled, and in some parts of its texture
resembles pumice stone, or brick kiln slag; it is with this that most
of the temples of Orissa are built, for from its softness it is easily
worked, besides which it possesses a quality rendering it very desir-
able in the estimation of the natives—its predominant color being red.
From the high ground (before reaching Atteiree) the numerous
conical and isolated hills rising abruptly from the vast level plains
present a very singular and striking appearance. That of Bankee, called
Mahapurbut, is the most conspicuous; they would all appear to
be of voleanic origin. I reached Badeswur at about 2 a. m., and con-
tinued my journey with my Cuttack bearers twenty-three miles
further to Bailpara, where I put up in a mango grove during the heat
of the day.
370 ° Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [May,
Had I reached Badeswur at daylight, I should most probably
have remained for the day, as there are several pieces of sculpture
worth drawing ; there is also an ancient temple on a rock in the Ma-
hanuddi, which I was unable to examine on my former visit in
1836-37 in consequence of the river not being then fordable; an
- account of what I then saw is to be found at page 828, vol. vii, (second
part) of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, where there is also a sketch
of one of the temples; accompanying is a drawing of an elegantly
executed image of ParsBuTtTt, at the same place, which I made on that
occasion ; like most of the more elegant and ancient idols, it is of
black chlorite, and well polished.
On arriving at Bailpara I found my escort and other persons whom
I had sent on to accompany me from Burmool onwards by water,
but the river being more than usually shallow, I was compelled to
abandon the intention.
I continued my journey early in the evening, that I might be able,
if possible, to visit some caves said to be near a small temple on the
high conical granite hills called Moonz Budra, about six miles beyond
Bailpara, but on reaching the hills I found myself too much fatigued
to warrant my running (perhaps) a wild goose chase after them,
such as I was led to do, when at Balaistir, to the Nélgurh hills;
I therefore passed on, reaching Burmool about 9 p.m. and found
to my sorrow that the Dangur bearers, who had been kindly sent for
me from Sumbulpur by Mr. C. L. Babington, after waiting three days
had that very morning left to return homewards, and to “‘mend” matters,
my Cuttack men refused to proceed. With the pleasant prospect of
having to wait two or three days in this wild place, with no other shelter
than was afforded by the shady forest trees and my palkee, also a very _
scanty supply of eatables, I fell asleep, having however previously
sent on a couple of village Paiks to try and overtake the bearers and
bring them back.
The following morning my guard having arrived and procured
me some milk and eggs, I selected a shady spot on the immediate
bank of the river, at the entrance of the pass, where I placed my
palkee, from which I had a fine view of the river and the valley.
Where there is no remedy, there is little use in fretting, so I
determined to make the most of a bad job, and covered the palkee
with green boughs to render it as cool as possible, it kept the tempera-
ture down to 98°. I took a walk along the banks and succeeded in
shooting a number of fine mullet, which this river is famous for.
I set to work to cook some of them, my chillumchee serving as”
a frying pan, and a village handee for a boiler. I made a good
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 371
meal and fell asleep. On waking, I found myself in better luck
than I had expected, the Paiks having returned with fifteen of the
twenty Dangurs who had left, as I before stated. I immediately pro-
ceeded, and reached the top of the pass about 8 p. m., resting for awhile
at Puddum talawo, on the spot where I had encamped when with
my regiment,in June, 1837, I then continued my journey as far as
the Bunjara halting place, near Gussungurh, in the Boad country,
which I reached: at midnight. At day-break I left the high road
and went to the river side at a village called Korasingha; I made
my palkee as snug as possible for the day. A very fine Mahaseer was
caught and brought to me by a fisherman, so that I had no fear of
starving.
The village was almost entirely deserted, which I was informed
is the case for many miles from the Burmool pass (which is the
boundary between the estates of Boad and Duspalla) to within a
few miles of the town of Boad. The whole country has been almost
laid waste since 1836 ; the Raja’s followers lay the blame to the Kunds
and their chief Nuncumkonwur, who inhabit the mountains running
parallel with the river as far as Sohnpur, at an average distance
of four miles, and then recede in a southerly direction towards
Gilleiri in Gumstr; the ryots, on the other hand, attribute the
impoverished state of the country to the tyranny and misrule of
the Boad Raja, and further assert that the Kunds were driven to ag-
gression by his treachery and injustice.
I passed the day as well as the heat (at 115° with a fierce hot
west wind) would permit of ; I had not felt such since my quitting the
. North-western Provinces ; it was an unpleasant contrast to the cool
(south) sea-breeze prevailing on the other side of the mountains.
I resumed my travels in the early part of the evening, and reached
Rumbagurh about 10 p. m. where I halted for several hours to allow
the bearers rest; it isa miserable place, with indifferent mud walls
and watch towers, but is deemed a gurh, or stronghold.
About 2 a.m.I continued my trip, intending to put up at Boad,
but it being very late before I reached a small village two miles
nearer, I thought it best to avail myself of the fine shelter afforded
by a mango grove on the river side.
I suffered a great deal during the night from feverish symptoms, the
effects of exposure, and so sudden a change of climate ; I had little or
no sleep, so that I had an opportunity of observing the country in the
immediate vicinity of the road. There is much waste land, which
appears to have been lately under cultivation, yet there is a far greater
peerhon of jungle and forest, having the same features as that of
eo
372 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (May,
other parts of Orissa. The stratum of soil is generally very thin, the
gneiss and granite rocks protrude through it in all directions, in some
places rising into small hillocks, in others, appearing in continuous
and gently undulating pavements (as it were) for considerable extents:
I neither saw nor heard bird nor beast, except the shrill and disagree-
able note of a large species of Caprimulgus, which swarms throughout
the forests. I was sadly annoyed during the day time, with the in-
cessant, and distracting noise of an insect called “ jhinkare,” (the
chicada ? )
The Mahanuddi at Korasingha was broad, with a sandy bed ; at
this place it is divided by numerous small islands, thickly wooded,
the bed is rocky throughout; the navigation during the rains must be
very dangerous. The rocks are apparently granite, and present a very
curious appearance, for in many places the different kinds of which gra-
nite is composed are to be seen in serpentine strata distinct from each
other, the tale adhering to the quartz and felspar in large masses—all
the rocks are more or less in a decomposed state ; garnet crystals are
common, and very beautiful ; garnets of a small size are found in the
sand ; of a number I had collected on a former occasion near Cuttack,
some were pronounced by a native jeweller to be rubies. I was inform-
ed that poor people gain a livelihood by seeking for gems, and that
rubies of some weight are occasionally found; the purchasers prove
them by heating them to a red heat, and if when cooled they have
retained their color, they are valued accordingly.
The thermometer this day did not rise above 110°, I consequently
had some little rest, and continued my journey early in the evening,
reaching Boad before sunset. I was detained some time on account
of the guides not coming ; this was designed on the part of the Raja, who
is very uncourteous to any Europeans from whom he may have no chance
of gaining anything ; I had sent to him in the morning to announce my
arrival near his capital, but he did not even deign to send an answer
or a single Paik to attend upon me; his conduct was very different
when our troops were parading the country the previous year. The
impudence and haughtiness of these semi-barbarians is proverbial ;
they were treated with much less ceremony by their Marhatta
rulers than by the British Government ; forbearance on our part is
considered weakness by them, but at the slightest shew of resentment —
they are ready to cringe at your feet. I had to wait upwards of half an
hour, during which period I was pestered with complaints from oppressed
ryots and bunjara merchants. Among the latter was an old man who
had been in camp with us in 1836-37, to beg of the Commissioner to
espouse his cause, and make the Raja, and Nuncumkonwur (the Kund
1839.] Lieut. Kettoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 373
chief) restore his cattle and the value of his merchandize, which had
been plundered from him near Gussungurh in 1835.
I made particular inquiries touching the practice of human sacrifice
since we had rescued all their Mervrizahs ;* I was assured that there had
been no “ Merria pooja’ this year, but I have reason to doubt the
truth of the assertion.
On my way out of Boad I remarked several old temples on which,
as I have been since informed, are inscriptions ; had I known of this at
the time, I should certainly have stopped and transcribed them.
My bearers having informed me that there was a bye-path across
country, by which eight or ten miles would be saved, I preferred
going by it to following the course of the river vid Sohnpur to Sum-
bulpur along the right bank ; therefore upon reaching a large village
ealled Stgliah, I crossed over, and resting for a couple of hours
travelled on till 7 a. m. and encamped in a miserable mango tope by a
village called Mirlipulli, the Zemindar of which would neither come
to me nor afford supplies, till at last the Dangurs got hold of him and
brought him to me, begging I would keep him in durance until his
Paiks should have brought what little was required. I had been
obliged to leave my escort to follow after me, so that I was nearly
helpless, I however followed the advice of the Dangurs and kept the
fellow by me till every thing was forthcoming, and subsequently
paid for.
This part of the Sohnpur territory appears tolerably fertile, the
country is undulating and rocky, but the water is very near the sur-
face ; there are numerous small wells about the villages, the water
of which is drained by the Dhankulz, or tilt-pole. The soil has a
very curious appearance from the great quantities of snow-white quartz
and talcite ; I picked up some fine specimens of tale by the mouth
of a well; the people told me that it is to be found in very large
pieces at some depth below the surface.
I experienced another hot day. Having to travel over some bad
ground, I resumed my march at an early hour, and reached a large
village at 10 p. m. I rested several hours, and then went on to
Keuntapulli, a short distance before reaching which, I had to cross a
tolerably steep ghat over the chain of low hills, which commencing
_ hear Sumbulpir, run for many miles nearly due north and south,
parallel to the river, and no great distance from it.
I encamped as usual under some fine tamarind trees by the river
side. Having reached my ground at an early hour, I had plenty
of time to look about me. The river for upwards of a mile is ex-
* Children intended for sacrifice.
374 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (May,
ceedingly still and deep, it being confined between a line of rocks
the strata of which incline at an angle of 45° and have a most sin-
gular appearance. The village is chiefly inhabited by fishermen, as
its name implies, “* Keunta’ or “ Kewat” meaning “ fisherman,” and
““ pullt” a “ village,” anglice, the ‘“ fisherman’s hamlet.” The Keunts
of this place appear to be a very idle race, they angle all day and cast
nets and spear fish at night. This latter operation is performed by
the following means—one or more torches are burnt at the stem of a
canoe, where a man stands waiting with spear or grange in hand, the
canoe is either pushed or paddled along with the least possible noise
by a boy at the stern, the fish are attracted by the glare of the torches,
swim about near the surface, and become an easy prey to the expert-
ness with which the grange is handled.
During those months in which the river is navigable, the Keunts
have ample employment in transporting merchandize to and from
Sumbulpar, Kontilla, and Cuttack.
There is nothing remarkable in the appearance of the country about
Keuntapulli ; on the right bank there is much low jungle and a few
small hills at some distance ; on the left, the range of hills before men-
tioned are about a mile distant, the land intervening having a gradual
slope towards the river; there is much more jungle than cultivation,
for there are numerous water-courses and ravines intersecting it.
_ [resumed my march an hour before sunset, and reached Dhama
about 9 p.m. I did not stop, having met a relay of bearers who had
been sent out from Sumbulpir, which place I reached at 3 a.m. the
next morning, the 4th May, none the better for such constant fatigue
and severe exposure, however I considered myself fortunate in having
done so well.
I remained at Sumbulpir until the 23rd of the month, for I was
unable to carry on the survey in consequence of the sickly state of the
establishment, every follower of the late Capt. Abbott having suffered
more or less from the deadly climate of Keunjur ; his Bengallee writer,
a sepahee, and another servant, died, shortly after their arrival at Sum-
bulpar ; there were several others in a dangerous state who subse-
quently died on their way home. From this I learnt a lesson for
my future guidance, not to employ more Up-country servants than
could possibly be avoided ; it is absolutely necessary to have a few
trustworthy men to serve as a check upon the Ooreya portion, who, if
not closely looked after, would Iend themselves to the roguery and
schemes of their kindred.
The town Sumbulpur is thrice the size of any I have seen in any of
the other states ; it extends for upwards of two miles along the proper
1839.] Lieut. Katioe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 375
left bank of the river of this space; the fort occupies about three-quarters
ofamile. Itis fast falling to ruin; the Raja no longer resides in the old
Noor, (citadel, palace) which is occupied by some of his officers ; there
is a miserable garrison of a few ragamuffins dressed as sepahees, and
some twenty or thirty suwars whose steeds are like Pharaoh’s lean
kind. The walls are in a very dilapidated state, having suffered
much from the effects of the extraordinary flood in 1836. The bam-
boo thicket, which was cut down during the time the territory was in
our possession, used to act as a breakwater, and protected the wails,
which are very ill-constructed of unhewn stones. The ditch and
swamp which defended the other three faces are in a great measure
filled up and overgrown with weeds, and must render that quarter of
the town very unhealthy. There are many good dwelling houses of
one and two stories, built of stone; there are also many temples, but
few of them have any pretensions to elegance, and the generality are
covered with most obscene figures badly executed.
There is no appearance of any great trade being carried on, nor is
there so much as the sight of such a large and populous place would
lead you to suppose. Merchants concentrate here from Cuttack, Bud-
druc, Nagpar, Bhopal, Chutteesgurh, and Sirgoojah, and barter their
goods ; those of the lower provinces bringing salt, cocoanuts, cotton
cloths, spices, brass utensils, &c. exchange the same with those of the
central for wheat, gram, lac, and cotton ; gold in small lumps is also
taken in payment, and occasionally diamonds. The only produce
of the province exported, consists of oil seeds, cotton, and rice, which are
taken by bullocks, and (during the rains) sent by water to the Mo-
gulbundi of Orissa.
Sumbulptr has always been famous for its gold and dieuuonitek
far back as 1766 a Mr. Motte was sent expressly by Lord Clive rn
open a trade in them, and to explore the mines, but was unsuccessful
on account of the disturbed state of the country, and the inclemency
of the season, he having arrived there in the rains; two other Euro-
peans who accompanied him died of fever, and he was himself nigh
losing his life. An account of his expedition is to be found in the
Ist Vol. of the Asiatic Annual Register, p. 50, published in 1800. The
perusal of this narrative would amply repay the reader for his
trouble.
The people of the country are too apathetic and indolent to attempt
to work the mines, or rather to seek for them ; for the diamonds are at
present obtained by washing the red earth (their matrix) which is brought
down by the Heebe-nuddi, and empties itself into the Mahanuddi,
some miles above Sumbulpir, from the mountains to the north-east,
376 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [ May,
- in which there are most probably inexhaustible mines of gems and
precious metals; gold is found in many of the streams flowing from
the gneiss rocks throughout these tracts, the Heebe among the rest.
Touching the state of Sumbulpdr, it was (previous to its dismem-
berment by the Marhatta hordes and its becoming subject to Berar)
subdivided into eighteen “‘ gurhs,” or chieftainships, held in fief of the
Lord Paramount, who resided at Sumbulpdr, and called therefore
“ Authareh gurh Sumbulpir’; amongst these were, Boad, Sohnptr,
Gangpir, Oodeyptir, Phooljur, Sarengurh, Sarinda, Banaie, Baumur-
ra, Lehrapal, Rerhakhol, and seven others, including Sumbulpar
proper ; most of these however have long since thrown off their allegi-
ance and ceased to pay tribute or,to furnish their quota of “ Paiks’”
(militia). Some of the smaller “gurhs” used to be held on very
curious tenures, which I shall allude to more particularly in a future
page.
Sumbulpitir lapsed to the British Government in 1827 by the death
of the late Raja, but for some reason (with which I am not acquaint-
ed) they sought for an heir-at-law and conferred it on an obscure and
aged Zemindar, and a perfect imbecile, who is now entirely in the
hands of his crafty ministers. These people and the Brahmins possess
the best lands, and obtain his sanction to all kinds of extortion ;
as a specimen of which, I am informed that Zemindaré leases are
renewed every year, and on these renewals, or on the occasions of lands
being transferred to another, the party favored has to give a “ Salam?”
or fee, and nothing short of gold is aecepted ; the farmers in their
turn grind their ryots; the effects of such an unjust and oppressive
system are every where apparent. 3
It is said that the Raja realizes 7,00, 000 Rupees per annum, but
4,00,000 is perhaps nearer the mark, including valuable diamonds
which are occasionally found; it is certain that were the province
under proper rule, much more could be made of it, therefore it is
to be hoped that on the demise of the present Raja, who has no
children, the Government will avail itself of the opportunity and
resume it; at present it pays us an annual tribute of 8,000 Rupees,
500 of which has for some years past been remitted in consideration of
the dawk road being kept in repair, and the jungle in its immediate
vicinity cleared.
"I was somewhat surprised one morning while taking my ride to see
three human heads stuck on a pole at the junction of two roads near
the town ; they were placed there in January, 1838, their owners having
forfeited them for treason, though not without a protracted and severe
struggle.
1839.] Deut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 377
There are no antiquities at this place save a few fragments from
the ruins of a Budhist temple, some thirty or forty miles up the river,
which were brought some years ago for building purposes. I was told
that there was an inscription on a rock in the middle of the river about
a mile above the town; I went one morning to examine it, and found
merely a few brief sentences and the name of a Byragz who had died
there some few years ago. The spot is held sacred on account of the
evil deity supposed to preside over the river, which is evidently very
deep, being confined in a long narrow basin formed by the gneiss rocks
which stretch across it in all directions. Some years back the Mar-
hattas in attempting to carry away a heavy brass gun on a raft, it
sank and every soul perished ; the credulous inhabitants believe that
the demon appeared on this occasion, and dragged them all into a
fathomless abyss which is said to exist there.
During my stay at Sumbulpdr I endeavoured to collect as much
information regarding the country lying between it and Mednipur as
I could ; this was no easy matter, for the accounts I received were so
contradictory that I determined at all hazards to explore the country,
following the direction of Mednipur as nearly as possible and keeping
south of the old road. Every argument and persuasion were made by
the Raja and his ministers to dissuade me ; all kinds of dangers and
difficulties were pictured to me, which failed in their intent, for I could
plainly see that there was some object in view. Amongst the persons
who exerted themselves most to deceive and dissuade me was an indi-
vidual whom Major W—————- (the Governor General’s Agent for
the South-western frontier) had sent with a view to his assisting my
unfortunate predecessor, which he was capable of doing from his know-
ledge of the country ; his anxiety was perhaps attributable more toa
desire to prevent my hearing of the tricks he had been playing in the
Baumurra district when awaiting his arrival, than to any other cause.
During my stay here I had searched for a good spot for erecting a
bridge over the Mahanuddi, (if such a great work were ever under-
taken) which I found very near the present ford and ferry ; the river
is there 4,500 feet broad in the rains, and there are huge masses of
rock at convenient intervals right across, which would afford excellent
foundations for either wooden frames or masonry to support a wire or
an iron suspension bridge ; I found the highest flood water mark to be
about 47 feet above the level of the shallow stream flowing during dry
seasons in the centre of the bed.
Before taking my final departure from phe eg I made an
outline sketch of the hills, which are distant at their nearest point four-
teen miles, extending from Baumunsassun, about north-west, till they
378 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (May,
vanish in the horizon to the south-east in the direction of Ungool ; in
this range, (the highest peaks of which are perhaps 1000 feet) there are
several ghats, which was readily admitted. That of Baumunsassun,
near which the present road passes, is the first, next to it is one called
Kurorumma, then Oorsing, all north of the proper direction of Medni-
pur, lastly the ghat of Burrorumma about eight or ten miles further
south; it was by this latter (which had been visited by one of Mr.
Babington’s people) that I determined on proceeding.
My first march from Sumbulptr was to a large village called
Bahum, having many fine mango topes and good cultivation, chiefly
sugar cane ; the fields are irrigated from a large nulla called Maltaijoor,
which rising in the adjacent hills empties itself into the Mahanuddi
at Munesswur, a village about three miles below Sumbulpur; its
course through the plains (from the foot of the Burrorumma range to
the Mahanuddi) is very circuitous, it is navigable during the heavy
floods, but dry for the greater part of the year, except that a plentiful
supply of excellent water is always to be obtained by digging in the
sand.
The distance travelled this stage was eleven miles and three-quarters
measured by the Perambulator, but it is certainly no more than eight as
_ the crow flies, for on leaving Sumbulpdr, I was led for upwards of a
. mile in a direction at right angles to that I had ultimately to reach ; I
was then led considerably to the southward ere I gained the proper
course. Such an account may excite surprise in the minds of those
who have not visited these regions of knaves and savages, but so it is
in reality.
Several small villages were passed a little to the right and left of the
road ; there is a good portion of arable and clear land in the vicinity of
each, particularly of those nearer Sumbulptr. One small village close
to which the road passed, particularly attracted my attention, the huts |
being built on the bare white granite rocks, which have the appearance
of so many terraces ; on one of them I observed veins of quartz about
an inch wide crossing each other at right angles, resembling a large
eross—close to this was another curiosity in the shape of a Goolur tree
(Ficus glomerata,) growing on the bare rock, on which the roots
were spread and interwoven in a most curious manner ; the main root
appears to be sunk in a narrow fissure beneath the trunk: it has a
most singular appearance. There is not much jungle except on the
rocky and unfavourable spots, and the only large trees I saw were on
a small hillock about one-third of the way, beside the village of Dur-
riapulli, from whence to an elevated spot where there are rocks of
micaceous schist the country has a perceptible rise, and undulates
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 379
considerably ; from thence to Bahum it inclines towards the Multaie ;*
the soil is firm, being a stiff sandy clay with much decomposed quartz,
granite, and talcite, of which very beautiful specimens occur.
Notwithstanding the sky being overcast, the heat was very great ;
the thermometer in a tent exposed to the occasional sunshine, rose to
115°, but with tatties and under a shady tope we managed to keep
the temperature down to 98°. I say we, for Mr. Babington and his
assistant, Mr. Martin, having resolved on accompanying me as far as
Burorumma, had sent on tents. My camp equipage consisted simply of
a palkee and a couple of settringies,+ one to spread, and the other to
hang over a bough to serve as an awning for the purpose of screening
me from the scorching sun. I had a small pony on which I rode
occasionally to relieve myself and the bearers, also one Mussulman
servant to cook for me, I had an escort of a havildar’s party from the
Ramegurh L. I. Bat®. which I found of much use, I had also a Naik’s
party from the 19th N. I. which had accompanied me from Cuttack,
* and it was well I mustered so strong a party, as will be seen hereafter.
In the evening I sketched a rough outline of the Hills, in which at
some distance north of the ghat I was to proceed by; I perceived a
wide gap or break through which I was most positively assured by
all the Raja’s people that there was no pass. I had taken the bearing
of this identical spot on a former occasion when it was pointed out to
me as the Burorumma pass, so that I was convinced that further
attempts were being made to deceive me; this made me the more
determined to have my own way, which was best to be effected alone,
80 I took leave of my companions, persuading them to return; for al-
though I cared but little for the exposure and privations I saw clearly
that I should have to undergo, yet I did not wish to subject them
toany. Thenext morning, the 24th May, I marched at an early hour,
crossing the Maltai, north, half a mile from camp ; for several miles
I travelled through alternate woody and cultivated tracts, by an excel-
lent broad path, in the direction of the gap before mentioned. I began
to hope that it was the real ghat, and its appearance warranted the
expectation that it was a very trifling one, but I was soon undeceived,
the guide stopped short, for there was a tree felled and thrown across
the path—the usual hint laid for a guide to lead the traveller from the
| * The Multaie-joor ‘‘joor’’ is an affix to the proper name Mudltaie, meaning a
nulla or torrent ; for instance, Dhoba-joor, Bur-joor, Bramuni-joor, &c. Khai and
Naul are likewise affixes, having the same meaning, such as Khor-khaf, Seam-khaj,
| Rama-naul, Kussum-naul, &c. &c.
¢ Cotton carpets.
380 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [May, |
direct road. Upon questioning him, I received the usual evasive
replies of “ that is not a high road, it merely Jeads into the forest ;”
and ‘“‘ what do I know; I live at Bahum ;” “I have not seen,
&e. &e.” I took the knave aback by asking him the name of the
ghat I was going to, and insisting that that was it, pointing to
the gap. Forgetting himself, he replied that that was the Baghloth
ghat ; he then admitted that the road led direct to it. I was obliged
to strike off to the right, and travel for some miles along a narrow .
and winding path through a heavy Saul forest to the foot of the ghat, |
which is about a mile from a large village called Kundeswuri,
belonging to Chundro Bearer, a Kund chief who holds the adjacent
hill lands (more by might than right) from the Baumurra Raja ; this
man has a few followers, who, united in one interest, set all the
neighbouring Zemindars at defiance, and make frequent plundering ©
excursions into the plains; he is much dreaded by all. The Kunds ©
are however industrious, and if treated kindly, peaceable ; but such is
the dislike the Ooreyas entertain towards them, and the consequent
annoyances and tyranny they exercise over them when they perchance
fall into their power, that they are obliged to retaliate in self-defence ;
this is the case throughout the tributary mehauls in which there are —
Kund villages.
The Kunds of these hills have no turmeric cultivation, nor do they _
perform the horrid Mer7ria pooja, which is in a manner connected —
with it. |
The ascent of the ghat is by a narrow glen between two ridges —
of hills, those to the right being very lofty quartzose rocks ; it is at first —
very gradual and easy, but higher up becomes very steep, continu-
ing so as far as the summit, the whole distance being a little more |
than three-quarters of a mile. The road is difficult on account of the —
loose stones of all sizes which are strewed about; there were remains of
fences and other contrivances for defending the pass, which had been
constructed the previous year, during some disputes with the Sumbul- |
par Raja, who summoned all his vassals to assist him, but the Kunds |
had the best of it, as is generally the case.
There is a fine view to be had here of the Sumbulpur plains, but
owing to the haziness of the atmosphere I was unable to see any
objects. distinctly enough to take their bearings, except the high peak |
at the north-western extremity of the range of hills ; following the |
course of the Mahanuddi, distant six miles south-east of Sumbulpdr, it |
bears 70° south-west ; the soil at the top of the ghat is a hard red loam
with much quartz, gneiss, and hornblende. I here remarked two
heaps of stones each at the foot of a tree, which reminded me of the tu-
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 38h
muli the ancient Britons in the north of England used to construct
over the graves of fallen warriors, on which each traveller used in olden
times to throw a stone on passing by; upon inquiry I found that
these were of the same nature, the like. practice existing. Those
which I allude to, are over the remains of two chiefs who fell in
battle on the spot. I had often remarked similar tumuli in the
Kund districts, also in other parts of India, for it is in some places
customary to heap stones or bricks on spots where persons have been
killed by wild beasts.
Two miles and a half beyond the ghat I reached my encamping
ground, at the village of Burorumma. There is a gradual fall the
whole way; the path is through a thin forest of large Saul and other
timber trees with no underwood. Much ground has been lately cleared
in the vicinity of the village which is situated at the head of a large
valley extending for many miles in a south-easterly direction at the back
of the range of hills before described; there are many fine mango,
tamarind, jaumun, date, and other trees around the village; it
is nearly depopulated owing to the misrule of the chief (Chundro
Bearer) ; the sepahees and peada whom I had sent some days previous-
ly to prepare for me, had been nearly starved, the chief having forbid-
den supplies ; a little firewood and some milk were however brought
tome. I rigged out a shed with my carpets, palkee, &c. under the
trees near the village, and hoped to have passed a tolerably pleasant
day, but as soon as the sun got high myriads of small insects ( ? ),
descended from the trees and rendered it impossible for me to remain,
for in addition to the discomfort their presence occasioned, their bite
was painful: I was compelled to seek refuge in a ruined hut in which
the thermometer stood at 106° 2’.
Shortly after my arrival I was visited by Chundro Bearer’s eldest
son, who came with a number of retainers armed with swords, match-
locks, and bows. He is rather a fine young man ; he made many
apologies for the supplies not being ready, and shortly sent us what
was required. The retainers did not seem inclined to be over civil,
several of them were intoxicated, one fellow in particular, who came
just after the remainder had left, threw himself down close to my
carpet and began raving, and from what he said, it was evident that
they would have been glad to have found out what persons had re-
commended me to come by this route, and most likely have taken some
means of revenge. To add to the discomfort of my camp followers, the
people most effectually concealed the well or spring which supplied the
village with excellent water ; they were compelled to help themselves
from a small well which did not afford more than a lotah full of bad
water every four or five minutes.
382 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [May,
Being anxious to push on, and get out of this inhospitable track,
I packed up and resumed my march at 6 p.m.; as long as it was
day-light we got on tolerably well, although thie road had been
obstructed for miles together with trees felled and thrown across,
put as soon as the evening closed, our troubles commenced ; the heat
was oppressive beyond measure, and not a drop of water was to be
found to quench the tormenting thirst my followers were suffering
from; we had been led to expect some from the bed of a large
torrent two coss distant from our camp, but upon reaching it, the guide
and coolies all denied there being any. A poor coolie was taken to
task by one of the Kunds for offering to point out where it was. I
would have resented this in the most summary manner, but I knew
that we were completely at their mercy, for they had taken us off the
road, and were leading us over a most rugged path, and whenever
chance led us on to the high road, (which was a very excellent one),
they halted, and pretended they had lost their way ; then after hunting
for some time, led us again into the villainous track by which, after five
and a half hours’ toil we reached Jaumunkeera. This isa large village
in the centre of the valley, which is here open and well cultivated ; the
distance was nine miles and three quarters, and by the better one which
the Moonshee followed, only eight and a half. We rested in a paddy
field near the village till 4 o’clock the next morning (25th May) at which
hour I attempted to move onwards, but the Kunds tried to detain me,
refusing to allow the Burorumma coolies to go on with us, or to get others
that dayin theirroom. I would not be trifled with, and commenced my
march. Their next step was to deny any knowledge of the road ; it then
became high time to put a stop to this insolence; I brought the ring-
leaders to their senses with the help of the “argumentum bacculinum,”
a road was pointed out, and a relief of coolies arrived forthwith. I had
proceeded about two miles, when I discovered that the guides were play-
ing me the same game that those had done on the previous night ; I met
a Paun* who was just returning from the very place I was proceed-
ing to, soI promised him a reward, and took him with me. He soon led
me on to a good, and much frequented road to Burghat, the spot
where supplies had been collected for me by the Baumurra people, |
and which I reached at 11 a. m. much fatigued, having travelled eleven
miles. I took shelter in a hut that had been prepared for me by |
the sepahees, of green boughs, on the edge of the Burghat nulla; in this |
I passed the day with comparative comfort ; some of my people, how-
ever, suffered very severely from thirst and exposure to the sun. :
* A person of low caste; they make the best guides, for being given to make plun- |
dering excursions, they are acquainted with ey ery nook and corner. .
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 383
The country through which I travelled this day is open, with evident
traces of having been in a much more prosperous condition at no distant
period. There are extensive pasture lands, and large herds are brought
from long distances to graze, the herdsmen living in temporary huts, and
having enclosures annexed to protect the cattle from wild beasts. I ob-
served many traces of recent cultivation, and occasionally fields freshly
ploughed, although I could not discover a single village the whole way,
I was also assured that there were none; I am, however, convinced that
there are many at no very great distance, hidden by the intervening
jungle, beyond which I could see clumps of mangoes, tamarind, date, and
tarri trees, which latter seldom occur except in the vicinity of habita-
tions. I felt moreover convinced that there must be other roads up this
fine table land than that by which I came. On inquiring of the Baumur-
ra people, and of some bunjarahs I had met on my way, I found that my
surmises were correct, not only in this particular, but as to the Baghloth
ghat, which, as I have before stated, had been kepta secret from me. I
determined to satisfy myself of these points by directing the guard of re-
gular sepahees to return by the other path and by the ghat; I sent them
the next day from Deogurh, and I subsequently received a report from
the Naick of the guard who stated that he had passed through many
villages with abundance of water, and that the ghat was perfectly easy,
with an excellent path ; the very reverse of what the knaves of guides
had told me. There is no habitation any where near Burghat, which
is merely a pass (as the name implies*) leading from the high land
before described, down to the less elevated tracts of Baumurra, all in-
clining towards the Brahmeni river, into which all the torrents (that
of Burghat among the rest) empty themselves.
My people were too much fatigued to allow of my resuming my
march that evening, so we lighted numerous bonfires round the camp
to keep off wild beasts, and passed the night where we were.
(To be continued.)
* “ Ghat’ or “‘ Ghatti’’? means a pass, they are affixed to proper names, such as
“ Kend-ghatti’’? the Kend (or ebony tree) pass; ‘‘Sher-ghatti’’ the Tiger pass; ‘‘ Kus-
sum-ghat”’ the Kussum (tree) pass ; ‘‘ Burghat’’ the Bur (tree) pass, &c. &c.
384 Proposed publication of Plates . [May,
Art. 1V.—Proposed publication of Plates of Hindu Architectural
Remains.
To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society.
Sir,—In the sixth volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, page
453, in an article from the able pen of our late Secretary, touching the
sculpture at Sanchi near Bhilsa, he expresses his opinion that it would
be of advantage to publish a series of Hindu Architectural Remains,*
and I am aware wished to introduce the subject in the Journal, but
the difficulty and expense attending the preparation of plates, requiring
even little labor, prevented his doing so. Latterly, at his request, I pre-
pared several lithographs representing different pieces of sculpture
which I collected during my different tours in Orissa; having many
more in my portfolio which might prove interesting to some of your
readers, I propose (should you be-of this opinion, and it meet with your
approval) to publish occasionally one or two plates, with such explana-
tory notes as I may be able to give.
In the present number I have given a drawing of an elegant piece
of sculpture which I copied at Badeswur, in the valley of the Mahanuddi,
and which I have alluded to at page 370.
This image represents the goddess Durca as Parvatti’, wife of Ma-
HADEVA (Siva), and daughter of the Hymalya mountain in the Par-
vatti Avatar.
The figure, though mutilated, shews that the different emblems nam-
ed were originally present. In one of her right hands she holds the
Nag-phans, or serpent noose; the other (which is broken off) she
holds up in assurance of no evil intention, it is called MWQ “ a-bhai,”
which means “ without fear,” or “ fear not ;” in one of her left hands was
the Unkoos (elephant goad), part of the staff of which still remains on the
arch ; in her second she held the Pudma, or lotus, by the stem, part .
of which is destroyed ;—I speak positively on this head, having seen
many images of the same form in which the different parts wanting in
this example were present excepting the a-bhai.
This deity is (like most others) presented as standing on an expand-
ed lotus, with the Singha, or lion, and the Vahun, or vehicle of Stva, at
her feet.
* “Tt would be well worthy of the Asiatic Society to publish from time to time in
England a volume of Hindu Architectural Remains from the materials in its possession ;
to this reference could always be made, and those who regarded only the works of
Art, would find a volume to their taste, kept ON, (like the Physical Volume ») from
the grayer subjects of the Society’s Researches.’
t+ We most gratefully accept Lieut. Kittoe’s proposal.—Eps,
AT BADE SWUR
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1839. | of Hindu Architectural Remains. 385
The four female figures holding the emblems of the Nag (hooded
serpent) the Pudma (lotus), the Gadha (mace), and the Trisool, (trident),
represent Sakhis, or attendants. The two upper figures represented as
flying with cornucopie and wreaths in their hands, are probably intended
for bearers of offerings, and called Powri, but have no other purpose
or meaning than for ornament to the entire piece of sculpture; such
additions were entirely at the discretion of the sculptor.
The idol is about three by one-half feet (every part inclusive,) and
is worked in black chlorite; it is exceedingly well executed, the jewels
and the embroidery on the drapery are most exquisitely cut, and the tout
ensemble may be pronounced a beautiful specimen of Hind& sculpture.
M. KITTOE.
Art. V.— Papers relative to the New Coal Field of Tenasserim.
No. 1.—Report on the Coal Field at Ta-thay-yna, on the Tenasserim
river, in Mergui province. By J. W. HEi¥Fer, M. D.
This newly discovered coal field is a part of that great coal deposit
which occupies a considerable part of the Tenasserim dis-
trict, in Mergui province, and which beginning from the old
town of Tenasserim, to judge from geognostic appearances, extends
about forty miles to the north, about fifty towards the south-east, and
to an unknown extent towards the north-east.
All this tract of country seems to be a great basin encircled by pri-
; mitive, but much more transition, formations, which in
isolated ranges emerge also in different parts of this basin,
but which are easily traced and recognized as the offsets of
their more distant relations.
The present coal field lies at the southern skirt of one of these tran-
sition ranges, and the country to the south of it is apparently a great
plain, densely covered either with tall forests or bamboo jungle; the
Tenasserim river winds through this plain in a direction chiefly from
north to south.
In the neighborhood of the present locality no geognostic signs of
the existence of a coal bed are to be observed on the river side,
save opposite to the village there is a large lump of a forma-
tion holding the medium between red sandstone, varie-
gated sandstone, and slate clay—in this country a certain prognostica-
tion of the vicinity of coals. The river banks shew besides sandstone,
conglomerate, plastic clay, marl, and alluvium ; the upper stratum,
of a thickness from fifteen to thirty fect, is almost universally tinged
Locality.
Face of the
country.
Geoenostic
features.
386 Dr. Helfer’s Report on the [ May,
red or ochry, by the abundance of iron oxyde with which it is im-
pregnated.
The coal is visible either in its native locality on the side of a mon-
Locality of thesec- goon rivulet, or is to be found in pieces in the bed of
tion lying bare, ex- y
tent, thicknes. the same rivulet.
This deposit is neither covered with porphyry, nor red sandstone,
nor arenaceous beds belonging to intermediary formations ; above it
are only placed alternating beds of slate clay, either bluish grey or
whitish, either friable or compact, and then carburetted Brand-striefer,
and these strata taken altogether are not more than three and a half
feet in thickness, above which rest the above mentioned iron-tinged
earthy clay and alluvium. At this place the coal may be calculated
to be seventeen feet below the surface on an average.
On the sides of this rivulet or channel, dug out by the impetus of
the water, a section is exposed of fifty-four feet in length, and the same
formation is traceable more than one mile to the north, and six west.
The thickness of this coal stratum is as yet not ascertained, on ac-
count of the water accumulating in the rivulet, the rainy season
having begun ; but it must be considerable, as at a depth of six feet no
other alternating formation has been found. In consequence of this
the nature of the sub-stratum cannot be yet determined.
This stratum runs nearly in a direct line from north to south, and
dips under an angle of 26° east to the horizon. In two places it is
contracted, in the rest uniform.
It is difficult to classify exactly this coal, on account of its modi-
Mineralogical fications in different pieces. It belongs to the sub-genus
classification. }Iack coal, but there are several species even in the seven
tons which have hitherto been brought to light.
Some pieces participate greatly of the character of Cannel-coal, these
having a resinous lustre and a flat conchoidal fracture; the pieces
nearer to the surface have again more of the character of slaty coal,
witha slaty fracture, fragments trapezoidal; the greatest number, how-
ever, hitherto observed refer it to glance coal, sub-species pitch coal,
being massive, in botryoidal loam, with a woody texture, fracture large,
perfectly conchoidal, fragments sharp-edged, undeterminated angular,
The dendritic texture is a peculiar feature of this coal, not observed
in any of the other coal species hitherto found in the Tenasserim
provinces.
A hundred grains of the coal previously reduced to ia pieces were
Chemicalanal- placed upon a platina sheet, and put over a lamp fed
ysis of the coal. with aleohol ; on becoming red hot, they baked slightly
together, and on being removed from the fire assumed an iron grey co-
1839. ] Coal Field at Ta-thay-yna. 387
lour ; one hour and six minutes elapsed before the hundred grains were
totally consumed, the residuum was greyish ashes—from 100 parts 2°8
remained of them. The ashes subjected to chemical analysis were
found to consist of s¢/ica and alwmina, with scarcely a vestige of iron.
1. Generally speaking the coal is very good; but one great de-
ee ee fect cannot be concealed, and this is, that some parts
deredinapractical of it are highly pyritiferous, the pyrites intersect-
point of view. ° apes 5 : : :
ing it in thin lamine of a silver-white, somewhat
yellowish colour. Fortunately only some parts are thus deteriorated,
but even these it is to be hoped will not be lost, as the thin layers of
pyrites are easily separated; that part of the coal which cannot be
conveniently rendered destitute of this bi-sulphuret of iron ought to
be rejected, which necessary selection will have an influence, perhaps
materially, upon the price of the coal.
We can at present speak only of the coal near to the surface and ex-
posed partially to atmospheric influence, but it is to be hoped that the
coal will be much purer the farther it is from the surface.
2. The pure coal (free from pyrites) burns freely and open ; trans-
formed into coke it bakes a little together. It emits in the beginning
copious flames, which are blackish grey, and unmixed with sulphuric
vapours. ‘
General results. @. That the coke of this coal is well adapted for
smithy purposes.
b. That the coal (excepting always the pyritiferous strata, especially
_ near to the surface) is remarkably pure, and fit to burn as fuel in chim-
neys. 7
c. That the coal consumes slowly, maintains a considerable degree
Of heat, and leaves a residuum of only three per cent at the highest, and
that it is therefore adapted for steam purposes.
d. That it is inferior to the Cannel coal on the little Tenasserim for
the generation of gas, on account of the smaller per centage of bitumen.
The locality for transport is very favourable ; and the greatest advan-
4 Locality withre- tage consists in the almost total absence of land car-
erence to access,
transport. riage.*
The present coal field lies on the western side of the Tenasserim, 1712
paces following the road, and probably not more than 400 fathoms in
a straight line from the river.
The Tenasserim notwithstanding its long course, continues to be a
mountain stream even when already under the influence of the tides.
As such it has a rapid current, numerous shallows, annually chang-
ing banks, and shifting shoals. During the dry season it is at the place
* Sic in M.S.—Ebs.
ok
388 Dr. Heifer’s Report on the [May,
the nearest for the embarkation of the coals impracticable for boats
drawing more than seventeen inches ; in this part of the river the
coals will therefore probably be transported upon rafts of bamboos.
After the confluence of the higher and lesser Tenasserim the river
increases considerably in depth.
Captain R. Lloyd surveying the lower part of the river last year,
was of opinion that vessels of 100 tons burthen might go up to Tenas-
serim town, but thinks it advisable to employ only vessels of a much
smaller size.
It is very probable, judging from the formations, that the same field
Pipe nectet oer extends some twenty miles lower down the river,
localities nearer to and that beds may be found still nearer the banks
the seasgonnt. of the river; but under present circumstances the
transport twenty miles more or less by water is scarcely of any con-
sequence ; experimental researches therefore would, besides being very
expensive, prove precarious.
The existing formations (as far as they are known) to the west, and
those in a parallel line on the sea-coast, preclude the hope of coal being
found there. |
Last year, in, March, when I first visited the banks of the Tenas-
History of serim, I was struck, in coming to its lower part, with the
this discovery. gydden change of the geognostic features of the country.
The river instead of running for many miles through a mountainous
country, its narrow bed inclosed between piles of granular talcose lime-
stone, graywacke, greenstone, and’ transition porphyry, burst at once
into an open country, the ridges of the above mentioned formations —
receding on both sides, and I found what I had missed for a long time— _
secondary formations ; and what I desired the most—formations belong- —
ing to the great independent coal deposits. Having given up all hope :
of finding coal in the parts of the Tenasserim provinces hitherto
visited, I was at once animated with ee hope of success at the sight |
of these promising features. ; :
The consequence proved this time, in a conspicuous manner, the |
truth and exactness of geognostic principles, and I found successively |
three localities of coal, mentioned in my last year’s report sub: N. A. |
B. A. C. of which specimens were sent up to Calcutta. However the |
coal then found was all of indifferent quality, and, besides, not favour-
ably situated; the excellent coal discovered afterwards on the little |
Tenasserim belongs to quite a different system. |
Convinced however of the existence of coal over a wide extent of ,
that district, in faet expecting that the above mentioned plain through |
which the Tenasserim runs is a segment of a great coal basin, I
1839. ] Coad Field at Ta-thay-yna. 389
stimulated the Careans, the only inhabitants of that part of the coun-
try, to be assiduous in finding coal. I gave them samples of that mine-
ral, which scarcely any one of them had seen before, and taught them
to look for it in the beds of mountain torrents, on steep banks of
rapid rivers, on parts of mountains or hills detached by the violence of
the monsoon, &c., for they had generally imbibed the erroneous opinion
that coal is only found on the summits of high mountains which for-
merly were in a state of combustion, and that coal is a species of cooled.
lava. 7
Fearing however that their natural apathy might prevent them
from any exertion, I promised a reward of 50 Rs. to be given to any
body who found coal of good quality not far from a river.
By arather extraordinary coincidence, the present coal was found
but a thousand yards distant from the place where I made the pro-
mise of the reward, and in the same village, the inhabitants of which
accompanied me for three days in search after coal in the surrounding
jungles.
A Carean of that village of the name of Ka-pho, penetrating two
months and a half ago the thick forests in search of good ground for a
plantation, came upon a small rivulet, and found coal partly at its
bottom, partly protruding from its banks.
My lesson, but much more, undoubtedly, the prospect of the Fifty
Rupees’ reward, seemed not to have been forgotten. He took some
pieces home, and kept them hidden for several weeks, not knowing
if they were really coal, for the pieces which I distributed among the
_Careans were Burdwan coal of a different aspect. He consulted a
friend afterwards, who advised him to go to Mergui and show
the coal to me, but being apprized that I was absent (examining the
Mergui Archipelago) the visit to Mergui was postponed. About
a month afterwards a Burmese, of the name of Kho-baik, saw the
specimens of coal by accident in a basket; he possessed himself
of a piece, and hastened with it to Merguito claim the reward for
himself; he shewed it to the Assistant of the Commissioner in Mergui,
and in this way the coal was brought to public notice.
( Signed ) J. W. HELFER, M. D.
Mereut, 94h May, 1839.
390 Lieut. Hutchinson's Report on the [ May,
No. 2.—Report on the new Tenasserim Coal Field.—By Urxvr.
Hurcuinson, Madras Artillery.
To BK. A. BLuNDELL, Esa. Commissioner, Tenasserim Provinces.
Sir,—Having visited the coal field lately discovered upon the large
branch of the Tenasserim river, I do myself the honor to forward a
Chart of the river from the Coal to Mergui, and beg to offer some
remarks for your consideration.
The coal is situated in north lat. 12° 21’ 30”, and longitude about
99° 5’ east, distant twenty-nine miles, by the course of the river, from
Tenasserim, or about sixty-five miles from Mergui; the distance in a
direct line from Mergui is about twenty-eight miles in a west by south
direction.
A small stream passes through the upper part of the coal bed, expo-
sing part of a thick stratum of coal covered by three feet of clay slate,
and from twenty to forty feet of sand.
The sand may be removed easily with any tool, but at the same
time is so tenacious as to require no propping where springs do not
exist, and the slate being only three feet thick shafts may be sunk with
celerity and ease.
Whether the galleries will require propping is doubtful ; but if so,
abundance of timber for the purpose exists upon the spot.
Springs will certainly be met with at the level of the slate, but this
must always be expected in a coal mine.
The Nulla is quite unfit for the conveyance of coal to the river, but,
a level line of road may be formed with little expense.
The coal is distant from the river about one mile.
The river may be ascended during the fine weather with an ordi-
nary number of men to each boat, but the water is upwards of twenty
feet higher during the rainy season, and it appears doubtful whether
proper boats could be got up during that time, at any rate without
the assistance of steam, or some adequate power.
The shallowest water at this time of the year (when it is lowest) is
eighteen inches. The river is therefore navigable for boats drawing
nine or twelve inches, and of thirty feet in length by ten in breadth,
capable of carrying six or seven and a half tons.
Allowing one man to every ton of coal, four days will be required
to bring the coal down to Mergui, and at least five to return with the
boats ; making the expense of actual transport one man’s hire for nine
days, or three Rupees per ton, exclusive of its carriage from the mine
to the river.
Referring to the Chart, the question presents itself whether a line
for a road could not be formed from the coal to some point near to the
place called Peagune. The country between this and Tenasserim is
. 7974 >7FrT 2a pia cay
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1839. ] new Tenasserim Coal Field. - 391
mountainous, but the ridges run in nearly the same direction as
would the road, and from the numerous large nullas falling into the
river near to Peagune it appears possible that a practicable line might
be formed. ‘The distance is only fifteen miles. _
A tolerably level railway. across this part of the country would re-
duce the expense of actual transport to Mergui to one man for four
days to every one and a half tons of coal, or to nearly one Rupee per
ton, supposing the carriage is to be drawn by men ; but by employing
ponies the price is reduced to less than four annas a ton. Now in case
of delay and extra power being required in some parts of the line, take
the expense at three times the estimate, or twelve annas per ton, which
is still only a quarter of that incurred in the transport by water ; thus
being a saving of 22,500 Rupees in favor of the road upon the trans-
port of 10,000 tons of coal.
The best description of road for this country appears to be a single
suspension rail of timber (as represented by figures 1 to 4 in the
enclosed sketch) as being cheapest in construction, uninjured by
heavy rain, easily repaired, and (by actual experiment) offering less
resistance to the motion of carriages than any other form of road. It
consists of a plank of hard wood, three inches broad by ten or twelve
deep, supported on posts nine or ten feet apart, and varying in length
according to the surface of the country passed over, so as to support the
rail in a horizontal line. The rail is let into a notch cut on the top
of the posts, and is adjusted by means of wedges driven in opposite
directions between the posts and the rail; the resistance is reduced
thirty per cent. by the addition of a thin plate of iron upon the top
‘of the rail. A carriage having only two wheels with the load suspended
on either side is represented in figures 1, 2, 3.*
A road on this principle has been tried with great success in Eng-
land. A horse was found capable of dragging fourteen tons, exclusive of
the carriage, during a good day’s work where the rail was quite level.
Figure 4 shews the manner of crossing streams and small ravines.
I have no doubt but these carriages would run upon a cable stretch-
ed from point to point should circumstances require it.
Models can be furnished if required. I have, &c.
(Signed) C. H. HUTCHINSON,
Merreut, 6th May, 1839. 2d Lieut. Madras Artillery.
(A true Copy.) E. A. BLUNDELL,
Commissioner in the Tenasserim Provinces.
* We have not received Lieut. Hutchinson’s sketch, but his description is neverthe-
less sufficiently intelligible. The subject is of so much interest that we deem it ex-
392 . Lieut. Hutchinson's Report on the [ May,
pedient to publish the annexed extracts from the description of Palmer’s Railway,
given in Hebert’s Engineer’s Cyclopedia, Vol. 2, pp. 420, &c.
‘Instead of two lines of rail laid upon the ground, as heretofore, Mr. Palmer’s
railway consists of only one, which is elevated upon pillars, and carried in a straight
line across the country, however undulating and rugged, over hills, valleys, brooks,
and rivers, the pillars being longer or shorter, to suit the height of the rail above
the surface of the ground, so as to preserve the line of the rail always straight, whether
the plane be horizontal or imclined. The waggons, or receptacles fer the goods,
travel in pairs, one of a pair being suspended on one side of the rail, and the other
on the opposite side, like panniers from the back of a horse: By this arrangement
only two wheels are employed, instead of eight, to convey a pair of waggons; these
two wheels are placed one before the other on the rail, and the axle-trees upon
which they revolve are made of sufficient length and strength to form extended arms of
support, to which are suspended the waggons or receptacles on each side of the
rail, the centre of gravity being always below the surface of the rail. The rods
by which the waggons are suspended are inflexible; hence, although the weights
on each side be_not equal, they will, nevertheless, be in equilibrio; as may be ob-
served in a ship, which, being unequally loaded, assumes such an angle with the
surface as preserves the equilibrium. Although an equal distribution of the load on
both sides is desirable, it is not necessary. A number of carriages are linked together,
and towed along the rail by a horse, as barges on a canal. Owing to the undulation of
the country, the horse will sometimes be much below the rail, in consequence of which
he is provided with a sufficient length of rope to preserve a proper angle of draught.
‘* Provision is made for trains of carriages that are proceeding in opposite directions,
by means of ‘‘sidings’”’ or passing places. With respect to loading, if both receptacles
be not loaded at the same time, that which is loaded first must be supported until
the second is full. Where there is a permanent loading-place, the carriage is brought
over a step or block; but when it is loaded promiscuously, it is provided with a
support connected to it, which is turned up when not in use. From the small height
of the carriage, the loading of those articles usually done by hand becomes less la-
borious. The unloading may be done in various ways, according to the substance
to be discharged, the receptacles being made to open either at the bottom, the ends,
or the sides. In some cases it may be desirable to suspend them by their ends, when,
turning on their own centres, they are easily discharged sideways.
‘‘Among the advantages contemplated by the patentee of this railway, may be
mentioned that of enabling the engineer, in most cases, to construct a railway on that
plane which is most effectual, and where the shape of the country would occasion
too great an expenditure on former plans—that of being maintained in a perfectly
straight line, and in the facility with which it may always be adjusted; in being ,
unencumbered with extraneous substances lying upon it; in receiving no interruption
from snow, as the little that may lodge on the rail is cleared off by merely fixing
a brush before the first carriage in the train ; in the facility with which the loads may
be transferred from the railway on to the carriages, by merely unhooking the re-
ceptacles, without displacing the goods, or from other carriages to the railway, by the
reverse operation ; in the preservation of the articles conveyed from being fractured,
owing to the more uniform gliding motion of the carriages; in occupying less land
‘ SSS
1839. ] new Tenasserim Coal Field. 393
than any other railway ; in requiring no levelling or road-making ; in adapting itself to
all situations, as it may be constructed on the side of any public road on the waste and
irregular margins, on the beach or shingles of the sea-shore,—indeed, where no other
road can be made; in the original cost being much less, and the impediments and
great expense occasioned by repairs in the ordinary mode, being by this method al-
most avoided. !
‘* A line of railway on this principle was erected, in 1825, at Cheshunt, in Hertford-
shire, chiefly for conveying bricks from that town, across the marshes, for shipment in
the river Lea. The posts which support the rails are about ten feet apart, and vary in
their height from two to five feet, according to the undulations of the surface, and
so as to preserve a continuous horizontal line to the rail. The-posts were made of
sound pieces of old oak, ship timber, and in a, the slot or cleft at the upper ends of the
pests, are fixed deal planks twelve inches by three, set in edgeways, and covered
with a thin bar of iron, about four inches wide, flat on its under side, and very slightly
rounded on its upper side; the true plane of the rail being regulated or preserved
by the action of counter wedges between the bottom of the mortices, and that of the
planks. By this rail, on the level, one horse seemed to be capable of drawing at
the usual pace about fourteen tons, including the carriages.
‘The late Mr. Tredgold, whose opinion in matters of this nature will ever be
entitled to attentive consideration, expressed himself very favourably to this invention
in his Treatise on Railroads and Carriages :— “‘ We expect (he observed) that this
single railroad will be found far superior to any other for the conveyance of the mails,
and those light carriages of which speed is the principal object; because we are
satisfied that a road for such carriages must be raised so as to be free from the in-
terruptions and crossings of an ordinary railway.”’
Art. VI.—Memoria sul Renascimento e stato atticale della Medicina
in Evgitto, del D. G. E. Mino.
Memoir on the Regeneration and actual state of Medicine in Egypt—
Translated from the Italian of J. E. Mino, Doctor in Philosophy,
Medicine, and Surgery. Leghorn, 1838.
(For the Journal of the Asiatic Society.)
We are indebted to Mr. W. H. Cameron for acopy of Dr. Mino’s pamphlet, which
was printed in Europe for private circulation, and contains many details worthy the
close attention of all who take interest in the progress of general as well as Medical
education. ,
Dr. Mino’s essay affords full evidence of the failure of CLot Bry’s system for the in-
troduction of Medical science into Egypt. The causes of the failure are moreover
explicitly and palpably exhibited. There was no penury of means, no paucity of
teachers; all that the most princely munificence could place at the Bry’s disposal he
was permitted to command without controul. Still the tree produced no fruits, and
this simply, because it was planted at the wrong end. They commenced where they
should have terminated ; namely, by the erection 6f a School taught in the vernacular
language. It is difficult to conceiye a more ludicrous attempt than that to teach me-
394 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [ May,
dicine to Arab pupils through European Dragomans, themselves destitute of Medical
knowledge. Far different would the result have been, had the admirable principle of
the Normal schools of Prussia and France been adopted in the first instance—had CLor
Bry for the first four years contented himself by educating thoroughly a few clever
youths through the medium of his language, and had he then employed them to impart,
in their own tongue, the knowledge they had themselves acquired.
Such is the system which silently and unprofessedly has been adopted in the
CaxcuTTa CoLLEeGE with a success which defiesdenial. If but few pupils have been
educated, the completeness of their education is unquestionable ; and each is now ready
to be made the means of diffusing his own knowledge among his countrymen in the
only dialects they understand. :
In September next the Medical College of Calcutta ceases to be eaclusively an
English School, and will embrace, with its original Normal section, a secondary ver-
nacular class, receiving instruction, through the Hindoostanee language, from native
teachers, and numbering over 150 pupils. Let this class but prosper, as we doubt not
it must, and then indeed we may triumph in accomplishing the inappreciable object of
placing medical assistance practically within the reach of all classes of the Native
population. Similar institutions will then spring up in all the great provincial cities, and
thus to every village and hamlet will radiate the light of the most beneficent science
within the acquisition of man.—Eps.
Prior to the reform introduced by the Pacha and Viceroy MEHEMET
Ay, medicine was in the same state in Egypt as in other parts of
the Levant; it was, namely, in a state of absolute infancy, or to speak
more accurately, in one still inferior to infancy itself. Not possessing
schools or masters, books or dissecting-rooms, nor any other place of
public or private instruction, the natives who devoted themselves to
the care of the general health, following corrupt traditions, practised a
blind empiricism which, mingled with a certain superstitious charla-
tanism, was more adapted to disseminate death, than to prevent the pre-
mature diminution of lives. Foreigners who there practised medicine
were generally persons destitute of science and of conscience, and abus-
ing the unfortunate licence given to all of calling themselves Physicians,
they simulated the character that they possessed not, and thus pro-
faned the sublime priesthood of Hygea, to the incalculable detriment
of the wretched. The true and clever physicians, who for merit and
legal qualification could be entitled such, in Egypt were very few, and
often disregarded and forgotten ; as not unfrequently happens in unpo-
lished and illiterate nations, to the truly learned placed in counter-
position to the charlatan.
Although the French claim for themselves the work of the regener-
ation of medicine in Egypt, it is undoubted, nevertheless, that the
glory of the enterprise, whatever it may be, is due to the Italians. In
truth, since Egypt began to breathe, which was about the year 1811,
when Mruemet Aty completed his sanguinary struggle with the
.1839.] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 395
Mamelukes—a year that signalized the commencement of new military
reforms—the first roots, so to speak, of the medical laurel were planted
there by Doctors M enpricr (Genoese), RarFAELL1 (Leghornian), Mar-
TINIL (Pisan), Deu Srenore (Piedmontese), Cunua (ditto), Kara-
eucci (Cattarese), Marnecur (Piedmontese), Genrin1 (of Ancona)
CeRvELLI (Pisan), Monrpures (of Trieste), Duranpo (Piedmontese),
Caxucct (Neapolitan), Larponi (Roman), VERNon1 (Piedmontese),
and several others, all Italians, too numerous to be mentioned ; whereas
in that long period the French could reckon no other countryman
of their’s than a certain M. Dussap, Apprentice-Surgeon.
Nor should, on the contrary, all the French professors be cited who
followed the memorable expedition of 1798, in as much as those were
days of battle, and those personages, albeit highly eminent, had no
opportunity of mixing as much as was necessary with the aborigines,
of coming in contact with the native physicians, and of diffusing,
by word and example, the salutary precepts whereof we intend
discussing. In fact, after their departure no vestige remained of their
knowledge ; we mean, not a school, not a scholar, no prevailing system,
no sensible sign was to be discovered, that denoted any tendency to the
destruction of the abominable empire of empiricism and imposture.
The light of true knowledge illuminates in the end even the dimmest
and most near-sighted. Hence, notwithstanding their deeply-rooted and
numberless prejudices and antipathies, the Arabs finally discovered the
difference that existed between European doctors and those quacks
who for so long a period had usurped among them the name and
attributes of physicians. |
Meruemet Ary above all, who was then devising a bold, political
reform of the state which had been placed in his hands by fortune and
courage, convinced by experience, and by the dint of warm, benevolent
suggestions (among which held the foremost place those of the CuEv.
Drovirr1, Piedmontese) perceived the inestimable service that so
grand an enterprise could derive from the Art of Healing suitably pro-
fessed, and delayed not to make the talent of the European physicians
contribute to his mighty undertaking.
In the year 1822 Doctors Marrint, Det Stagnorn, Cinpa, and
some others, were charged by him with the erection at Abou-Zabel of
an Hospital, modelled and managed after the best European establish-
ments of its.kindsand were directed to lay before him a plan of a
general systematic arrangement of the Medical Service in the Vice-
royalty. This is in reality the era of the regeneration of medicine in
Egypt ; and if the foundations of it were laid by Italian hands, we
must legitimately conclude that the glory of having re-produced medi-
3 F
396 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [May,
cal studies, and the practice of medicine in Egypt, exclusively belongs
to them.
Nevertheless it is undoubted, that scarcely had the Italians taken the
first step in the beneficent restoration (1824,) than the eminent Doctor
Cuor, a Frenchman in the Viceroy’s service as Physician and Surgeon-
General, succeeded, with several other sanitarian officers, countrymen
of his, in completing the fabric thus commenced ; and we are far from
denying him our meed of well-merited praise, and avow and acknowledge
with pleasure the very important services rendered by him to the
science and to the country. But he completed, and did not commence,
the work: this is what truth compels us to affirm distinctly. Especi-
ally as in all the improvements introduced by him, hjs designs were
never disunited from those of Marrrinr1, Inspector-General of the Mili-
tary Medical Service.
Au reste, when we allude to the regeneration of medicine in Egypt,
we are very far from understanding that the science is as flourishing
and diffused there as the phrase may seem prima facie to imply ;
for although there exists a remarkable difference for the better be-
tween the past and the present, it is undeniable, nevertheless, that the
new plant has not yet produced that fruit which might have been ex-
pected from it. A mournful fact, but no less authentic, as will evident-
ly appear from the particulars we are about to enumerate.
Having premised these brief observations on the historical part of the
subject (for the correctness of which we ourselves carefully vouch, hav-
ing been not only witnesses, but a party of what we relate) we shall
now proceed to lay down, in separate paragraphs, those special points,
from the assemblage of which results the actual state of medical know-
ledge in that country.
The establishment of an Hospital at Abou-Zabel (a village about
twelve Italian miles to the north of Cairo, on the borders of the desert
of Kanka) was, as we have stated, the first countersign of the regener-
ation of medical knowledge in Egypt.
Beside the salubrity of the air, and the abundance of water (al-
though the latter is somewhat brackish), and all other conveniences
requisite for the erection of such institutions, all wonderfully concur-
ring at Abou-Zabel, this spot was selected especially because being
close to the review-field of the new Egyptian troops, it might readily
serve for the care of the invalids; and the Government would thus
have before its eyes a practical example of the advantages that its
armies might in time derive from that sort of sanitary establishments.
The edifice was erected a. p. 1822 on the ruins of ancient cavalry
barracks : it was completed six years after (1827) when Dr. Cuort,
1839. ] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypé. 397
recently charged with the head management of the Sanitary Depart.
ment, made it the object of his most ardent solicitude.
The Hospital of Abou-Zabel, which surpasses in size, as it does in
priority of existence, all similar buildings subsequently erected in
Egypt, is a perfect square of 150 metres, every side consisting of a
double row of saloons, divided by an intermediate corridor forming
their entrance. There are thirty-two halls, each containing fifty beds
arranged in a double row. The saloons are exceedingly lightsome
and well ventilated, being illuminated each by sixteen large windows,
which however does not debar the deplorable effects that result from
the reunion of an immense number of sick in a single edifice—a
constant proof that smaller Hospitals are preferable to extensive ones in
all quarters of the globe.*
The area enclosed within the four sides of the building has been
appropriated to the use of a Botanical Garden. In the middle of itis to
be found a square house containing the Dispensary, Dissecting Room,
Baths, Kitchen, a Sakia, or draw-well, and other ordinary complements
of an Hospital.
The Botanical Garden is subdivided into two sections, contain-
ing an exact repetition of the identical plants. The first is appropriated
to the study of Linneus’ system, and the other to that of Jussieu’s
method.
The edifice is surrounded on three sides by a high wall, about
a hundred paces distant from the body of the building. The vast
tract of land intervening between the one side and the other is cover-
ed with trees and divers other plants, which abundantly supply fruits
and other nutritious vegetables; it also offers a commodious pro-
menade to the invalids. This exterior wall answers the purpose of
zsolating the establishment—an inestimable advantage for various rea-
sons, especially in countries like Egypt, frequently infestea with conta-
gious maladies.
Although the Hospital of Abou-Zabel is ee intended for the
* We recommend this passage to the attention of the Municipal Committee, and of
the projectors of certain Hospitals said to be intended for Calcutta. The new Clinical
Hospital just completed on the grounds of the Medical College will contain ezghty pati-
ents. It is a square building on arches, 74 feet square, divided into three Wards
with two intervening Corridors. The clear-length of each Ward is 70 feet, the breadth
20 feet, the height 18 feet, and the Corridors each 70 feet long, 12 feet broad, and 18
feet high. The room# are fully ventilated by lofty windows, doors, and spiracles.
This building has cost but 8,000 Rs. In the plans adopted by the Municipal Com-
mittee an Hospital for one hundred and twenty patients is to cost 97,000 Rs., another
plan for an Hospital for twenty patients is sanctioned by the Committee at 34,000 Rs.
This may excite a smile, but let us not be unreasonable. It is peradyenture wise to
lodge the perishing pauper with the magnificence of a prince.—Ebs.
398 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. (May,
military, still the indigent sick of all the surrounding villages obtain
there gratuitous succour and advice.
The internal government of the Hospital, and in general all its
various departments, were scrupulously modelled after the Hospitals of
Europe.
The utility of the establishment in question being rapidly under-
stood, with that evidence which is so necessary to influence the indo-
lent spirits of the Easterns, other minor Hospitals began to be gradually
instituted in various quarters of the country, there being at present
six, beside several Infirmaries; viz. one at Cairo, named Esbequich ;
one at Kassr-el-ain, for the alumni of the elementary School-house ;
a third at Furrah ; a fourth at Damietta ; and the fifth and sixth at
Alexandria for the army and navy troops.
Prior to the year 1834, there was no Hospital specially intended for
non-military patients. The decree issued about that period by his
Highness may be considered an interesting piece of novelty, because
one of the Alexandria Hospitals, which had been originally destined
for the navy, was then thrown open indiscriminately to all, whether
Arabians or Christians, or of any other persuasion, as well subjects as
foreigners, if destitute of means.
Although ‘that was perhaps the effect of the wise RerorMER’s
policy, it was nevertheless a remarkable token of progress, when we
reflect on the antipathy that had for the past divided the Mahometans
from the professors of every other creed.
With regard to the Hospital of Abou-Zabel, and the two others of ©
Alexandria, especially that denominated Ras-el-tim, it can be affirm-
ed, without flattery, that they are in a most satisfactory state at pre-
sent, and that they might be honorably compared with many similar
institutions in Europe. The others, mostly the work of Arabs, and
imperfect copies of the former prototypes, still retain the impress of
antique barbarism, and to them may be justly applied the words
of the divine Poet:
“‘ Non ragioniam di lor, ma garda e pass.’’*
Following the example of Constantinople, Smyrna, and other cities
of the Levant, the European powers that hold commercial intercourse
with Egypt established an Hospital in Alexandria for their respective
subjects, with this difference however, that while in the above named
cities each European nation has it own Hospital apart, in Alexandria,
considering the minor number of European strangers, they deemed
one Hospital, to be managed with common funds and laws, would
* «« Let us not speak of them, but look and pass on.’’—Danrx.
1839. ] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 399
amply suffice promiscuously for all. ‘The election of the Physician
and other officials for this institution, is yearly made by the Consular
body and other contributors by the majority of votes. Extreme is the
neatness and regularity of attendance introduced into this Hospital,
and we are gratified in being enabled to bestow our well-merited
meed of praise on the directors of it, while we, at the same time,
submit our hope, that in the election of the Physician, they may for
the future value more than they have heretofore done, the intrinsic
merits of the individual, and pay no regard to a spirit of vain nation-
ality, which so often proves fatal to its unfortunate inmates.*
_ Regarding those infected with the plague, we shall have occasion
to allude to them when speaking of the Lazarettos, in the important
matter of sanitarial treatment.
The rare advantage of the Abou-Zabel Hospital induced De Cior,
Physician-General, to propose to the Egyptian government the institu-
tion of a Medical School for the formation of Native alumni, capable in
time of succeeding the European doctors, on whom depended the me-
dical management and attendance both of that head Hospital and
of the other Infirmaries, as well as of the army. The body of Euro-
pean physicians then practising in Egypt, fortunately presented the
number of Professors requisite to occupy the various chairs of the
intended institute, and Dr. Cior wisely opined that so favourable an
opportunity should be availed of to attain with facility and economy
the object he had in view. The necessity of such an establishment
~ was too evident for the Egyptian government not to second the pro-
posal of the French Physician-General ; but there were mighty and
various obstacles yet to be surmounted.
* It would not be here inopportune to make mention of a small Greek Hospital,
if it were completed, or worthy of observation. Hence we omit enumerating it among
the Hospitals of Alexandria. Nevertheless we cannot refrain from commending the
noble efforts of the Curev. Fossizza towards its erection and support, in which he has
not yet relaxed.
Apropos of the above mentioned individual, we feel pleasure in giving a brief
account of his merits and influence in Egypt.
The Curv. Fossizza, a wealthy Greek merchant of Mezzovo in Albania (Epirus),
and now Consul-General of his Majesty King Otho, is one of the most distinguished
personages who are about the illustrious Reformer, MrEnEmMeET ALy, on account of the
high degree of confidence he enjoys, in as much as being wholly devoted to his wishes,
he succeeded so well both in the administration of the state, and in the most difficult
political circumstances of the Government, in comforting him, by seconding all his
cogitations and devices, as well as by assisting him with his vast commercial knowledge
in his traffic computations, and so by reviving in an extraordinary manner the home
as well as the foreign trade ; moreover, he is still more commendable on this account,
because he uses his interest with the Pacha to forward the distribution of his princely
munificence among the meritorious. Hence the Curv. Fossrzza is generally esteemed
by the Europeans as well as the foreign Consuls in Egypt.
400 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [ May,
The first obstacle was the impossibility of finding eleves who could
speak French, Italian, or any other European tongue. This could not
be overcome but through the means of interpreters, who might convey
to the scholars the sentiments of the Professors. But in order that the
interpretation of such mediums might be correct, they themselves
should indispensably have been initiated in the science they were
to convey: whence the interpreters were necessarily to be instructed
prior to the eleves.
The second was to introduce among the Arabs the study of ana-
tomy, which involved the dissipation of their religious prejudices,
as to them it appears an enormous sacrilege to apply a dissecting
knife to the remains of the defunct.
The third, finally, was the deficiency of books, instruments, and
that multifarious assortment of other implements, which are essential
for the first opening of such an establishment among a barbarous and
unpolished people, like the Egyptians.
All these difficulties, albeit numerous and intricate, disappeared
before the zeal of Dr. Cio, and of the head Physician and Inspector-
General, Dr. Martini; and in a short period Egypt saw opened
at Abou-Zabel a School of Medicine, which, although imperfect like
every other infant institution, resembled Aurora, the forerunner of
light, amidst the darkness of deep and disgraceful ignorance.
The first obstacle alluded to was surmounted by appointing various
interpreters, sufficiently instructed in the oriental languages, and
not totally unacquainted with medical pursuits.. In the mean time,
however, so as not to be perpetually obliged to have recourse to their
assistance, which was essentially supplementary, a course of European
languages, especially French and Italian, was commenced. Signor
Ucsxxi (Piedmontese) and Signori Rarrary, AuTHoRI, SAKAKINI, —
and ZaccaRA undertook and supported with honor this double duty of
interpreting the lectures of the Professors, and of instructing the Ara-
bian alumni in the European tongues.*
The second impediment was overcome by the firmness of the
Government, and its well known indifference for religious opinions, as
well national as foreign. For by suggestion of the European doctors
the most influential Sheiks were informed that the opening of the
dead for the benefit of the living, in place of being brutality and cruel-
ty as they would fain have it believed, was a pious and philanthropic
act; and they were shown that the Pacha in this respect had no
intention of being annoyed ; and so shortly disappeared all objections
* The respectable Signors should have commenced by studying medicine them-
selyes,—Eps,
:
:
;
1839.] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 401
on that score, in so much that cadaverical dissections are now per-
formed in Egypt with the same facility as in our own country.
The third difficulty likewise the Government remedied, by liberally
supplying, at an enormous outlay, a splendid assortment of books,
anatomical figures, surgical instruments, and every thing else requisite
for the institute ; whence we may affirm, without exceeding the truth,
that in this it was rather extravagant, than parsimonious. A proof of
this may be the Venus, made with wonderful nicety in Florence,
by the chisel of the renowned CuEv. Vacca BELLINGHIERI, and pur-
chased for the Abou-Zabel School at the enormous sum of 3000 dollars
and upwards. *
Thus surmounted the impediments that obstructed the acini
ment of this beneficent design, the next step was to regulate the
eourse of studies, and to nominate the Professors. These operations
had the following results.
1. Signor Gacrin1, Professor of general, descriptive, and pathologi-
cal Anatomy, and of Physiology.
2. M. Bervarp, of private, public, and military hygiene, and legal
Medicine.
3. M. Duvieneau, of Pathology, and internal Clinics.
4. M. Cuor, of Pathology and external Clinics, Operations, and
Midwifery.
5. M. Bartuetemy, of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, the Art
of Formulas, and Toxicology.
6. Signor Cexzsta, of Chemistry and Physics.
7. Signor Fieart, of Botany and Horticulture.
8. Signor Lasperaura, of Anatomical and Pathological preparations.
These were the Professors of the Abou-Zabel School at its first open-
ing; but there were shortly after some remarkable changes which
we deem superfluous to relate. We must however, for justice sake,
remark, that besides the distinguished Dr. Cior, the two Italian Pro-
fessors CkLEsia and Fieart, (the latter a worthy pupil of the late
Curvy. Vivian), among the other above named, acquired especial
esteem, and marked encomiums in the discharge of their duties.
We should be too prolix and fastidious, were we to enter into a
detailed account of the various scientific improvements introduced
_ into this School, and especially regarding the translation and explana-
|
|
_ tion of the lectures, through the medium of the interpreters. We
shall nevertheless observe, that at the close of every year a public exa-
mination was appointed to be held, at which the Arabian alumni should
* About 6900 Rupees.
402 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [May,
give a trial of the progress they had made, in the presence of the first
authorities, as well in their medical, as in their philological studies.
The result of those examinations proved, what will not surprise
any wise judge of such events, viz. that the progress of those classes,
notwithstanding the immense effort of the promoters, was not by any
means remarkable. In truth, with the exception of a few lads, who
succeeded in a middling degree, the mass of the scholars drank very
shallow of those new and unusual sources of science. It would be long
to enumerate all the causes of such disgusting deficiency individually,
but we will note the chiefones: 1. The advanced age of the majority of
the students. 2. The privation of those elementary and primary
principles, that are a step to higher branches. 3. The fatal intricacy
of intermediate explanations. 4. Arabian indolence and listlessness,
which every now and then transpire in the character and habits of
that race. 5. The secret and powerful influence of prejudices, which
although sometimes apparently obviated, never cease by degrees to —
shoot forth. 6. In fine, the bad selection of some of the teachers; a
notorious fact, which we in vain would attempt to conceal.
Dr. Cior added lately to this College a collection of objects con-
nected with Entomology and Ornithology, aided by the rare abilities
of the Turinese naturalist, Signor Lovis Reeeo, who has acquired an
honorable reputation both in Egypt and elsewhere, which we are
happy to proclaim, for such and other similar collections forwarded
abroad.
The nature and brevity of this memoir will not permit us, as we
would wish, to give a minute account of the glorious labours of the
illustrious young man just alluded to, in congregating the materials of
such exquisite collections, as well of the extraordinary perfection for
which his works are distinguished, considered even in the light only
of mechanical preparation: we will not however for justice sake, and
to satisfy a praiseworthy love of country, omit to state, that not only —
Cror Bry, but also all the other professional foreigners that have
visited Egypt, or examined the works of Sig. Recro, unanimously
avowed, that they had never witnessed things of a similar description
more accurately and skilfully conducted; and they readily bestowed
on him, even through the medium of the public journals, praise
so much the more flattering, as it was less suspicious, being spontaneous ©
and remote. Hence although Sig. Recxo be, like all other men of
merit, extremely modest, an enemy of every species of intrigue, and
incapable of wishing to advance but through his own fatigue and
knowledge, the Egyptian Government nevertheless always held him
in due esteem, and after retaining him in divers ways employed
ae
, $n
ee ean
Se
1859.] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 403
under Ciot Bey, it decorated him at length with the title and degree
of Professor attached to the Museum of Natural History, an office
with which he is still invested, with general satisfaction, uniting as
he does to a brilliant genius an excellent heart, that renders him ac-
ceptable and dear to all his acquaintance and friends.
Besides the alumni educated (well or ill) in the Abou-Zabel College,
the Pacha sent to Europe, especially to France, about one hundred
Egyptian lads, with the view of thus diffusing the enlightenment and
civilization of this era throughout his dominions, and of acquiring at
the same time the reputation of a prince who was a philosopher, a
philanthropist, and a munificent patron of the sciences. The result of
the second experiment was not much happier than that of the first, as
the youths did not take back with them that useful assortment of
scienee that was expected ; so that with the exception of a scanty
number, the major part of them afforded to the Pacha no great source
of congratulation for the trial he had made.
Vaccination was introduced into Egypt about the year 1824,
through the beneficent designs of the venerable Curv. Drovettt,
whose continual traits of philanthropy resemble so many globules im-
pregnated with vitality, which animate and give life to whoever receive
them. With the approbation of his superiors, he formed a commission
consisting of two Italian physicians, Massara and Cant, and of one
Frenchman, M. Dumas, for the purpose of propagating in the interior
of the country the practice of so precious an invention. This commis-
sion, provided by the never-sufficiently commendable Curv. Drovertt
with all the necessaries, encountered in the discharge of their duties
immense difficulties and perils, so much so, that in the province of
Menoujic a general insurrection was very near breaking out, as the
Arabs, especially the women,* supposed that the incisions made on the
arms of their infants, far from being a salutary antidote, were a politi-
eal stratagem of the Pacha, whose object was to impress on the persons
of his subjects an indelible mark, so as afterwards to be enabled to
distinguish and kidnap them with greater facility into the military
levies, and other raisings of men for the accomplishment of his vast
enterprises ; so that after long and fruitless attempts the vaccination
emissaries were compelled to desist and give up all hopes of success ;
and thus among the Arabs became extinct the practice of JENNER’s
antidote, which is doubtless one of the finest gifts bestowed by Pro-
vidence on mankind in modern times. This is a great fatality for
Egypt, where the small-pox frequently causes mortality in the extreme.
* It is calculated that the proportion of women at present in Egypt, is a third great-
| er than that of men.
36
404 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [May,
H. H. Menemer Ary continues however to have his children vacci -
nated, as also the new born infants belonging to his Harem and house-
hold, which is also the practice of the grandees around him..
The first and greatest service that was to be rendered to Egypt by
medicine, was to defeat the fatal malady that for ages had taken up
its abode there, and which besides the internal havoc that it often
creates in the country, threatens also to invade the European shores,
and so causes the inhabitants of the latter to live in perpetual dread of
such a scourgee We must however unfortunately confess that not
even in this point have the medical innovations introduced into Egypt
corresponded to the necessities and expectations of the promoters.
The ends to which sanitarial: prescriptions should tend in countries
which like Egypt contain the germ of the plague, are principally two:
the first is, to destroy, if possible, the principle or vital spark of the
evil, or to restrict at least as much as possible the consequence of its
development: the second, to protect the country from the introduction
of external pestilence. Now it is undoubted that neither of those
ends has been attained by the local government through the medium
of the sanitaria] institutions still flourishing in that country ; so that if
the merit of the design or (as it is termed) of the good intention be
abstracted, the world and the nation owe little to the promoters of
those institutions.
It was only in the beginning of 1833 that the Pacha contemplated
the establishment of a Sanitarial Board, the centre of which he made
a so-called Consular Committee, consisting, as its name sounds, of the
European Consuls accredited by his Government. The representatives
of civilized nations were thought to possess an abundant store of
knowledge for the utility of so important an institution ; but it would
have been a wiser plan to seek such knowledge, in itself particular, in
persons of the trade; and in truth, with one or two exceptions,*
the others had not the slightest idea of the topics they undertook
to discuss ; thus this radical defect soon ruined the work they com-
menced. So much the more, because to the relative incapability
of the superiors was soon added the absolute incapability of the subal-
terns selected to fill up the various situations of the new Egyptian
sanitarial zatrarchy.
But the height of misfortune was, that the physicians specially
devoted to the Sanitarial Committee, who with their counsels might
* It is almost superfluous to observe that one of those exceptions is the Chev.
and Councillor Acerui, a man well known for ‘his extraordinary talent and profound
knowledge. Let it however be remarked, thatas soon as he perceived the impossibility
of attaining any useful result, he abstained from taking part in the new Consular
Committee, so as to save himself from all responsibility.
1339) - Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 405
have corrected and moderated, at least in a great measure, the lament-
able consequences of such primary sources, were in accordance (we grieve
to advert to it) with the rest of the ill-compacted edifice, and were
absolutely unsuited for the high and important office they undertook.*
The provisions therefore that emanated from their Committee, and
were executed by their subalterns, were, we regret, seldom useful, and
often noxious to the State.
To commence from what we stated to be the first scope of the sani-
tary discipline with regard to an endemical disease, nothing was done
to improve the salubrity of the country, if we except the prohibition,
often eluded, of interring corpses in the interior, a device undoubt-
edly beneficial, but insufficient by itself to cut off the intrinsic /o-
mites of the evil, as was required. Ina recent little work on the Bu-
bonic plague of the Levant, we explained the causes to which, in
our opinion, Alexandria and Lower Egypt owe their deplorable privi-
lege of having been for ages the chosen nest of that malady, and we
will readily avow that many of them are such as to surpass perhaps the
limited efficacy of human remedies. Nevertheless it is undeniable,
that if by a well understood system of sanitary regulations, constantly
acted up to, a part at least of those causes had been obviated, the awful
scourge would either have less frequently desolated the country, or its
consequences would have been less disastrous. Now what has been
done by the Alexandria Committee in order to achieve so beneficial
a result? We have already stated, either nothing whatsoever, or too
little to produce any fruit? And we might easily demonstrate it with
examples, were we not disallowed by brevity from entering into mi-
nuter details. But not wishing our assertion to remain totally un-
proved, we will observe: Ist. That if human corpses be interred by
day without the walls, the carcasses of camels, horses, asses, and of that
numberless group of minor quadrupeds which at present people Egypt
more than the bipeds, are shamefully allowed to rot in the inside
streets and squares. 2dly. That dung, rubbish, filthy water, and
similar off-scourings of the city always remain in the spot they hap-
pened to fall on, without any passage or exit to drain off from the
habitations of the living—a most shocking inconvenience, that would
alone suffice to render any climate naturally wholesome and pure, mur-
derous to the last degree. Sdly. That neither the education, nor the
condition of the people, properly so-called, being improved for reasons
superior to the will of the Government, the dwellings or rather the
huts of the Arabs continue to be real dens of wild beasts, squalid, filthy,
* Now however Signor Grassi commences to distinguish himself with repeated
observations ; he is the chief doctor attached to the above named Committee.
406 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. [ May,
and abominable. 4thly. That the identical groups of beggars now
wander through the narrow and crooked lanes of the city, destitute of »
ventilation, who used to stray through them before, and who are the
ordinary receptacles and most fatal propagators of endemical and con-
tagious diseases. 5thly. That the necessary government regulations
regarding food are still wanting, while that which is exposed to sale is
generally another abundant source of epidemical maladies.
‘Having premised these deplorable truths, passing now to the other
object of sanitary regulations, namely, that of protecting the country
from foreign pestilence, we have to lament on this point also equal, if
not greater blunders, quoting as simple instances of proof, Ist. The bad
construction of the Lazarettos*, and especially of that of Alexandria,
the first of his Highness’s, which has nothing in it commendable, whether
we speak of its site, or of the minutest particulars of its interior
management and medical administration—a truth that we demonstra-
ted in a previous work, addressed to H. E. Bocuo Bey, on the 15th
December 1833, and which is gradually confirmed by daily experience.
2dly. The inconsistency of repulsive measures, that are every now and
then adopted, such as, for example, to permit a free ingress on the
land side to persons arriving from regions actually infected with the
plague, and at the same time to use rigour (we know not if more
barbarous or ridiculous) with the vessels and persons that arrive on the
sea-side, while they reach from the remotest places, even solely suspect-
ed. 3dly. The little or no exactness wherewith the sanitary orders,
whether well or ill decreed, are managed: because in consequence
of the deep ignorance of the sanitary officials, especially the sub-
alterns, their indifference and want of conviction, there is scarcely
ever a case in which the observance of a salutary precept is not
accompanied with a greater or less violation of another equally mighty,
which abundantly preponderates the utility that might have been
expected from the former: thus, for example, when a disorderly gang
of beastly Arab keepers are compelled to insulate an infected object,
to cleanse a house, to air tainted cloths, &c., we may affirm, without —
fear of being deceived, that in such emergencies directed to avoid
contact, the latter almost always increases in place of diminishing, -
as was the intent of the order.
But we should be too prolix, were we to discuss more fully this
subject. The sketches we have given will suffice.
* The Lazarettos of Europe are doubtless powerful means to prevent the diffusion
of exotic maladies, originally contagious, depending on multiplied contact : but those
of Egypt are little serviceable for its periodical and endemical diseases, and much more
when the Lazarettos are so shockingly situated, ill-managed, and badly laid out.
1839. ] Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt. 407
Although the collection of facts by us adduced appear to prove that the
Egyptian government has recognised in principle the social importance
of medicine, we grieve to be obliged to add, that the practice of this
science in Egypt is still carried on destitute of any check from Govern-
ment ; so that now-a-days, as in those of the thickest barbarity, any
body may there entitle himself Doctor, and be reputed such, without
the superintendence of any superior authority to impede the deplorable
results that may ensue. The only examination that is usually made in
such matter regards the verification of the title or patents for those
that aspire to any post in the Medico-military department, and this
examination itself is extremely mild, much more than justice allows ;
but with regard to the public practice of the science, it is, we repeat,
free of every obstruction. There is no necessity of inculcating how
the advantages of humanity and the decorum of the medical body
itself demand, that a prompt and peremptory remedy be applied to
so dangerous and disgraceful an error.
European physicians actually practising in Egypt (almost all em-
ployed in the army) exceed the ordinary necessity of the country,
there being about seventy, not including apothecaries, who also abound.
If those persons in place of blindly and systematically professing the
opinions of their Masters, belonging as they do to so many different
nations, had first well studied the country, so as to modify the pre-
cepts they had imbibed, according as the variety of the climate, of the
prevalent constitutional maladies, and of the dispositions and other
local circumstances required, their operations would doubtless have -
either dissipated or moderated the various scourges that generally
afflict those regions; but as all, or almost all, in place of judiciously
using their preconceived opinions, through a misunderstood, and we
were about adding, a censurable esprit de corps et de nation, con-
tinue to profess there the maxims and precepts inculcated by their
respective teachers for generations,* not only widely differing, but often
opposed in circumstances, it grieves us to conclude this memoir by
stating, that languid humanity has not yet derived in Egypt from this
medical anarchy all that aid that it undoubtedly would have received
if reason had spoken in place of pertinacity and self-love. For our
part, after having studied at length and with accuracy the atmosphe-
rical and physical qualities of the country and its inhabitants, we are
convinced that abstinence from food, sedatives, bland refreshing purga-
*The French physicians are fanatically attached to the system of Broussais; the
Italian, to that of Tomassin1; the English to those of CuLLEN and Brown; the German,
to those of Scu1LLine and SpRENGEL, whose doctrine consists in magnetic, electric,
and chemical processes; all discordant in practice.
408 Regeneration of Medicine in Egypt: [May,
tives, and proportionate biood-lettings are in general the chief remedies
that are suited for Upper and Middle Egypt, for the cure of sporadic
diseases that occur there, and in Lower Egypt, a compound method,
consisting of purgatives, diaphoretics, warm baths, anthelmintics,
emetics, tonics, and antiseptics.
Such are the facts that indicate the actual state of Medical science in
Egypt; and we consider that they demonstrate a conclusion, which
we repute undoubted, as well relative to this particular subject, as to
every other branch of innovation actually attempted in that country,
viz. that they are as yet but a rough sketch, which cannot perhaps be
brought to perfection but after a long period of time, when the Rr-
FORMER Prince who has commenced the undertaking, and his
magnanimous son, Israuim Pacha,* renowned as well for his rare
talent for governing as for his military qualities—when both, we say,
having laid aside thoughts of war, by which they have been hitherto
distracted, will exclusively dedicate their cares to the internal regime
of the State, proud one day of having added a family to the illustrious
circle of civilized nations.
Art. VII.—WNote on the dissection of the Arctonix Collaris, or Sand
Hog. By Grorce Evans, Esq. late Curator to the Asiatic Society.
This curious little animal, for some time a living inmate of the
Society's Rooms, having died suddenly on the night of the 20th January,
apparently from the effects of cold, the following particulars of its dis-
section are offered to the notice of the Society.
In the length of the body it measured one foot, the head from the
snout to the occiput five inches, and the tail, which is thin, straight, and
pendulous, somewhat exceeded five inches.
The animal proved to be a young female, and had barely completed
its second dentition. The only peculiarity worthy of notice, beyond
what is already known and received, as far as regards its external or-
ganization, is a caudal pouch directly under the origin of the tail (some-
thing similar to what is found in the Badger,) but quite distinct from,
and wholly unconnected with, the anus or genital organs. The sac is
formed by duplicate folds of the common integuments, baving a lining
of naked membrane, secreting a brown unctuous matter, not unlike
cerumen, or wax of the ear ; the use of this peculiar structure and se-
* Eldest son of the Viceroy, born in Macedon, three miles from Cavella—a son
unmatched in his obedience to his father.
‘
1839.] Note on the dissection of the Sand Hog. 409
cretion would appear to be confined to the generative function solely,
and is most probably of an analogous nature to the lachrymal sacs
in most of the Deer tribe.
The stomach was large and simple, with a strong muscular pylorus,
not unlike in figure and structure that of our common Indian Bear (UV.
labiatus) on which animal I offered a few remarks at our last meeting.
The liver is divided into five distinct lobes, the second on the right
side being partially separated at its lower marginal part for the recep-
tion of the gall-bladder, which contained some greenish looking bile.
The kidneys differed from those of the Bears in not being lobulated.
The total length of the alimentary canal from the pylorus to the anus
measured eleven feet two inches. The intestines throughout were
of delicate structure, and exhibited no distinct division or peculiarity
of form by which the larger could be clearly distinguished from the
smaller, and consequently there is no cecum in this animal, or any
dilatation equivalent thereto, the canal merely becoming a little more
capacious in its descent towards the anal opening, where there are two
small glandular follicles on its verge.
The uterus and organs of generation were too small and undeveloped
to admit of examination.
Tongue large, broad, and with a soft smooth surface.
The system of dentition was as follows :
False True
Incisors. Canines. Molars. Molars.
6 2 4 “Be
— = —_ — 9 bd
7 5 A 7 in all 32;
the Incisors, Canines, and false Molars corresponding more to the Carni-
vora, while the true Molars are tuberculous, leading to the inference that
the quality of its food must be of a vegetable nature. The last Molar
in the upper jaw is very remarkably lengthened, in fact it is more like
the two ordinary terminal teeth united into one than a single tooth,
but this is not the case with the corresponding tooth in the lower jaw.
The diet of the animal while in captivity consisted entirely of bread,
milk, and plantains ; the latter being evidently its favorite food, to the
total rejection of meat and flesh of all kinds.
There were no morbid appearances observable on opening the body
to account for its sudden death; this coupled with the circumstance of
the animal having up to the time of its demise been in perfectly good
health, and appearing in fine condition on dissection, leads me to con-
clude it must have perished from exposure to cold.
It has been remarked by some naturalists that this obscure and
anomalous animal is closely allied to the Bears and Pigs, forming «
410 Note on the dissection of the Sand Hog. [ May,
bond of union, or kind of link, connecting the extreme limits of the Car-
nivora with the omnivorous Pachydermata, but I do not clearly trace
the connection here said to exist. That it shows some very marked affi-
nities to the Bears cannot be denied, and which are prominently dis-
played in its perfectly plantigrade motion, by the form and structure of
the foot, and by some of its habits; but where the connection said to
exist between it and the Pigs, beyond a mere accidental resemblance
of its head to that animal is to be found, I am at a loss to conceive.
If an analogy is to be traced, I should certainly say that in general
appearance and physiology it is far more like the Badger than any other
animal it has been compared to, and its approximation to it is made
apparent by its kindred habits, dentition, and other structural peculiarities,
possessing like the Badgers the caudal pouch, and wanting, like them,
a true cecum, which its dissection has pointed out. In short, I in-
cline to consider it an aberrant form of Mole leading directly into the
Ursine group, rather than taking an intermediate place between the
Bears and the Pachydermatous family, to which last it appears from
the above dissection to have little or no affinity.
The importance of making anatomical organization the basis of
systematic arrangement, as promulgated by Cuvier in his great work
the Regne Animal, cannot be too forcibly insisted on ; it is the only sure
and safe guide to a correct analysis of genera and species, and where
opportunities present themselves for these investigations they should
never be lost sight of, while their results, however uninviting they may
appear, should be duly noted and recorded as facts for the information
of the systematic naturalist and inquirer after nature.
P. §.—Since writing the above I have met with a delineation and
description of an animal by Bewick (Hist. Quad. 4th edit, Newcastle
upon Tyne 1800, page 284) called the ‘Sand Bear,” in which he no-
tices the name of “ Sow Badger” as one of its appellations. The speci-
men from which his drawing was made belonged to the Tower of London
Menagerie. He also quotes a white Badger (described by Brisson) as
a native of New York, and believed to be of the same species. From
the above quoted drawing of Bewick it is clear that the animal was
known to English naturalists long before M. Duvaucel’s description
had appeared ; and I record the fact in order to wipe away a portion of
that reproach so frequently cast upon our countrymen, of allowing
foreigners the honor of having anticipated us in the wide extended field
of Eastern Natural History to which we have such ready access; and
which reproach I am convinced (with as much support as is afforded
by the Governments of other European Powers to similar objects, )
would never have been either deserved or incurred.
1839. ] On the Manufacture of Rose-water and Utur. 411
Art. VIII.—On the Cultivation of Roses and the Manufacture of
Rose Water and Utur at Ghazeepore.
We are indebted to Dr. Jackson, Civil Surgeon at Ghazeepore, for the subjoined
very interesting note on the celebrated Rose trade of that district. The information was
‘sought for, for a work now in progress on “‘ Indian Materia Medica’’ ; meanwhile we have
much pleasure in giving publicity in this Journal to the curious facts Dr. Jackson
has collected.—Ebs. ?
I have now the pleasure of sending you the information you require on
the manufacture and trade of Rose-water in this district. | Ghazeepore
seems to have been long famed for its Attar and Rose-water, and
having got the name, it has done its best to preserve it. The cultivation
of the Rose plant is sufficient to supply the demand, and as the average ~
remuneration is not more than enough to compensate for the trouble
of its culture, no competition from the adjoining districts has been
made.
Around the station of Ghazeepore there are about 300 beegahs, or
about 150 acres, of ground laid out in small detached fields as Rose
gardens, most carefully protected on all sides by high mud walls
and prickly pear fences, to keep out the cattle. These lands, which-
belong to Zemindars, are planted with Rose trees, and are annually let
out at so much per beegah for the ground, and so much additional for
the Rose plants—generally five rupees per beegah, and twenty-five rupees
for the Rose trees, of which there are 1000 in each beegah. The
additional expense for cultivation would be about 8/8; so that for
rupees 30/8 you have for the season one beegah of 1000 Rose trees.
If the season is good this beegah of 1000 Rose trees should yield
one lac of Roses.. Purchases for Roses are always made at so much
per lac. The price of course varies according to the year, and will
average from 40 to 70 rupees. During the past season the latter was
the price given for one lac of Roses towards the conclusion.
As soon as the Roses come into flower the Zemindars and cultivators
of the Rose gardens, as well as intending purchasers, meet in the city,
and according to the demand and expected produce, a nerick is esta-
blished, and purchasers then enter into agreement with the cultiva-
tors for so many lacs of Roses at such a price. This agreement is con-
sidered binding, and the cultivator is obliged to deliver the quantity
at the contract rate; when that is completed another can be made,
but this latter is always at a much higher rate.
_ The Rose trees come into flower at the beginning of March and
continue so through April. In the morning early the flowers are plucked
3
412 On the Manufacture of Rose-water and Utur. [May,
by numbers of men, women, and children, and are conveyed in large bags
to the several contracting parties for distillation. The cultivators them-
selves very rarely manufacture.
The native apparatus for distilling the Rose-water is of the simplest
construction ; it consists of a large copper or iron boiler well tinned, ca-
pable of holding from eight to twelve gallons, (shaped like the ear-
then hoondahs in which the Gomastahs send in their Opium) having
a large body with a rather narrow neck, and a mouth about eight inches
in diameter ; on the top of this is fixed the head of the still, which is no-
thing more than an old dekchee, or cooking vessel, with a hole in the
centre to receive the tube or worm.
This tube is composed of two pieces of bamboo, fastened at an acute
angle, and it is covered the whole length with a strong binding of cord-
ed string, over which is a luting of earth to prevent the vapour from
escaping. The small end, about two feet long, is fixed into the hole in
the centre of the head, where it is well luted with flour and water. The
lower arm or end of the tube is carried down into a long necked vessel
or receiver, called a bhubka. This is placed in a handee of water which
as it gets hot is changed. The head of the still is luted on to the body,
and the long arm of the tube in the bhubka is also well provided with
a cushion of cloth, so as to keep in all vapour. The boiler is let into
an earthen furnace, and the whole is ready for operation.
There is such a variety of Rose-water manufactured in the bazar,
and so much that bears the name, which is nothing more than a mixture —
of sandal oil, that it is impossible to lay down the plan which is
adopted. The best Rose-water however in the bazar may be computed
as bearing the proportion of one thousand Roses to a seer of water ; this
perhaps may be considered as the best procurable. From one thousand
Roses most generally a seer and a half of Rose-water is distilled, and
perhaps from this even the Attar has been removed.
The boiler of the still will hold from eight to twelve or sixteen
thousand Roses. On eight thousand Roses from ten to eleven seers
of water will be placed, and eight seers of Rose water will be distilled.
This after distillation is placed in a carboy of glass, and is exposed to ‘
the sun for several days to become puckah ; it is then stopped with
cotton, and has a covering of moist clay put over it; this becoming
hard effectually prevents the scent from escaping. The price of this
will be from twelve to sixteen rupees. This is the best that can be
procured.
To procure the Attar, the Roses are put into the still, and the water
passes over gradually as in the Rose-water process; after the whole
has come over, the Rose-water is placed in a large metal basin,
1839. On the Manufacture of Rose-water and Utur. Al3
which is covered with wetted muslin tied over to prevent insects
or dust getting into it; this vessel is let into the ground about two feet,
which has been previously wetted with water, and it is allowed to
remain quiet during the whole night. The Attar is always made at
the beginning of the season when the nights are cool; in the morning
early the little film of Attar which is formed upon the surface of the
Rose-water during the night is removed by means of a feather, and it
is then carefully placed in a small phial ; and day after day as the col-
lection is made it is placed for a short period in the sun, and after a
sufficient quantity has been procured it is poured off clear, and of the
colour of amber, into small phials. Pure Attar when it has been re-
moved only three or four days has a pale greenish hue, by keeping it
loses this, and in a few weeks time it becomes of a pale yellow. The
first few days’ distillation does not produce such fine Attar as comes off
afterwards, in consequence of the dust or little particles of dirt in the
still and the tube being mixed with it. This is readily separated from
its sinking to the bottom of the Attar, which melts at a temperature
of 84°. From one lac of Roses it is generally calculated that 180
grains, or one tolah, of Attar can be procured ; more than this can be
obtained if the Roses are full sized, and the nights cold to allow of
the congelation. The Attar purchased in the bazar is generally adul-
terated, mixed with sandal oil or sweet oil; not even the richest native
will give the price at which the purest Attar alone can be obtained,
and the purest Attar that is made is sold only to Europeans. Dur-
ing the past year it has been selling from 80 to 90 rupees the
tolah ; the year before it might have been purchased for 50 rupees.
Native stills are let out at so much per day or week, and it frequently
occurs that the residents prepare some Rose-water for their own use
as a present to their friends, to secure their being provided with that
which is the best. The natives never remove the calices of the Rose
flowers, but place the whole into the still as it comes from the gardens.
The best plan appears to me to have this removed, as by this means
the Rose-water may be preserved a longer time, and is not spoiled by
the acid smell occasionally met with in the native Rose-water. It is
usual to calculate 100 bottles to one lac of Roses. The Rose-water’
should always be twice distilled ; over ten thousand Roses water may
be put to allow of sixteen or twenty bottles coming out ; the follow-
ing day these twenty bottles are placed over eight thousand more Roses,
and about eighteen bottles of Rose-water are distilled. This may be
considered the best to be met with. The Attar is so much lighter
than the Rose-water, that previous to use it is better to expose the
Rose-water to the sun for a few days, to allow of its being well mixed,
414 On the Manufacture of Rose-water and Utur. | May,
and Rose-water that has been kept six months is always better than
that which has recently been made.
At the commencement of the Rose season, people from all parts
come to make their purchases, and very large quantities are prepared
and sold. There are about thirty-six places in the city of Ghazeepore
where Rose-water is distilled. These people generally put a large quan-
tity of sandal oil into the receiver, the oil is afterwards carefully
removed and sold as Sandal Attar, and the water put into carboys
and disposed of as Rose-water. At the time of sale a few drops of
sandal oil are placed on the neck of the carboy to give it a fresh
scent, and to many of the natives it appears perfectly immaterial whe-
ther the scent arises solely from the sandal oil or from the Roses;
large quantities of sandal oil are every year brought up from the south
and expended in this way.
The chief use the natives appear to make of the Rose-water or
the Sandal Attar as they term it, is at the period of their festivals and
weddings. It is then distributed largely to the guests as they arrive, and
sprinkled in profusion in the apartments. A large quantity of Rose-
water is sold at Benares, and many of the native Rajahs send over
to Ghazeepore for its purchase. Most of the Rose-water as soon as dis-
tilled is taken away, and after six months from the termination of —
the manufacture there are not more than four or five places where
it is to be met with.
I should consider that the value of the Roses sold for the manufacture
of Rose-water may be estimated at 15,000 rupees a year, and from this
to 20,000, and from the usual price asked for the Rose-water and for
which it is sold, I should consider there is a profit of 40,000 rupees.
The natives are very fond of using the Rose-water as medicine or as
a vehicle for other mixtures, and they consume a good deal of the
petals for the conserve of Roses, or Goolcund, as they call it. There are
several kinds of essential oils produced from the strong scented flowers
in this district, which I will procure and send down to you.
1839.] Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Soctety. 415
Art. IX.—Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. By
Dr. M‘CLELLAND.
A Museum may be considered in the light of a philosophical book, in
which language is represented by works of nature and art. If system
be important in common undertakings, in a Museum it is every thing ;
and not only should every object be placed according to the position it
occupies in the history of art, or in the system of nature, but the
very apartments in which the collections are placed, and the cabinets,
and even the glasses in which they are contained, should be con-
formable to some general plan, as much as possible in imitation of
the simplicity of nature. To be able to adopt a plan, requires that we
should have something to work upon; and in proposing a plan for
the guidance of future operations in the Museum, we cannot be
too grateful to those who have by their exertions, within a compara-
tively short space of time, put us in possession of our present instruc-
tive and respectable collections.
To Captain Herbert and Mr. Calder we are not only indebted for ex-
tensive geological and mineralogical collections, but as being among the
first contributors to the Society’s collection of natural objects, which
may be said to have commenced in 1828 with the revival of the Phy-
sical Committee.
Although a brief space of ten years has only elapsed since our
Museum of Natural History was first formed, yet more changes have
taken place in that short period among those who have taken an active
part in its management, than in any similar European establishment in
half a century.
This is one reason why a set of rules should be adopted by which the
steady advancement of the Museum may be secured; and another rea-
son for such rules, is the growing importance of the collection itself ;
which requires on the part of the Society a stricter surveillance over the
establishment entrusted with its management than formerly.
Before proposing rules it is necessary to explain the different pur-
poses they are required to answer.
On the subject of Cabinets, it is necessary that they should be
chosen with strict attention to the appearance and convenience of
the Museum. They should be of two kinds, namely, glass cases for
walls, and tables with glazed covers for the centre of the rooms, of
‘the pattgrn proposed by Mr. Jameson, in imitation of the Edinburgh
Museum.
The first description of cases fitted up with shelves will answer for
416 Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Socetty. [ May,
birds, fishes, and the smaller reptiles and mammalia which may be dis-
posed of along the walls. The second description of cabinets will
answer equally for shells, insects, rocks, minerals, and fossils. Thus
every object for which a cabinet is likely to be required may find a
place in one of the two sorts, to which it is proposed to confine the
furniture of the Museum.
That an unnecessary variety in the form of caeienetient: the
uniformity of the Museum, and that lofty cabinets placed in the
middle of the apartments, as at present, convey a sense of closeness
and prevent the use of punkas, so essential in this climate, any one who
has paid a visit to the Museum must see.
Indeed, without the strictest attention to some general plan in the
fitting up of a Museum, it must appear to persons of taste rather as any
thing rather than a place of science. Of all our cabinets, those only
in which the perching birds have been placed on shelves by Mr. Jameson
ought to be retained longer than it may be convenient to the Society
to replace them. Twelve glazed tables of the pattern already alluded
to, each nine feet in length, ought to be provided. These would admit
of all the rocks and minerals, as well as fossils, which constitute an im-
portant portion of the Society’s collection, being brought forward and
exhibited. Even if twelve tables should prove too many for this object,
the spare ones would be ready for the reception of such new collections
of interest as might be sent to us in any of the numerous departments
for which such tables are intended.
The next subject to consider is the nomenclature of the Museum.
It is necessary, for various reasons, that this should not altogether rest
on the authority of the Curator. There is a plan which with a little
regularity in its execution, will place this very important object on the
best possible footing, and at the same time afford to our Museum some-
thing more than localinterest. Let every species be numbered, and all
duplicates be numbered so as to correspond with the species to which
they belong in the regular collection.* After retaining a perfect series
or two let duplicates or triplicates be forwarded on the part of the
Society to individuals eminent in particular branches of science, re-
* There are now in the Museum some hundreds of duplicate skins of birds, some of
which appear to have been intended for the East India Company’s Museum; these may
be all numbered so as to correspond with our own collection, and figured lists trans-
mitted with them to the India House, soliciting that such lists may be returned to the
Society with the correct nomenclature inserted opposite to the figures. Anticipating
no objection to this, I have already numbered most of the birds in the Socié€y’s collec-
tion, and have ordered corresponding numbers to be attached to those intended for the
Honorable Court.
1839.] Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 417
questing that lists may be returned to the Society with the scientific
names inserted opposite to the corresponding numbers, from such lists
the names may then be transferred to the objects in the Museum.
We should thus not only secure a perfect nomenclature, but at the same
time disseminate a knowledge of the productions of India, and give
a publicity to the contents of our collection far more important to the
advancement of science than could be effected by any other means.
On the establishments of the Museum as they relate to expenditure,
I am incompetent to offer any suggestions. It appears from the
pecuniary accounts published in the January number of the Journal,
that the Museum expenses in 1838 exceeded the Government grant of
200 Rupees per mensem by 1171 Rupees, although 246 Rupees only of
that excess appears to be set down for cabinets. During the present
year if the requisite cabinets be procured, and the other expenses of the
Museum be continued as before, the excess beyond the Government
grant for the support of the Museum, will necessarily amount to several
thousand rupees.
The persons employed in the Museum at present are—two taxider-
mists, one on the receipt of 50 and the other 12 Rupees per mensem ;
two carpenters. at 8 Rupees each; and two native servants; whose
salaries altogether amount to 88 Rupees per mensem.
The principal taxidermist cannot write, and as he is therefore incapa-
ble of keeping any record, it would be necessary to have some one else
on the spot to wait on visitors, and assist in carrying on the business
of the Museum. In the Library there is an assistant librarian who
has been employed for several years on a salary of 30 Rupees a month,
it would be necessary that his duties should be extended to the Museum,
and that his salary should be raised, say from 30 to 50, or 60 Ru-
pees a month, which would still leave a balance of 70 or 80 a month
for petty expenses, so that the Government grant would thus just meet
the current expenses of the Museum, exclusive of cabinets and Cura-
tor’s salary.
If we have a Museum, we must have cabinets ; the salary of a Cura-
tor is not however considered so essential, and some of the members of
the Society have already protested against such an expenditure.
In proposing that the office should be an honorary one, I am guided
entirely by what I conceive would be the sentiments of all votaries of
science, without any affectation of disinterestedness on my own part.
Indeed under any circumstances I could not undertake to hold the
office of Curator longer than the plans here proposed should be placed
in proper training, after which, the whole might be conducted by a
subordinate establishment under the direction of the Committee of
418 Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. [ May,
Papers ; a more efficient subordinate establishment might be provided
for the Museum ; the increased value and extent of the collections seem
to me to require more than two native servants, while the carpenters
might be exchanged for collectors. If native collectors, on a monthly
salary of 6 Rupees each be properly attended to and trained, they
would soon put us in possession of most of the insects, fishes, and
crustacea of Bengal, and all such persons, as well as those employed
in the Museum, might be placed under the immediate direction of a
well educated youth from one of the public schools. It would be
necessary that such a person. should be well recommended not only for
general acquirements, but also for his taste in Natural History; the
latter taste of course we could only expect to find in any youth from
a Calcutta Seminary, on the non jit sed nascetur principle.
After providing all that is necessary in the way of cabinets, collec-
tors, and efficient establishments for conducting the duties of the
Museum, if the funds of the Society should still allow of a specific sum
being set apart for the remuneration of a Curator so much the better,
although I must confess I should rather see him in circumstances that
would render pecuniary remuneration from his colleagues unnecessary.
As however it some times happens that science and fortune do not go
hand in hand, a nominal salary of 80 Rupees a month might be as-
signed to the office of Curator. It will be for the Committee of Finance
to determine whether after providing for the increased expenses attend-
ing our augmented collections, a larger sum can consistently with the
receipts of the Society be paid for the object in question.
From the above remarks we may deduce the following rules, which
appear to embrace all that is necessary to secure the progressive ad-
vancement of the Museum :—
1. The direction of the Museum to be entrusted to the-Committee of
Papers, and its duties superintended by a scientific individual
appointed by the Society on the nomination of the Committee.
2. Although the office of Curator is held to be one of distinction, an
allowance of 30 Rupees per mensem is granted by the Society, to
be drawn or not according as the Curator may feel inclined.
3. That the subordinate establishments in the Museum shall consist, if
possible, of two well educated Europeans* or Natives of India, on
a salary of not less than 50 and 12 Rupees per month respectively.
4. That the number and occupation of other servants in the Museum
shall vary according to circumstances.
* This is not intended to interfere with the persons already employed in the Museum.
1839.] Memoranda on the Museum of the Asiatic Society. 419
5. That only two descriptions of cabinets are to be admitted into the
Museum, namely, glass cases of one uniform pattern for the recep-
tion of birds, small quadrupeds and the like, which are to be
placed along the walls; and, tables with glass covers of an uni-
form pattern for the reception of shells, insects, fossils requiring
cabinets, geological specimens, and minerals; to be placed along
the centre of the apartments.
6. That all objects in the Museum be numbered and entered in Muse-
um books to be provided for the purpose, and that duplicates of
birds, shells, insects, and the like, be from time to time transmitted
on the part of the Society, with figured lists, names of original
donors, &c. to such eminent scientific individuals as may seem
most likely to afford correct information regarding them, and who
should be requested to return the lists with the names and refer-
ences inserted opposite each figure or number.
7. That all such communications are to be regularly entered in Muse-
um books, together with such replies as may be received on the
subject.
. June Ath, 1839.
Art. X.—Observations on the “ Report on the Museum of the Asiatic
Society, by Dr. Wu. Jameson,” published in the Journal for March,
1839. By J. T. Pearson, Assistant Surgeon, formerly Curator
of the Museum of the Asiatic Society.
To the Secretaries to the Asiatic Society.
GENTLEMEN—A paper by Dr. Wm. Jameson, entitled a “ Report on
the Museum of the Asiatic Society” having appeared in your Journal for
March last, reached me to day; and as it appears to contain reflec-
tions upon my conduct while Curator of the Society’s Museum; and
recommendations, which if I had not made I should have neglected, or
been ignorant, of my duty; I request you will do me the favour to lay
before the Society the following observations. I perceive you went
out of your usual course to give the “earliest publicity” to what you
deem Dr. Jameson’s “very important” paper; and, therefore, I trust
you will do me the justice to publish my reply in the next number of
your Journal.
__ Dr. Jameson begins by stating his disinclination to report upon the
state of the Society’s Museum, lest he might be considered as “ attack-
ing the proceedings of his predecessors.” A very proper feeling, but
31
420 Observations on the [ May,
which, having overcome, he should not have allowed to retain such
influence over his report, as to induce him to conceal the names of
those, his predecessors, he thought fit to censure. For my part, I wish
he had been more explicit, both for his own sake and for mine; for
hints and insinuations are difficult for me to deal with; while they
leave him open to a suspicion of being one of those who are
«* Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike ;”’
“ Just hint a fault, and hesitate dislike’’—
a character, which I should be very sorry did I really think him to
merit.
However lest I should be accused of appropriating to myself blame
intended for another, conscious of deserving it; I must refer to what
was said by Dr. M‘Clelland (from whom of all men I least expected
an attack) at a late meeting of the Society. Dr. Jameson might easily
err from ignorance; Dr. M‘Clelland could scarcely do so ;—the former
possibly never heard much more of me than my name, still less the
precise part I took in the management of the Museum ; the latter was
aware I was one of those predecessors of Dr. Jameson he took pre-
cedence to. censure* ; though, as he did not know the state of the
collection of Natural History when I took charge (for I believe he had
at that time never seen it) I know not how he can justify his bold
comparison.
Dr. Jameson first notices the “ mznerals” and “ rocks,” and comments
in severe terms upon the state in which he found, and left them.
With this I have nothing to do. The mineralogical and geological
(organic and inorganic) departments were never committed to my care.
Mr. James Prinsep kept them in his own hands; and, in justice to
him, I beg to say, that although from want of cabinets he could not
arrange them; there was, so far as I remember, none of that confusion
and damage Dr. Jameson so forcibly bewails. Certainly they were
packed in drawers, but they were well known to Mr. Prinsep. I
believe most, if not all of consequence, of them, were labelled ; and the
destruction spoken of is far more likely to have happened in their trans-
mission to the Society, than in their quiet dormitories in the Society’s
rooms. At all events, as aforesaid, I had nothing to do with the
mineralogy, nor geology either.t The zoology was my branch of the
* Sic. in M. S.—Eps.
+1 do not know the arrangements made with Mr. Evans; but I believe he had
charge only of the zoological part of the Museum, and consequently was as innocent of
the mismanagement (if any) of the ‘‘minerals and rocks’’ as myself. I think this
due to an absent man. Lieut. Kittoe’s proceedings I know still less of; but he, as well
as the Museum Committee, are here to answer for themselves.
1839.] “‘ Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society.” 421
Museum ; for this, as J left i¢,* I am answerable, and to Dr. Jameson’s
notes upon it I shall briefly reply, in the order of his remarks.
Mammala.—Dr. Jameson states that “many of the specimens of
_ Mammalia are exceedingly good ; but others, from their bad condition,
require to be replaced as soon as possible.” I believe the good speci-
mens are for the most part those procured and set up either by myself
or under my superintendence. The bad ones are what were in the
Museum before I took charge, and were in a most miserable state,
as may be seen from my first annual Report. I left them in the
Museum only till better could be procured, on the principle that a bad
specimen is better than none.
Birds.—Of the 600 birds mentioned by Dr. Jameson, about 360
were procured and prepared by my exertions—many of them shot by
myself; of the rest I err but little if I say, the greater part would never
have reached the Society's Museum, if I had not taken measures,
hereafter to be mentioned, for their collection. Of those prepared in
my time I have copious notes, and the greater portion of a catalogue
made, which is enriched by observations on the manners and habits of
the Indian birds by Mr. C. W. Smith. This I did intend to finish, so
soon as I could get a little respite from the incessant occupation
incidental to the wandering and anxious life I have led since I left
Calcutta, would allow; and I shall be happy to do so as soon as possi-
ble, if the Society wish it. Inthe enumeration of new and rare speci-
mens Dr. Jameson omits the newest and rarest of them all, viz. the
Halcyon amauropterus, mihi, which I discovered, and the Hurim-
rynchus griseus, of which but one other specimen is known.
*Isay as TI left it, because the Editors of the Journal in a note appended to Dr.
Jameson’s Report say, that since his departure, short as the time has been, the minerals
he arranged have been ‘‘swept into chaos by the unguarded hands of Assistants.”
As nearly two years have elapsed since I was Curator, during which the Museum had
been in charge of a Committee and two Curators before Dr. Jameson ; surely some
allowance might have been made for Dr. Jameson’s ‘‘predecessors’’? on the same
score; especially as from the utter failure of the Committee to fulfil the office proper-
ly, the whole management was probably left in their time to the ‘‘ unguarded hands of
Assistants’? only. I think the excuse might have been made for us; not I trust that
I need it, but in common fairness.
¢ As every one with any pretensions to ornithological knowledge is acquainted
with the rareness of this bird, I fear from Dr. Jameson’s silence, it has been lost to, or
abstracted from, the Museum. I hope the Secretaries will inquire into this; for it is
unquestionably the most valuable ornithological specimen we have. (1)
(1) Dr. Pearson’s note.—We have made the suggested inquiry of Dr. M‘Clelland,
who replies thus,
“The Museum is at present in such confusion owing to the repairs of the house, that
it is impossible to say what is in it, and besides all the tickets have fallen off the
birds from damp, as they appear to have been merely fastened with glue.’’—Eps,
499 Observations on the [ May,
Osteology.—The osteological department is well spoken of by Dr.
Jameson. The skeletons he praises were nearly, if not quite, all procured
and articulated under my directions. And those who know by actual
practice, the trouble of preparing bones of a skeleton; and afterwards
the manual labour, and anatomical and mechanical skill requisite to
articulate thern, will not be disposed to censure me, or withhold their
praise from my industrious and willing assistant M. Bouchez; for the
value of who’s services I am pleased at having another opportunity of
recording my thanks.
Ichthyological, E'rpetological, Conchological, ce. Departments.—As
Dr. Jameson says nothing about these, I shall follow his example,
except to observe, that the want of bottles, and means to arrange the
specimens, placed them in nearly the same condition as that of the
minerals ; that I procured most of them; the land and fresh water
shells of India in particular were chiefly from my own collection, and so
were the insects, except a few presented by Dr. M‘Clelland, and one
or two other individuals, and some from Chirra Poonjee and Sylhet,
which I purchased.
With regard to Dr. Jameson’s suggestions—I have to observe, that
fitting up the bird-cases with shelves, is doubtless an alteration, but
no improvement upon the plan I adopted. Shelves in high cases, like
the Society’s, obstruct the view of the specimens and darken the cases ;
and for these reasons I removed them. By my plan the specimens
could be systematically arranged, and were so; and in my opinion it
admitted of far more being placed in a given space than the shelving
system. As to the classification of the birds, I followed that of Vigors,
as given in the Zoological Journals, and Stephens’ andShaw’s Zoology as
being simple, easy of access to common readers, and highly approved of
by eminent zoologists. No doubt it has faults, but it is the system
(perhaps I should say method) best adapted to a Museum where the
majority of members are not professed ornithologists ; and to change it
for that of Cuvier, the chief merit of which is being part of a general
systematic work, is I submit, another instance of an alteration being no—
improvement. *
Dr. Jameson next suggests that the cases should be made “ air tight
by lining the edges of the doors with shamois leather, poisoned with
arsenic.” I fully agree with him that specimens of Natural History can be
preserved here, and I will go further than he does, and say, they can be
preserved here not only almost, but quite as well as they can be in Europe;
but not by the means he points out. As for making a case air-tight, the
thing is impossible; but it may be made tight enough to become continual-
ly damp within—arather curious mode of preserving the specimens. Years
,
x
:
i
fy!
_*
1839.] bia Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society.” 423
ago I pointed out to the Society, and practised, with complete success, the
plan I suggested of keeping the cases open as much as possible, particu-
larly in fine weather. When specimens are well aired, and the pernicious
practice of shutting them up in tight cases is abandoned, they can be
kept as well in Bengal as in England. I had some in my private col-
lections which I prepared seven years before, and in so perfect a state
as not to have lost a feather;* and I venture to assert that no one
while the Museum was under my charge ever saw one of the specimens
prepared from fresh birds, either in a decayed or damaged state. In
fact, nothing will keep in a damp climate unless frequently aired,
whether animal or vegetable specimens, stationery or linen, silks or
satins, pack them in tin and air-tight boxes how we may,—a fact which
will be borne testimony to by every old lady in Bengal.
Again with regard to Dr. Jameson’s “ desiderata ;”—I regret that
neither he himself, nor any of his friends, consulted the Journal,
or inquired what had been done by those predecessors he assumes to be
so worthy of censure. Had he done so, he would have found, that
I did “ get up under the auspices of the Society” the instructions or
*‘ memorial” as he terms it, (which forms the first of his list of ‘ desi-
derata”) giving brief instructions how to collect, prepare, and pack objects
of Natural History ; and that it was extensively circulated both by Mr.
Prinsep and myself. This memorandum, moreover, was followed by
a very long paper of no less than ten closely printed pages in the
number of August 1835, of the Journal of the Asiatic Society; in
which were detailed the plans followed by the best taxidermists in
Europe, and the result of my own experience of eight years in this
country. A further experience of four years has given me but little
to add; so I think the Society cannot do better than re-print and
circulate that paper. I shall be happy to make a few alterations in,
and additions to it, and Dr. Jameson will perhaps favour us with his
remarks, or some account of such methods as may have been recently
brought into notice in Europe; while Dr. M‘Clelland can append a
list of specimens required by the Society. When my paper was written
every thing was welcome, and consequently no such list appended.
These papers were eminently successful; great numbers of specimens
having been sent in soon after their having been circulated: probably
copies of the shorter one are still in the Secretary’s office.
* For this see the Felis kutas, mihi, in the Society’s Museum, which I mounted
in December 1831; and when I left Calcutta in 1837, nearly six years afterwards, its
preservation was so perfect, that though a heavy specimen, I lifted it up by the hair of
the back without injury. I need scarcely say it had never been shut up in an air-
tight case, .
424 Observations on the [ May,
I believe I have now replied to the zoological part of Dr. Jameson’s
observations, and shewn—First, that the censure he bestows does not
belong to me; secondly, that those parts of the Museum he praises
- were especially under my care; and, thirdly, that his suggestions for the
improvement of the zoological department of the Museum are either
pernicious, or have been anticipated years ago. I shall now proceed to
state what I did while I held the office of Curator, so that he, or any
body else who feels disposed to the work, may deal out upon me the
censure he may consider me to merit; for, as I wish not to usurp
credit which does not belong to me, I am not any longer inclined to
be under imputations of misconduct and neglect, oo the errors and
omissions of others.
I think it was so early as the year 1830 that I proposed to Sir E.
Ryan, then, as now, the most disinterested lover of science in the So-
ciety, the establishment of a Museum of Natural History for the Asiatic
Society. I was at that time at Midnapore, and the suggestion, though
favoured with his support, was too much in advance of the feelings of
the day, almost exclusively confined to the love of Oriental literature.
On removing to Calcutta in 1832, I proposed the matter to the Society
at large; but nothing could be done till July 1833, when I was ap-
pointed, much against my will, honorary Curator of the Museum of
Natural History. This I nominally held till March 1835, and it was
but nominally, to please Mr. Prinsep, and against my own wishes and»
judgment ; for no assistance was given me. I could but ill afford to”
keep up additional expenses to convey me to the Museum; and more
than all, I felt that my circumstances were then such as not to warrant
my so giving up time, which I ought to employ to the benefit of my
family ; therefore I resigned the situation, and proposed, that a per- —
son properly qualified should be sent for from Europe, to fill it. The
subject was hereupon referred to the Committee of Papers (as it is re- _
ported in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, but as I think, to a Sub-
Committee) for the purpose of considering the question. This Com-
mittee consulted Baron Hugel, and the majority agreed that fof various
reasons, stated in their report, it would be better to employ a Curator
already in the country, whose services could be procured at less cost,
and devote part of the sum proposed, for the contingent expenses. To
this the Society agreed, and I was elected Curator in April 1835, .as
an experiment for one year.
When I took charge of the Museum no order nor arrangement had
been observed ; specimens of the arts and sciences of India, and the
neighboring countries, of their religion and manufactures, antique
and modern, were mixed with those of Natural History in abundant
|
1839.] “Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society.” 425
confusion. The cases were dirty, and falling to pieces, with wooden
doors ; the rooms damp ; and the specimens decaying. All this was
reduced to order. In the words of my first annual report—“ The first
step was to divide the Museum into two distinct parts ; one consisting
of the works of art ; the other, of the productions of nature. The nu-
merous valuable specimens of the former being lost in the rooms be-
low, were removed into the entrance hall, staircase, and gallery, where
they now are, and where they are seen, as we all know, to the greatest
advantage; and their removal allowed of the apartments they oc-
eupied being entirely devoted to the Natural History portion of the
Museum.
‘“‘ On examination, the specimens of Natural History were found, for
the most part, in a very neglected state. In Osteology they were nu-
merous, and some of these very valuable ; but many were more or less
mutilated, and the teeth of the skulls lost, while no catalogue, nor even
memorandum of the greater portion could be found. The first care
was to remedy this : the broken specimens were repaired, so far as they
could be repaired ; and a catalogue was made which includes every
thing concerning them that can be gleaned from the Researches and
other quarters, whether as to the specimens themselves, or the names
of the donors. In making this catalogue some difficulty was experi-
enced from the want of any notices of the specimens, and from there
being no objects of comparison, by which to discover the species of an
animal, of which we had perhaps but a horn, or a single bone.
“ While this was going on, attention was also directed to the forma-
tion of a cabinet of reference to compare the fossil remains in which
the Museum is so rich with the living congeners of the animals to
which they belonged. This is in its very nature a tedious and labori-
ous work ; but already there have been articulated, and set up, skele-
tons of a Monkey, Weasel, Cat, Rat, Musk-deer, Horse, Parrot, and
Tortoise. The Rhinoceros, which was before but badly put together,
has been made the most of that its condition would allow ; and an
Elephant’s skeleton,* and those of another Horse and Tortoise are
being prepared. As this branch of the Museum is of the greatest im-
portance, I am anxious to render it as complete as possible ; and with
this view have written to various individuals likely to further our ob-
ject, who have promised the bones of the Camel, wild Buffalo, large
Deer of various kinds, the large Bullock of Upper India, tlte Tapir, and
the Alligator ; and we may expect soon to receive them.”
But for full information I beg to refer to the report, which was pub-
* This was afterwards found unfit for articulation, and I procured another.
426 Observations on the [ May,
lished in the Journal of the Asiatic Society for April 1836 ; where it
will be seen that in one year the Museum put on a different aspect from
what it presented when I took charge. The damp was got rid of ;
most of the cases were altered and repaired ; the decayed specimens
were restored as far as possible ; an Osteological catalogue was made ;
that of the Birds began ; nine complete skeletons were articulated ;
twelve specimens of Mammalia, and 133 birds were mounted, and more
than 500 specimens of Vertebrata ; 150 Molusca, some Crustacea, and
several hundred insects were added to the Museum ; and the Commit-
tee was so well satisfied with my exertions as to resolve—“ That the
Committee are highly pleased with the arrangements adopted by Dr,
Pearson in the Museum, and with the progress it has made under his
supervision ; and they have no hesitation in recommending to the So-
ciety a continuation of the same system which has proved so beneficial
and effective during the experimental year.”*
My copy of the Journal for the first months of 1837 was lost in a
boat on the Ganges, and I have but a draft copy of my report for
that year. But from this I learn that in the second year, the ar-
rangements of the last year were followed out by improving the
appearance of the apartments by matting the rooms; while by free ven-
tilation the damp, from which so much inconvenience was formerly
experienced, altogether disappeared. The remainder of the cabinets,
save one, were glazed, and made ready for specimens; and subscrip-
tions were set on foot for adding to them. There were mounted in the
Museum, twenty-eight specimens of Mammalia, two hundred and thirty
birds—ten of large size ; and sixteen reptiles ; and eight skeletons were
prepared and articulated. Besides these there were presented twenty-
eight osteological specimens. Most of the reptiles, the fishes, and in-
vertebrated animals are not enumerated in my draft of the report ; but
i believe they amounted to several hundred specimens.
Thus in two years there were prepared by myself and under my
superintendence,
17 Articulated Skeletons,
363 Mounted Birds,
40 Mounted Mammalia,
and a large collection was made, principally by myself and my own
servants, of other vertebrated and invertebrated animals. The skele-
tons of all the large Mammalia we have were thus procured. Those of
the Orang-Outang, Monkey, Weasel, Cat, Rat, Musk-deer, Cow, Horse,
Ass, Hog, Rhinoceros, Parrot, Adjutant, Tortoises, &c., were procured
7.
* Journal of the Asiatic Society, April 1836, page 253.
1839.] . “ Report on the Museum of the Asiatic Society.” 427
entirely by my exertions. When the Orang-Outang* died its owner
directed the skin to be tanned, and the carcase thrown away. As I had
long had my eye upon it, I soon found out what had been done, hastened
to the owner, and by recovering the greater part of the bones (all save
a few of the feet, I think) had the pleasure of setting up in the Museum
one of the most valuable skeletons in the world. The carcase of the
Rhinoceros was sent to Dr. Grant by Mr. J. H. Barlow, who shot him ;
Dr. Grant gave it to me, and I presented it, with his consent, to
the Society in Mr. Barlow's name. In fact I procured all these
specimens by my own exertions (for there was not one in the Museum
when I became Curator) as well as the skeleton of the Elephant, which
was about being articulated when I gave up the office.
Besides these things I maintained at my own expense an exten-
sive correspondence with various individuals to induce them to send
specimens to the Museum; and represented to the members of the
Government, with an urgency which I fear was sometimes thought
scarcely becoming, the importance of expeditions undertaken into
countries but little known, being accompanied by persons qualified
to make zoological collections. For instance, I represented to Sir
C. Metcalfe, that the attention of the Assam Tea expedition should be
directed as much as possible to this object, and I believe it was in conse-
quence of this recommendation, that any zoological collections were
made in that expedition. I did the same when Dr. Richardson’s expe-
dition into the Shan country was contemplated; and I have reason to
believe he would have been accompanied by an officer expressly for
this purpose, had he not set out sooner than was expected. In short, I
can safely say, I lost no opportunity of acquiring specimens for the
Museum, and of advancing zoological knowledge. All this was not done
in a corner; but is well known to the President, to some of the Vice-
Presidents, and to the Members of the Committee of Papers of the day.
And it was done too at a time when an up-hill battle had to be fought.
No Government allowance was then given to the Society ; and a great
number of the members of most influence were opposed to spending
their money on a Museum of Natural History. Indeed so begrudgingly
were the necessary expenses bestowed, that I had both years to advance
money, every month, for contingent expenses, at my own risk, while I
paid the salary of young Nicholas, M. Bouchez’s nephew, out of my own
pocket, and thus brought him up as another valuable Assistant in
* Though here called an Orang-Outang, for want of a name which an English
reader can well understand, I believe the specimen to be the female of the Sima
Satyrus, the Gigantic Ape shot by Capt. Cornefoot in Sumatra, which was described in
the Researches, and whose jaw bone is in the Museum.
ork
428 Observations on the LMay, @
the Museum. I beg not to be misunderstood as assuming any merit for #
these things; it was my duty to do them, and it is to shew I did not q
neglect my duty, that I venture to mention them.
With regard to catalogues, it was no use to prepare one of the
Invertebrata till a collection could be made worthy of a catalogue
being prepared; nor of the Vertebrata, which could not be displayed.
But of the former the shells were all fixed upon ebony boards, and label-
led with their names and locality—a measure which obviated the
necessity for a catalogue, and rendered the making one an easy matter ;
while of the latter, I both labelled and made a catalogue of the
osteological specimens, collecting, at no little pains, all the information —
that could be procured about them, and the names of the donors, from
the Researches and Records of the Society. The Mammalia and Birds
were all labelled in a similar manner, and a catalogue prepared of a
portion of the former, and more than 200 of the latter. These cata-
logues I shall be happy to send to the Society ; the two first immediately, |
if so required, though I had rather delay doing so till I can copy out —
and finish the third. | |
I have now given a fair exposition of my conduct, and furnished any —
person who may be inclined to comment upon it with ample materials. —
I hope I have done it in a proper spirit, and avoided any needless »
asperity of remark: it has been my aim to do so, to defend myself, to |
offend none; but if I have unfortunately been too harsh, I am sorry for
it, and hope some allowance will be made for the feelings of a man who |
knows that so far from deserving censure for having neglected his duty —
as Curator of the Museum, he is fully entitled to the thanks the Society
accorded him when his services were fresh before them; and that but |
for his exertions there would not at this moment have been a Museum |
of Natural History at all.
I have only further to remark, that placed in a public situation as
a servant of the Society, I had reason to expect my proceedings would
be narrowly watched ; and I have no objection to the criticism which |
by accepting the situation I courted. But I have a right to demand |
that the criticism should be fair; and that I should not be censured for |
the blunders or neglect, (if such there were) of others. I pretend to |
no profound knowledge of Natural History—a science in which, (as I |
have pursued it as an amusement, and a relaxation from the more seri- |
ous, and to me more important, study of my profession) I am pro- |
bably inferior to Dr. Jameson and many others in the country; but I}
yield not to him, nor to any one else, in the faithful performance of any |
duty I venture to undertake.
1839.] ‘ Report on the Museum of the Astatic Society.” 429
In conclusion, I do not apologise to yourselves, Gentlemen, for tres-
passing so long upon your pages, for it is in the very nature of a
defence to take up more room than an attack; and having published
the attack, I am sure you will do me the justice to publish my defence ;
and the same sense of justice will prevent you from prescribing its
limits; while I should be wanting in respect to the Society, if I failed
to do my utmost to demonstrate that one, whose services they so long
thanked, and paid for, did not unworthily receive their favours.
I have the honor to be, Gentlemen,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Darjeeling, 24th June, 1839. J. T. PEARSON.
ey
Se ena
Art. XI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
( Wednesday Evening, the \st May, 1839.)
At a Meeting of the Asiatic Society held in the Grand Jury Room :—
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
Read the Proceedings of the last Meeting.
Dr. Martin was proposed by Dr. O'SHAUGHNESSY, seconded by the President.
Dr. Bain was proposed by the Officiating Secretary, seconded by the Bisnop of
Calcutta.
_ Professor AGassi1z was proposed as an Honorary Member by the President, second-
ed by the Bisuop of Calcutta.
The Nomination was referred to the Committee of Papers.
Read a letter from the Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, acknowledging
the receipt of presentation copies of Oriental publications, forwarded by the Society.
Read a letter from Professor LassEn to the address of Mr. James PRINSEP, pro-
posing that the Society should establish an agency in Bonn for the sale of San-
serit publications, and bearing warm testimony to the great importance of Mr. J.
Prinsep’s recent discoveries; requesting also information on the subject of specimens
of birds which may be procurable here.
Resolyed—That the thanks of the Society be presented to Professor Lassen for his
liberal proposal in respect to the agency for the sale of Oriental publications, which
appears calculated to be very beneficial to the Society, and that the Officiating Se-
eretary be requested to communicate with him on the subject, stating that the Society
has entirely left with him the selection of an agent in Bonn for the sale of Oriental
publications.
The Officiating Secretary then read several applications for the situation of Curator,
vacated by the departure of Mr. Jamrson, but as the candidates’ qualifications had
not been considered by the Committee of Papers to reach the standard required by
the Society, —
It was proposed by Dr. O‘SHAUGHNEsSY, seconded by Captain Fornes—That Dr.
M‘CLELLanp be requested to accept the office of Curator, on the usual allowances.
Dr. M‘CLEeLianp returned thanks to the Society, and expressed his readi-
ness to forward the views of the Society in any manner that he was able; but
430 Asiatic. Society. | [ May,
he regretted that in consequence of his official duties he would not be able to devote
more than two hours in the morning to the duties of the Museum. He further stated,
that if he accepted the situation on the usual allowances he should beg to condition,
that as long as he was Curator no subscriptions be received from members for the
preservation of the various collections in the Museum—the whole amount of the
salary should be devoted to that object. :
The President said that though the offer was very liberal, yet the Society he
thought ought to meet from its own funds all such expenses as might be recom-
"mended by Dr. M‘CLELLAND, without sacrifice to his personal allowance. Dr.
M‘CLELLAND consented that the appointment should stand on this footing.
Read a letter from Dr. G. VANDENBURGH, of Bonn, touching a box of shells sent by
the Society. The names having been detached from the shells, he solicited the Society
to transmit another supply, correctly labelled and packed. Resolved—That the letter be
referred to the Committee of Papers.
Library.
The following Books were presented :—
Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, for 1837, 5th Part, Vol. 2—Part 2,
of 1838 and Vol. 2, Part 3, for 1839-—by the Society.
History, Antiquities, Topography, and Statistics of Eastern India, by Mr. Martin,
London 1838, royal 8vo. 3 vols. ——by the Government of India.
Pickering’s Remarks on the Indian Languages of North America—by the American
Philosophical Society.
_ Ditto Eulogy on Dr. Bowpitcu, Cambridge, 1838,—By ditto. .
Translation of the Arabian Nights, by Moonshee SHumMsuppEEN AuHMUD, in Hindee, —
Vol. I,—2 copies.
Mathematical Principles of Mechanical Philosophy, by the Rev. J. H. Pratrr—
by the author.
The following received from the Booksellers :—
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia on Probabilities.
History of British Birds by W. Yarrext, Nos. | to 9.
Museum.
Various skins and specimens were presented in the name of Mr. James MippLETON.
Antiquities.
The Officiating Secretary exhibited to the Meeting drawings of Col. Stacy’s coins
cut on type-metal by HurrEEMOHUN, a Native Artist, employed in the Calcutta Mint.
Read a letter from Mr. T. H. Satz, of Sylhet, forwarding a facsimile of an inserip-
tion taken by him at Gohattee.
A similar donation was received frem Lieut. McGrecor, obtained from the ruins of
a fort he was taking down. ‘The character in which the inscription was written was
clearly legible, but no meaning could be gathered from the sentences.
Captain James Low forwarded a paper on the Laws of Siam. Referred to the Com-
mittee of Papers.
In pursuance of the resolution of the last Meeting, Mr. SurHERLAND stated that the
Commentary compiled by PRemcuunp NyaruTRa was more compendious than the works
from which it was taken, but seemed to him calculated to answer all the purposes re-
quired, [t was a continuation of that printed in the first volume of the work in question,
1839.] Asiatic Society. 431
and had the same merits and defects, but in consequence of some doubt as to whether the
Commentary so prepared was likely to be acceptable to Sanscrit students, Mr. James
PriNsEpP had sent to Benares for the Commentary at length.
It was therefore proposed by Mr. H. T. Prinsep, seconded by Captain W. N.
Forses—That the best mode of clearing up the difficulty would be to send copies to the
Sanscrit Colleges of Benares and Calcutta, and also to Messrs. Hopcson and WI -
KTNSON, requesting them to favor the Society with their opinion on the merits of the
work in its present form, and the expediency of continuing its publication.
The proposition was unanimously agreed to-
Read an application from Newab Tanawur June; requesting the Society to
make a representation to Government on the subject of a subscription for a certain
number of copies of the ‘‘ Sharaya Islam,’’ the publication of which had been under-
taken by himself in conjunction with the Society, and copies of which might probably
be required for the use of the Courts or of the Seminaries of Education supported by
Government.
Resolved that the request be complied with.
Col. Benson handed over to the Officiating Secretary a letter he had received from
the vicinity of Amarapoora, dated 23d March, containing an account of an awful earth-
quake that had occurred in that country.
On the conclusion of the general business of the evening, Mr. H. T. Prinsep stated
that he was happy to have it in his power to inform the Meeting of a very distinguish-
ed honor that had been conferred upon a Member of the Society, whose selection for
the unsolicited distinction was a compliment paid to the whole body.
It had fallen to him, Mr. P. stated, to be the official channel for transmitting to Mr.
Hopeson, of Nipal, the diploma and letter of appointment as Chevalier of the
Legion of Honor of France, which the enlightened Government of that nation had con-
ferred upon this gentleman, in acknowledgment of his successful labours in the elucida-
tion of various questions of Budhistical faith and doctrine, and in the discovery and
procurement of the volumes ‘“‘ Kahgyur’’ and ‘“‘ Stagyur,’’? in which a vast mine of
curious literature had been concealed, no less than as a tribute due to his zeal in dis-
covering and making known a great variety of new objects of Natural History and
Science.
It was heretofore a rare thing to see the Societies of Europe paying tribute to the worth
and services rendered to Science and Literature by the learned, in this distant quarter ;
but of late years their merits had worked out for them a reputation which was now uni-
versally acknowledged. Still admission on the ground of literary and scientific attain-
ment to the distinctions conferred by the Sovereigns of other countries was a compliment
that Mr. Hopa@son only had yet received ; and Mr. Prinsep added, he felt assured that
the Society would be glad to have the circumstance placed upon the Records of its Pro-
ceedings. Mr. P. then communicated a copy of the diploma of appointment as
Chevalier of the Legion of Honor which had just been received, having been trans-
mitted through the Honorable Court of Directors to the Government, to be forwarded
_ to Mr. Hopeson. Ordered to be deposited.
432 Asiatic Society. [ May,
Art. XII.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
( Wednesday Evening, the 5th June, 1839.)
Ata Meeting of the Asiatic Society held in the Grand Jury Room:—
The Honorable Sir EK. Ryan, President, in the chair.
Read the Proceedings of the last Meeting.
Drs. Martin and Bain, proposed at the last Meeting, were ballotted for, and duly
elected Members of the Society.
Professor AGAssiz, of Geneva, proposed at the last Meeting, was upon the favourable
Report of the Committee of Papers, elected an Honorary Member of the Society.
Dr. T. A. Wisgk was proposed by Sir Epwarp Ryan, seconded by Dr.
O‘SHAUGHNESSY,
Library.
Read a letter from JouN WASHINGTON, Esq., Secretary Royal Geographical Society,
forwarding for presentation the following works, and stating that any Geographical and
Statistical Documents would be acceptable in return :—
Transactions of the Geographical Society, 8 vols.
Translation of Gran’s Voyage to Greenland.
Read a letter from Mr. N. Grant, forwarding for presentation, in behalf of
Mr. STANISFORTH, a copy of the Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Inscriptions
et Belles Lettres, &c. in 51 vols. :
Read a letter from J. P. Grant, Esa., Secretary to the Government of India,
Revenue Department, forwarding for presentation the following Books :—
Illustrations of Indian Botany, No. 9, and Figures of Indian Plants.
Antiquities.
Five Greek Coins, obtained at Delhi by Mr. J. Ropinson, were presented by J.
W. Grant, Esa.
Three Copper Coins were presented by Dr. G. G. Spiuspury.
Lieut. McGreeor forwarded facsimiles of various inscriptions.
Mr, E. C. RavensHaw communicated a few inscriptions, collected by him in a late
tour through the district of Behar. (Printed in this Number.)
A Tamba Patra with its translation and note on the same, were presented by H. T.
Prinszp, Esa. (This Paper is printed in the April Number.)
Physical.
A Table shewing the Mortality in 13,019 fatal cases in Hindus, distinguishing the
diseases and duration thereof, by Dr. Duncan STEWaRT, was read and ordered to be
inserted in the Journal. (Printed in the April Number.)
The Officiating Secretaries apprized the Meeting of the completion of Part 2.
Vol. 20 of the Asiatic Society’s ‘‘ Literary Researches.”
Resolved—That copies be distributed to the members.
_ oa ae
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 433
Art. XIII..—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
( Wednesday Evening, the 3rd July, 1839.)
At a Meeting of the Asiatic Society, held in the Grand Jury Room :—~
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
Dr. T. A. Wise proposed at the last Meeting, was ballotted for, and duly elects a
Member of the Society.
Read a letter from J. K. Kane, Esa. Secretary of the American Philosophical
Society, acknowledging receipt of several Nos. of the Journal of the Asiatic Society,
old series.
Library.
Read a letter from H. T. PrinsEep, Esa. Secretary to the Government of Bengal,
General Department, forwarding for presentation the following printed copies of pub-
lic records :—
Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council of England, vols.
6th, and 7th, 1837, royal 8vo. 2... 5¢ Sone bette
Kalendars and Inventories of His Majesty’s Exchequer, vols. J, 2, 3,
1836, royal 8vo. 50 aie Ae ae icy 13)
Documents and Records illustrating the History of oar en 1837,
vol. Ist, royal 8vo. ous a oe : sage
Excerpta é Rotulis finium in turri Londinensi aera Henrico
Tertio Rege, 1836, vol. 2d, royal 8vo. se a stall
Rotulorum Patentium et Clausorum Cancellariz Hibernie eee
darium, 1828, vol. Ist, part 1, royal folio, ae site
Rotuli Chartarum in turri Londinensi Asservatarum, 1837, vol. I,
part 1, royal folio, .. : sees oe sehen
Inquisitionum in Offic. Rot. Can. Hiberniz, Repertorium, vol. 1, La-
genia, 1826, et Ultonia, 1829, vols. 2, royal folio, .. oe 2
Report (General) of the Commissioners on Public Records, 1837,
royal folio. : “> ere +s ae baile |
“The Record of Geeanke vee Registrum Vulgariter Nuncupatum
é Codice M. Sta. Harleiano 696, Descriptum, 1838, royal folio, .. 1
The Officiating Secretary apprized the Meeting that the Geological Society of
London has complied with the Society’s application for a duplicate copy of the de-
ficient part of the 4th vol. of their Transactions.
Read a letter from the Rev. W. Yarss, forwarding for presentation a copy of his
translation of the Psalms of David, in Sanscrit Verse, and offering to supply copies
for distribution to all the learned institutions with which the Society exchanges its
publications.
Journal of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 1837, vol. 7th, part 2d,
8v0.—presented by the Academy.
Kittoe’s lustrations of Indian Architecture, Nos. 3, 4,—presented by the Author.
Chinese Repository, vol. 6th, from January No. 9 to April, 1838, No. 12.
Ditto ditto vol. 7th, from May No. 1 to September 1838, No. 5,—presented by the
Editors.
New Testament in Hindustanf, royal 8vo.—presented by the Baptist Mission Press.
4314 Asiatic Society. [ May,
From the Booksellers.
Naturalist’s Library, Mammalia, vol. 8th, 465 osee ae YE
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, History of Denmark,
History of British Birds, by W. Yarre wt, London, 1839, parts 10th
and 11th, uns % ae ee bl oe
Antiquities.
Read a letter from H. T. Prinser, Esa., forwarding on behalf of the Government of
India for deposit in the Asiatic Society’s Museum a Silver Plate from Kotah.
To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society.
Political Dept.
Sir,—-I am directed by the President in Council to request you will lay before the
Meeting of the Asiatic Society the accompanying Silver Plate received by Govern-
ment from Kotah, where it is stated to have been used for taking observations of altitude
and distance.
2d The plate has been for sometime in the Government Toshakhanah, and His
Honor in Council does not think that he can dispose of it more usefully than by pre-
senting it for deposit in the Museum of the Asiatic Society.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Council Chamber, 26th June, 1839. H. T. PRINSEP,
Secy. to the Govt.
A description and drawing of this plate will be given in a future number,
Mr. R. Davipson forwarded a bag of leaden Coins for presentation to the Society ;
_ the donor has promised to send descriptive notice upon a future occasion.
Mr. W. Locke, of Chuprah, forwarded three large slabs with inscriptions, for pre-
sentation to the Society.
Mr. H. T. Prinsep submitted to the Meeting a palm leaf manuscript having the
appearance of great antiquity, and which from the circumstance of there being no
separate note of the date of copy is presumed to be the original as prepared by the
commentator, near 800 years ago. The Pothi came by dawk to Mr. Prinsep’s
address from Col. ALvEs, who forwarded it from Rajwara shortly before he left that
country for the Cape of Good Hope, but sent no letter with it explanatory of his wishes
or intentions. It is presumed that this is the work referred to in the Proceedings of the
oth April, 1837, vol. vi. p. 240, and therein mentioned as the ‘‘ Baudh mat Jain mary
grantha,’’ and which the Society then expressed the desire to obtain. Mr. Prinsep
added that the manuscript had been put into the hands of KamaLakantTna for ascer-
tainment of its value and character. It proves to be a copy of the Sama Vaya, in the
Maghadhi Bhosha by Jinesuwar, a Jain, with a commentary in Sanscrit by ABHYA
Deva, composed in 1119 Sumbut, corresponding with 1063 a. p.
The work begins with an exposition of the Boodhist religion as professed by Jains,
including the worship of Harr, Hora, and Hiranyagarba, i. e. of Vishnu, Siva, and
Brahma. Then follow discourses—on Dharma and Adharma, showing what is religion
and what irreligion, and on the qualities and perfections of Bhugwan Sakhya Boodh.
On the virtue of abstaining from taking animal life, and of truth and honesty. A re-
solution of all things to one God. On the place of abode of Devas and their méans
1839. Asiatic Society. 435
of locomotion. An explanation of regeneration, and the course of life by which the
future birth and condition are affected. By what course of action the mind is to be
brought into a state of purity and immunity from worldly passion. Whatsins are fallen
into from association with women and loose companions.
On the measurement and depth of the Ocean.
On mental abstraction and worship. On food. What is proper and what improper to
be eaten. On times for worship with’ reference to phases of the Sun and Moon. On be-
haviour to Gooroos and persons of sanctity. Ditto in assemblies of Jains. On logical
proofs and the means of verification.
On the twelve motives of action in man.
On the Saméra mountain, its locality, height, &c. It is described as having day only
on one side at atime, the other side being in the shadows of night, and as being always
to the north of every other country. This description would make it the north pole.
On the size of the Earth and its seven Dweeps.
On the Bharut Baria, that is the civilized world of Hindoostan, and the Ayjya
Baria from the Himalaya to the Bind mountains in Rajmahal, including Behar, which
is described as the site of all excellence and the birth-place of Bhugwan Sakhya
Boodh, and full of sacred places of pilgrimage, of learned men, and authors of holy
books.
The work closes with two slokas in praise of JINESHWAR, the author of the original
treatise in the Maghadha language. The commentator describes him as the author
of Granthas, and his own Gooroo or spiritual teacher. The Pundit KaMaALAKANTHA
concludes the meaning to be, that he is the author of this particular work the ‘‘ Sama
Vaya; but the Jain Pundits declare the treatise to be of much greater antiquity
than the commentary, and construe the expression ‘author of Granthas’’ as merely
describing him as an author, not as the author of the particular work.
Ordered that the book be deposited, and that the thanks of the Society be conveyed
to Col. Atvegs for this valuable addition to its Library.
Physical,
Various specimens of fossils were forwarded for presentation by Dr. G. G. Spits-
BURY.
Read a letter from M. A. D. De Casanova, intimating that His Majesty the King
of Oude has forwarded through his Minister the Nawab Manamep ALi Kuan,
for presentation to the Society, skeletons of an Elephant, of a Camel, and of a Tiger,
prepared by the writer of the letter.
Read a letter from H. T. Prinsep, Esq., transmitting copy of a letter from Mr.
Assistant Surgeon Pearson to his address regarding specimens of a fragrant wood,
leaves, and bark, found by him in the Darjeeling hills—also of a mineral occuring
in the same locality.
The tree in question is doubtless the Cinnamomum tamala, common on the lower
range of hills, and which affords the Tezpat of the bazars. The mineral is identical
with the coarse Plumbago discovered by Dr. CuapMan in 1837.
To the Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
Political Dept.
Sir,—I am directed by His Honor the President in Council to transmit to you the
enclosed copy of a letter from Mr. Assistant Surgeon Parson, under date the
aya
436 Asiatic Society. [May,
10th ultimo, together with specimens of a fragrant wood and other articles found in
the mountains of Darjeeling, and to request the opinion of the Society as to whether
the articles are a valuable product. ;
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Fort William, \2th June, 1839. H. T. PRINSEP,
Secy. to the Govt. of India.
To H. T. Prinsep, Esa., Secretary to the Government of India, &c. &c. &c.
Sir,—I have the honor to forward for the consideration of the Government, and
presentation to the Asiatic Society, should it be deemed fit, a specimen ofa fragrant
wood found in these mountains, the leaves of the tree of the same, a gummy substance
found in the Morung, and a mineral I discovered between Pemkabarry and Idwisean-
gurry ; in the hope that they may be found useful.
The tree from which these specimens were taken was about nine inches in diameter,
and twenty-five or thirty feet high. The bark and the wood appear to be equally
fragrant, and the odour to be developed by the application of a gentle heat; along
with the wood are a few detached pieces of bark.
The leaves of the above tree are called Tej-Putta, or Tez-Path, or some such name,
as I am told; and are used in curry as a mussala. If so, the tree is probably well ~
known to others, though new to me; but I doubt if the fragrant quality of the wood
is known.
The gum is common in the Morung, and may be collected in large quantities if —
thought worth the trouble.
The mineral is in a considerable quantity by the road side. I have not the means of
analysis, but it appears to me to possess some of the qualities of plumbago. I had
neither means nor time to search for purer specimens, but if my conjecture is correct,
this mineral promises to be useful for machinery, and some of the purposes of inferior
black lead. I have said that it appears to be a sort of plumbago, and I may point out
how near some of it looks allied to micaceous schist, from whence, again, the transi-
tion is easy to some of the forms of gneiss. I have, &c.
Darjeeling, 10th May, 1839. (Signed, ) J.T. PEARSON,
Asst. Surgeon.
(True copy, ) H. T. PRINSEP,
| Secy. to the Govt. of India.
Read extracts from a letter from M. Alphonze Bazin, Baron du Chanay, &c.,
with reference to a project of an Electro-Hydraulic Telegraph for effecting correspon-
dence between Calcutta, London, and the rest of the world. An analysis of the
memoir was given, specifying construction and expenses. The illustrative drawings and
plans were also exhibited. | |
Proposed by Dr. O’SHauGunessy, seconded by the Lorp Bisuop of Calcutia,
and carried unanimously—That a Sub-Committee of the Society be appointed to exa-
mine and report on the project to the next Meeting, to be held in the first week
of August.
M. Alp. Bazin communicated through the Secretary to the Meeting, that his politi-
cal engagements, and the unsettled state of European affairs, rendered it absolutely ne-
cessary that his plans should be examined and reported on without delay, and he named
the 12th July as the longest period he could wait the decision of the Society.
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1839. ] Asiatic Society. 437
It was thereon explained to M. Bazin by the Secretary, that the rules of the Society
did not permit a reply being given within the period proposed; and that the pro-
ject was so vast and extensive that it required to be studied with proportionate delibera-
tion. M. De Bazin still pressing for an early reply, it was proposed by the Honorable
Sir Edward Ryan, President, seconded by the Honorable Sir John Peter Grant,
and unanimously agreed to—
That the memoirs, plans, estimates, drawings, &c. communicated by M. Bazin be
returned to that gentleman with the usual acknowledgments.
The Officiating Secretary then read the following Memorandum on the Society’s
finances, income, and expenditure :—
To the President and Committee of Papers of the Asiatic Society.
GENTLEMEN,
I have to solicit your attentive and immediate consideration of the circumstances
am about to bring to your notice regarding the state of the finances of the Society.
The subject divides itself under two sections—lIst, the liabilities of the Society for
past causes of expenditure; and, 2d, the current or monthly expenses on the scale
at present sanctioned.
Our liabilities under the first head amount to the large sum of Rupees 16,530, and
proceed from three items—7348 Rupees due to the Baptist Mission Press for the publi-
cation of the ‘‘ Mahabharata’ &c.; 1182 Rupees to Bishop’s College Press, for the
publication of the Volume of the Transactions just issued; and 8000 Rupees to
Messrs. Sherriff and Co. due on the completion of the new buildings now in progress.
Our current Monthly Expense meanwhile amounts to 1373 Rupees, as specified in
the undermentioned items :—
Oriental. Publications, Sees Bereta priate 900
Establishment for the custody of Oriental Books transferred from Niue
College of Fort William, ores wees eoee 78
** Journal’’ supplied to 126 members at 1/8 per mensem, ae 207
Secretary’s Office, .. petals wees coee eoee 85
Museum Establishment, including allowance to Curator of 150 Rs. 238
Museum Contingencies, 2 leisle eater aes 77
General Contingencies, a6 <° ee ie os 29
Library, .. se ve oe oe 56 163
(Cannas and pice not included ) Total, Rs. 1,373
The balance now in hand of our funds in Government Securities amounts to
Co’s. Rs. 20,800 at 4 and 5 per cent., of which 4730 Rs. have accumulated from the
monthly Government allowance of 500 Rs. as shewn in the margin, and are applicable
to no other purpose but Oriental publications.
Our Monthiy Income stands thus :—
Average payments by members, as shewn by experience of four past
years, eee cece ence sees ecae’ +400
Government grant for Oriental publications, reece wees 500
Ditto ditto for custody of Oriental Books, eves eeee 78
Ditto ditto for Museum and Library charges, ee ales M2200
Interest on balance, allowing for the full payment of debts,.... .» 28
Total, Rs. 1,206
Shewing an excess of expenditure beyond our income of 167 Rupees per mensem.
438 Asiatic Society. [ May,
We have consequently to consider the best mode of discharging our accumulated
debt, and of reducing our monthly expenditure so as to bring it clearly and certainly
within our monthly income.
With reference to the contract with Messrs. Sherriff and Co. for our new buildings,
a resolution of the Society directs our defraying the amount of this item by the sale of
the necessary sum from our Government Securities. This will reduce our capital to
12,800 Rupees, yielding a monthly income of 42: 10: 8.
The bill to the Baptist Mission Press is so long due, and of such considerable
amount, that we must take immediate steps to place it in course of liquidation. The
Bishop’s College Press demand has been made, moreover, under circumstances which
render it a matter of justice to that establishment that the amount should be paid with
as little delay as possible.
I have therefore to beg your sanction for a further sale of our Securities to the
amount of 1182 Rs. to be paid to Mr. Ridsdale for the part of the ‘‘ Transactions’ now
published. This reduces our capital to 11,618 Rupees.
To meet the Baptist Mission Press claim, I propose—Ist, that we make over the
balance of 4730 Rupees, applicable to Oriental publications, and accumulated from our
Government allowance of 500 Rs. per mensem ; and, 2dly that for the balance of 2618 Rs.
of the same account we pay a monthly instalment of 500 Rupees, applying thereto the
allowance we receive from Government for Oriental publications ; and that pending the
payment of these instalments, we discontinue all Oriental printing, translations, &c.
by which a further debt must otherwise be contracted.
Our capital thus freed from all incumbrance will be reduced to the scanty sum,
of 6888 Rupees.
Should these propositions be agreed to, we will still possess funds to the amount of
6888 Rupees, which it seems expedient to reserve for one object alone, namely the
publication of future volumes of Transactions of the Physical Class.
I must here mention two sources of expenditure almost immediately before us, at —
all events to be met inthe course of the year; I allude to the forthcoming volume —
of Researches of the Physical Class, and the furnishing of the new Museum apartments.
For the former, as already shewn, I fear we must have recourse to our ‘‘ Securities.”
The means for the latter (which may be estimated at about 1200 Rupees) I would pro-
pose to collect by subscription among the members of the Society.
Current Expenditure.
From the items above specified, it is evident that we now expend per mensem 167 Rs.
beyond our income. We must accordingly either reduce our establishments within
corresponding limits, or devise some means of increasing our permanent pecuniary re-
sources.
I proceed to take up the items of our expenditure seriatim, which will enable us to |
see where the pruning knife may be most advantageously applied.
1. Oriental Publications—500 Rupees.
This sum we are bound to expend, whether in new works, or in paying for the old by
the instalments, as above suggested.
2. Journal,—supplied to 126 members @ | i per No. and 12 Nos. to learned So-
cieties.—207 Rupees
1839.] Astatic Soctety. 439
I wish heartily it were in my power to offer the Journal to the Society on more
favorable terms, but the bills circulated to the Committee for the first quarter of the
periodical, shew that it is only the support of the Society to its present extent that can
permit the continuance of the Journal ina respectable shape. The plates alone for
No. 4 will cost over two hundred and seventeen rupees.
The question as to this item of expense thus evidently becomes one of the existence
or discontinuance of the Journal. I am glad to say we have not lost more than six
subscribers since the commencement of the New Series—not quite the average number
of secessions in the same period of previous years.
3. Secretary's Office and Contingencies—Items of expense :—
Salary to Herambanath Thakoor, cose diele td b60™
Sirkar, .. es ee ae we 10
3 Peons, a ste us 15
Stationery, Postage, Lighting, Wax-cloth, Cooly hire, &c. 25
Total, Rs. 110
* This Officer’s salary was increased from Sa. Rs. 40, (Co’s. Rs. 42: 10: 8) bya
vote of the Society in January of this year.
4. Museum—Total charge, Rs. 305.
Items.
Ist Taxidermist, ai gs weer 50
2nd Ditto, a oc a obo 12
2 Carpenters @ 8/ oe a5 seve 16
2 Farashes @ 5/ Ss 35 seis 10 a
Curator, on scale paid to Messrs. Pearson,
Evans; and Jameson, Be 5 5c8 150
Contingencies on scale of last year (exceeded
in the months of this year) «<... 77
Total, Rs. 305
With reference to this Department, Dr. M‘CLELLAND has favored us with a memo-
randum to the Committee, which I have had the pleasure to circulate in original. *
Dr. M‘CLELLAND in this Paper gives a brief History of our Museum—glances at
the principles on which it should be arranged—offers suggestions as to the furniture
required for our new rooms—and presents a plan (which appears to me an excellent
one) for securing a correct nomenclature, by a system of correspondence with acknow-
ledged authorities at home. Dr. M‘CLEeLLanp then notices the expenditure for
the past year in this Department, and which exceeded the Government grant of 200
Rupees monthly, by about 100 Rupees per mensem (total 1171 Rupees) from which
only 240 Rupees were expended on cabinets or other permanent articles.
Dr. M‘CLevianp observes that the Head Taxidermist cannot write, and therefore
cannot be entrusted with any important charge beyond his manual duties. The
necessity however of having some well-informed man constantly in attendance to wait
on visitors, &c. is justly pointed out, and it is recommended that the Assistant Libra-
rian, Mr. BoucuEz, who now receives 30 Rupees, be appointed to the charge on an
increased salary, say to 50 or 60 Rupees.
* Inserted in this Number, page 415.
440 ; Asiatic Society. [May
By this arrangement from 70 to 80 Rupees monthly would still be available for
petty expenses, without exceeding our Government allowance ‘‘ exclusive of cabinets
and Curator’s salary.”
Dr. M‘CLEeLutanp then proposes that the office of Curator should be honorary and
temporary ;—that instead of permanently employed carpenters, native shekarees and
collectors on the same allowances, be maintained; lastly, that some well educated
youth, having a taste for Natural History, should, if possible, be selected from one
of the public Schools to conduct the duties of the subordinate establishment of the
Museum. But this seems to be unnecessary were the Assistant Librarian employed as
advised by Dr. M‘CLELLANpD in the first part of his Paper.
Dr, M‘CLELLAND concludes by stating, that he does not object in principle to our
maintaining a paid Curator, and that ‘‘should the means exist after defraying essential
expenses,’’ that some specific sum ‘‘a nominal salary of 30 rupees per mensem, for
example, be given to the Curator, or a larger sum if consistent with the Society’s
means.”’
I have also circulated a copy of the ‘‘ Rules for our Museum’? which Dr.
M‘CLELLAND suggests, and I now beg leave to propose, that they be adopted, with
this modification, that “the Curator be requested to accept the sum of 50 rupees per
mensem for his ‘‘ conveyance expenses,’’ the Society at the same time placing on re-
cord a public declaration of their obligations to Dr. M‘CLELLanp, for the liberality
and zeal for the interests of Science he displays on this occasion.
It willbe necessary also to allow a Writer and Duftury to enter the correspondence, —
and keep the books of the Museum.
This arrangement will reduce the Museum Expenditure as follows :—
Reduced Museum Scale :—
Curator’s conveyance allowance, eeee £0
Head Taxidermist, area rai 00
Second Ditto, iat etfs oe Oa 12
Attendance of Assistant Librarian, eee 20
1 Shekaree, vate aielals Siete 8
2 Farashes @ 5, eee acai sisters 10
2 Collectors, sites aoe nee 16
Writer, Duftury, and Contingencies, say, see 34
Total, Rs, 200
5. Library.—Items of expense.
1 Librarian, aaiaie aes Satie 100 0 O
1 Assistant Ditto, .... cone aia 30 0 0
1 Duftury, woes opine esac 8 0 0
2 Derwans, aie aieiete ieiei 12 00
DOR ATARL, .. ¢ oes Sree as iene 0. 0 O
1 Gardener, area asad aieiern 440
1 Sweeper, es eaee sear 4 4 0
1 Seculgur, cece agile 2: 2G
Contingencies, eee sees eh 0 0 0
Total, Rs. 170 10 O
At present I do not think it possible or desirable to effect any reduction in this
Department. Should any yacancy occur while our funds still demand reduction of ex-
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 441
pense, we might promote the present Assistant Librarian on a small advance of
salary ; this would save about 80 rupees per mensem. But such a contingency it is to
be hoped is far distant, as the Society is most fortunate in now possessing in M.
Csoma De Koros1 a Librarian of equal celebrity and erudition.
I now beg leave to recapitulate briefly the measures I would suggest in order to ex- _
tricate us from our old debt and bring our expenditure nearly within our income.
Ist. The immediate payment of 1182 Rupees to Mr. Ridsdale, of Bishop’s College
Press.
2d. The payment of 4730 Rupees cash, and an instalment of 500 Rupees per mensem
to the Baptist Mission Press, and the suspension of Oriental publications until the debt
of 8000 Rupees is liquidated.
3d. The arrangement of the Museum on the scale above noted.
4th. The opening of a subscription for 1500 Rupees to provide furniture, cabinets,
&c. for the new rooms.
On completing these arrangements our Expenditure will be:—
Library, cece cece o vel 170
Museum, ig 45 snes 200
Journal, ealele marete ate 207
Oriental Publication Debt, aie aisle’ 900
Custody of Oriental works, .... Aintig 78
Secretary’s Office, eeee sees 110
Total, Rs. 1,265
And our Income :—
Government allowance for Oriental publications, 000
Ditto for the custody of Oriental Books, wees 78
Ditto for Museum, aries Srsrer 200
Average of Subscriptions, sratate sece 400
Interest on Government Securities .. arelele 28
—— Total, Rs. 1,206
shewing, lastly :—
Income, S000 aisle wens 1,206
Expenditure eves eee sees 1,165
Excess of expenditure still, Rs. 64
To meet this deficit we must unfortunately draw on our scanty cash balance every
month until some opportunity presents itself for bringing our income and outlay on an
exact par; meanwhile we must adopt one principle firmly, namely—‘‘to allow no ex-
pense under the item of ‘ Contingencies’ to be passed in any Department without the
special order of the Committee of Papers.”’
(Signed) W. B. OSHAUGHNESSY,
Oy. Joint Sec. Asiatic Society.
19th June, 1839. ;
The sense of the Meeting having been taken by the President, was declared una-
nimously favorable to all the above propositions except the 4th. These were accordingly
adopted and will be acted on from the first of August. Instead of a subscription it was
decided by the Meeting to furnish the new rooms from the cash balance remaining,
and that no appeal should be made to the members for extra aid, as long as any funds
remained ayailable.
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Ant. XV.—Meteorological Register hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of June, 1839.
443
. VN 7 Mini e observe i
Minimum Temperature observed Maximum Pressure observed Observations made at Apparent Noon. a remrereaure cheered ey Freazure ol EO Observations made at Sun-set. aire
at Sun-riso. Aviv our ii . ‘ :
be er -—|——- Se Var eV aaa z= Tan — | Temperature. | Wind. Ei actak ail |p «| i
4 Temperature, |Wind. a Temperature. | Wind. 2 psa nerssores | Maa | 2 |e Sol & ESSE caso maseun NIAC pace eae Aeanes 2 a2 alee
a —_ |—_ ae 7 z L ar | : a w ’ 1g m 1s 3 |e
z s | lee 3 . \38 2 Ea eaiee 2 ele |s |B 3 ale |2lee) . | el§ \aleel. z ae eae
@ ig wale leel é ul2.) 4 |FEl 3 £)2 | 225] 4 % £\2.|2 ae] 2 % 3/7 .|< laal & | £\2.|2\55| 3 3 3 Pita
2 | 2 joG|< lea) § 3 elg8) 5 \22| 3 - giSe) 2 |2%) = 3 BlS8) 2 leu] = z BISEl 3 laul 2 gIgEl 3 \aa| = z Jmol ile] >
s # |22| 2 Iga! 2 rf 6130) 2 |gul § 8 Sela lee 3 3 6 a) a |23| 8 3g 8 a) 4 |ee1 8 9 |= s|4|\8e 2 Bev) te ae |e
Plas \elstl 4 : dls |5|s3| 4 2 Ais '| 5 |5e| 4 2 A\8_|6 [se 4 2 4\5_|5 (Se) 4 4 |5°|5 [sel 4 2 See|8\e\4
= lee] y & es 4 = A
6\4s |8 (|S 4 4 2) je) 4 s ieee) | 12) = ees eee i SE s eee Sane ame e PSN Sf ee || Stal
iia e19\70.8 , ) ,536| 84,4) 90,8) 84,415. &. ,536| 87 . |Cumuli, 85,7! 94,0] 86,1|E. b.s.|cloudy (Nimbi & cum.,)! ,452| 85,7) 87,6) 83,2|3. cloudy, ,452] 83,5] 84,4] 21,9 cirro-strati, ; 1
NCE ae celta pes *400| as.| gare gs,t\s; e: ‘475|86, Atemnetnite 85,5) 87,5) 83,9|E. «.|cum. str.&Nimbi, (gather-| ,428) 84,9) 86,0 nimbi distant thunder, | ,430) 83,8) 88,6] a2,0 cirro-strati and nimbi, 2
. 7400) 82,0| 81,9| 80,0|Calm, |Cirro-strat 1410] 86,4] 89,0] g3,\n.e. ..|cloudy, 428) 86, ‘|Cloudy, 396) 86,5) 86,5) 84,3]. «.\cloudy (Nimbi,) —[ing-]| ,880) 88 cloudy (nimbi,) 180) 88,7} BS,5/ 80,8 }/nimbi interspersed, 2
‘ "987| 61,7| 80,0 79,0|Calm, |Light Cirro-strati, 1410] 64,8] 87,9] 83,6\c... »-|cloudy, 400) 87, Cloudy, ,850| 84,5) 84,0] 82,0 fnimbi interspersed, +540] 81,9] 80,8) g0,8 nimbi interspersed. 0,48 4
5 | 370] 80,0) 79,0 79,0), S.. «| Overcast rain, 403] 84,2] 87,0] g3,0|s. ¢. «.|nimbirain, — [sionally,)|-. nimi, $82| 85,5] 84,0) 81,2 cloudy, 2,00) ( | 5
6 410] 79,6) 79,1) 80,0/8, E. |Nimbi, 462] 83,4] 86,0| 83,6\s, b. e. |cldy, (mimbi rain occa-| 457 cloudy, +408) 83,0) 84,5) 81,2]4, ..../nimbi interspersed, 6
7 448| 80,0) 79,5] 79,5 Cloudy, 84,5] 87,0 3. b. e.|nimbi interspersed, 1183) 87,0) 88,0} 84,0)S. cloudy (nimbi,) ,450| 82,9) 85,0) g2,4)e. b. s.lcloudy, 0,05 T
8 "460 81,2 1,0] 80,0 Clear, cloudy (nimbi,) ,506) 85,7] 87,2| 84,5/S, Nimbi interspersed, ,460) 85,5] 97,0) 4,8 cloudy, »446) 83,0) 83,5) 81,9]cnlm, |cloudy, 0,08 8
9 "466 80,0] 79,2) 79,5] Cirro-strati, cloudy (sunshine, ) 1494) 84,6 88,0] 84,4/5. Cloudy, ,447| 84,6] 28,5] aa,a!s, . cloudy, cloudy, »#38) 82,8) 84,7) 82,0\colm, |cloudy nimbi to the south 0,20 9
10 »440| 80,2] 79,0) 79,0\C Cloudy, cloudy, »474) 86,7) 90,0] 85,5|S, Cloudy, »#22/ 87,3) 91,0) 46,2 .«+|cumuli and haze, P ,387 cumuli& haze, [shine, )| ,394) 85,5] 86,0) 83,8\calm, |cloudy and hazy, 0,36 10
at "412| 02,5) 81,2|79,5|8. W. Cldy. (Nbi, on the zenith, )} hazy, 1462) 87,6) 90,0) 83,5]S. Cldy.& Hazy (sunshine,) cloudy & hazy (sunshine, )| ,422| 7 cldy. & hazy (light sun-| ,426] 83,0] 86,6) 83,5]s. ....|cirro-strati, @|»
12 ,440| 82,5] 80,9) 80,0/Calm, |Cirro-strati, A few cirro cumuli, 1500} 90,3} 93,5) 85,0)S. A few scattered Clouds. generally clear, »$47/ 90,0 W.D.S.|to the w. light clouds, »450) 83,8) 87,7| 84,5)calm, |clear, 12
13 444] 82,6] ),9| 80,8/Calm, |Clear, clear, »480/ 91,9) 96,0) 86,5)3, Light haze, (Cum. strati,) light haze, y#28| 92,21 95,8) 88,5)5. W~ |light haze, 1436) 85,0) 88,0) 86,2)calm, |generally clear, 18
14 ,500) 83,0) 62,8) 81,9|Calm, |Clear, clear, 1557) B9,9| 93,2 86,9)S, Detached Clds, to the N. cum, strati to the north, cumulo stra & cumuli, | ,484| 84,9] 86,0) 83,5}calm, |clear, 14
15 83,3] 81,5} 81,5|Calm, Clear, cumuli, 650) 89,8) 90,5) 85,5|S, Cumuli, cumulo strati, ++/cumulo strati, ,557| 85,8) 85,3) 83,2/calm, light cirro-strati, 15
16 83,5 81,8] 81,5 Cirro-strati, cumuli, 1650) 87,5] 90,0) 84,9)S. . .|Cumuli, cumulo strati, i 554) 85,6) 84,8) 82,5]s, ..../hazy, 16
17 82,5] 81,0) 81,0) Cloudy, cumuli, ,580! 88,0] 92,6) 86,6|Calm, |Cloudy, cloudy nimb. interspersed, i ,546) 84,0) 82,8) 81,2\e.b. s.|cloudy. 17
18 83,5, 81,0) 81,0|S Cloudy, cumuli, 1592 88,3] 95,2) 85,9) E.b. S.|Cumuli, cumulo strati, S...++|nimbi interspersed, 528) 84,5) 82,5) 82,0)s. ce. .. \cirro-strati, 18
19 82,8) 80,1) 80,0)C: Light Cirro-strati, cumuli, a0 2) _[cum. 666) 88,0) 90,0) 84,5)S. E, |Cloudy, cloudy, 624] 85,3] 85,4) g@,8lcalm, |cirro-strati, [we n. we] 0,35 ) 419
20 83,2/ 81,0) 81,0/S, \Cirro-strati, light clouds inclining to) ,582/89,5 S. ..|Cumuli and Haze, cloudy, 5 » #82) 85,0] 84,0) 82,6/5, .... cloudy, (threatening to the eo
2 80,0) 76,0) 76,0)S. Overcast raining, overcast drizzling rain, ,510) 83,0) S. ..|Cloudy Light Drzzling, cloudy and misty, & misty, ,430] 83,0] 83,8) 82,0\calm, |nimbi interspersed, . | 3,86 @
22 81,5) 80,0) 80,0) Cirro-strati, icloady nimbi thunder, 1520) 82,5) S. Cloudy, cloudy, S, E.. «cloudy, ,450) 80,8) 81,5) 80,2|calm, |cloudy, 0,19 22
23 80,5) 77,0] 77,2 Cloudy, cloudy, »542| 82,0) 61,6) B2,0/S. Cloudy Light sunshine, cloudy and hazy, »456) 81,8) 81,8) 82,0/S. E.. «|cloudy, $60) 81,6) 81,0) 81,7 cloudy (cirro-strati, ) 0,24) 23
4 80,0) 76,9) 76,5)C Cloudy, cloudy, 600} 81,8] 85,9) 83,5|S. Cloudy, to the s. dense nimbi, , 540) 81,9] 82,2| 82,2|S.....|nimbirain, ,544| 81,8] 81,9] 82,0) cloudy, 0,37 24
25 81,0| 80,8) 80,5 Cloudy, : cloudy, 1620) 85,7! 86,0) 83,0|S. Cloudy, cloudy and hazy, ,530| 83,7] 87,0| 84,0|S.....|cloudy, ,542) 83,4] 83,0) 81,0) cloudy, 0,20 25
26 80,3) 78,0) 78,0)S. Cloudy (Cirro-strati,) cloudy partial haze, »570/ 86,6) 90,2) 85,0/S._..|Cloudy partially, cloudy partially, +.+|partially cloudy, 516) 83,5) 84,5) 61,0 light cirro-strati, i 26
a7 81,8) 80,8) 80,0) Cirro-strati, cumuli, 1548) 86,5] 89,0) 84,1). , .|Cloudy and Cumuli, «|haze, light haze. 508) 83,6) 84,7/ 81,6 light cirro-strati, O}|e
28 81,5) 80,0) 79,9) Cirro-strati, cumuli and haze, 1555) 86,5) 89,0) 84,5/S. ../Light Haze and Cumuli cloudy and haze, haze and a few cui, ,530| 84,0) 85,2) 81,3 cloudy nimbi to the w. 28
29 81,7) 79,9| 79,0) Detached Clds, to the W. nimbi rain, 1550) 87,0) 88,3) 86,6|S. ..|Cloudy (Nimbi,) cloudy, 608) 83,2) 85,6) 81,6 cirro, strati, 29
Fu ,530] 82,0) 60,0) 80,0 Cirro-strati, cumuli, +559) 85,5) 86,8) 83,0/S. ..|Cumuli, cumuli, 1520) 84,2) 84,8) 82,9]5, cloudy (cirro-strati,) 0,85 so
31
Menn | 29,491| 81,6, 80,0)79,7 .843| 83,7| 87,7| 83,7 1556] 86,7| 89,0] 84,4! ,492/ 86,2) 89,2] 84,4) ial ,474/83,6/84,3/82,2 |e ay 9,18 vale
Anr. XVIL—Meteorological Register, kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of July, 1839.
444 i
Minimum Temperature observed Maxituna/Ersssireohserved Observations made at Apparent Noon | Maximnum/Demperarura[observed Minimum Pressure Observed at 4 v. st. Observations made at Sun-set. HG
4 aE Surisies! at 9H. 50M. at 24. 40 w Gauge.
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| -{524] 8215] 80,9]80,8|Calm. |Cloudy Drizzling|570) 81,6) 81,5] 79,9)S. Cloudy. +360) 82,2) 83,0) 81,0) Cloudy. 1537/83,0] 84,2] 81,3] S, Cloudy and hazy. ; é ewe 528) 82,6) ea Pat ‘erent Eres 0,04) 0, 4
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6 1422}82,2) 80,0/80,0 i »480] 82,2) 84,0] 81,5/S. Cloudy. 82,5) 83,0] 81,1 (Clouds cirro-strati. 447 | 82,5] 83,0) 81,: s. Overct.cldy. &drizzlg,| 422) 82,7) 83,5) 81,9/S. Cloudy. spersed.| ,426} 82,2) 81,9) 80,5 . |Cirro-strati. 1,33] 1,38) 6
7 | aaolsys| sto} 14] 82818801 LOIS. \Ciro-strai 2] 83.3 40] 808 louds (Gumul "381/86 |83u| 82.0). ]82,]Overeastnimbi ran, 18) 853] 830] 81 8)8....;lovercat nin Panter | spol 819] 8201 BOIS ce lcloedge fel 7
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8 | 1300) 81°9| 800|790)S. ...«|Light ctrro-srat. |'436) 81,4| 8775) 83.0). W.|Cumuli & nimbi, +5) 91/5|85.5|8.2...|Hazy on the zenith. |'382|87,0| 93/5] 86,9] 120,818;2.-:|Cumulistrati&-cumuli|367|86,3] 87,9] 812/S.-..+|Nimbs interspersed. |/370]8 Sta) eoale ee lemeeomuliatrati] || 5
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400/82,0) 81,8/80, . |Cirro-strati. 0) $8.8] 84,1/E. it. cl. incl. to cum.) 452) 87,8) 90,2) 85, |cloudy. i 5,9) 83, b.s.e|Nimbi interspersed. | ,374] 89,6] 87,0] $3,7|S. i 380) 82,5 x i 3
| ERS Eo Rn VS RINE UGE tetany mm. (UR ER CREE RN Rap (ag SHE ie Crea al] oy) oad @
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14 | '524]81'5| 80,0]79(0|Calm: |Cirru-strati, 82/9] 85,9) 81,7/S...2.|Cumuli & haze. |577) 82.8] 87,0) 82.5|8......|Cloudy. 536] 84,5] 90,1] 83,4 522) 84,2] 88,0) 8215/8. i. |'529] 8915] 84°9] $2) slGHoarat: Aelia
b| IAG tala, (SUPT AU SIE Petascale whee rita, Vaseline EAST CE MEE ee terme HLH I
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" *639|78.4) 77.0] 76.88. b. w| 5 9 y ,5) 78, ercast nbi. drizzling] 9) 79,2) 78,0 ; |Overcast raining. 1,68) 1,79)
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20 | '574)80,0| 79,6)79,Ule. b. s:|Cloudy & Misty. |'620| $2.3] 87,5] 83,Ue. b. s:|Cumuli, "60 85'5| 90,0] 83,4 :|Cumuli & It, N. ath. elr.|}590) 84,5] 88,0] 83,5 : pate Ae 5] 87,1) 83,08. irro-strati. 4 3] 83,5] 81,2 i inbi. inter-| 0,05] 0,06]
, 1620 10] 83,0/e. b. i. { , 3 i& lt, N.ath. clr.| ,5] 88,0) 83, E. ..|Nbi. int. a pass shw. |,967/83,4) 84,9] 81,2/E.. ..|Nimbi 4,074 81,
BL | 9eHlBo] au 0}79:1\Calm, [Cloudy |,612}820)87,0)8.21E. .|Cumuli 3609] 8317) 89,9] 845)E. .|Cummuli ‘374| 83.0) 7 | S80|---<-71E° *"|Nimbius rie [lea 990] 88.2870] SS0[E.- <-|Nimbriaterpersed. [300/81] 80.01 7915|Oalm: (cire-tetiandiabl| 0120) O12
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See ee eee ee eee ecomn) BLM ge sg emmere” [ae gy Rlatommons gee ce aC pn b
BE | sepia Ole ral one ane PSSSISRSI SEHD GE ze (fbi rain oceanly.|,529/81:0)8,0) 75 ox . (drizzling) :492] 82,2) 83,0] 81; S E]eloudy. "480 83,0] 83,5] 80,918. IB. “/Cloudy. *485) 82,0] 818) 80,0le. b. s,|Nimbi interpersed. | 0,97] 1,03) 26
28 | ,980}79,6|78,9]78,6|S.....|Nbi. int a jol7 i, ‘lovarcaabastainenle E7970 75) .|Cloudy (Nbi.& Cli.sun. )| ,532) 81,6) 81,0) 80,0) Calm. |Nimbi 530) 81,8) 81,2) 80,0/Calm. |Nimbi interspersed. |, 542|81,6] 81,0) 80,0! .|Nimbi i foe) 1
3 || “ball za5| ret0l BULB. 2c, lOvercast evaange [Gea] Sool Te] Feast minw! 9610) BU.51 29,0) 28,0 he boa. |Nimbt raining, $20] 80'8| 79°51 79.01..--cclestnslOverchot raining, "374 80.9| 7946] 790IGalmm: [Nua intersperaed rain| 279) 801s] 79.0] OL0l Cale Orme | tal 183 %
B® | 36H) 8170.9) 79 0\Calm,|Cimo-tat, 61a) 8a81 018.28, W. Ciro-strat & [Goa 66'3 See] 83918...</|Cimosirati & Cumuli, [esp] eor7| scl ecu Be ue ea a a ct ra ca na cermin SU BLA] EO Fea mia Coe SS ea zs
, 45) 80,0) 1m, |Nbi. &Cirro-stratil . as Fi he ee al 411 83,0) 84, 5 enith clear cir.cli.str, ,2|S. , | Gee
ca lesatactactea Tee OEY Be i See (Clay 7588) 85,0 88,3) 830)8. W.|Cumuli. $59) 830) 861] s30}..0- 7/3. W[Nimbi interspensed, | SO21BK3) B7OLBBOScccclclomdy, ” —|baslexa/ evo] BoelCalma [Gregan ne) Oil oO 3
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] } /,855] 81,3 87,1} 83,0 7517] 84,21 36,5] 83,0 5 -499/83)9| 85,6] 81,7 "507! 82,2| 82,6) 80,8 13,95] 14,77
JOURNAL
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 90.—JUNE, 1839.
Art. 1—Extracts from the Narrative of an Expedition into the
Naga territory of Assam. By HE. R. Granee, Esq. Swb- Assistant
to the Commissioner, Assam.
On the morning of the 5th January, 1839, I left my encamp-
ment below the village of Dikkling, or Dhemra, with the detach-
“ment of Assam Seebundees at nine o'clock, and crossing the river
entered a newly cut road which conducted us to the Dyung
again, about half a mile above the village in a southerly direction,
where we crossed the river, and found a very good path which brought
us to the village of Somboo at 1 Pp. m., a distance of about nine miles.
The first three-quarters of the road was through a flat country covered
with forest trees and light underwood; the latter part the ground
became undulating, and still covered with forest. Somboogong is a
village consisting of about twenty or twenty-five large houses, situated
on a low hill on the right bank of the Dyung river ; the inhabitants are
Cacharees, they cultivate lands on both sides of the river, but chiefly in
Cachar, asserting that the soil on the left bank is of a more productive
nature than on the east; several families here had formerly come from
Semker, having left that place in consequence of the incursions of the
Angamee Nagas.
The passage to Somboo from the Dyufig-mook by water was said to
be two days journey on account of the number of S7z/batahs, or weirs.
The language of the Cacharees of this and all the other villages
I met, was totally different from that of the inhabitants of the plain,
though i all go by the same name; the Hill Cacharee is called
Hoje, and that chiefly spoken on the plains called oe
3 M
446 Narrative of an Expedition into [ JuNE,
January 6th. Having received an injury in my feet from the pre-
vious day’s march, I took a boat from Somboogong to the next march,
Patpoah, a tolerable village belonging to Toolaram Sanaputtee, situ-
ated on the east side of the river. Starting at 9 a.m. the Sepoys
reached the halting place at about 3 p.m. having been fatigued
by passing several tolerable sized hills; they told me the path was a
good one, and they passed a large village of Mikeers called Hempree,
the cultivation of which I saw on the river side. This day’s journey
was through Toolaram Sanaputtee’s country.
The rapids or Szlbatahs the natives spoke so much of to deter me
from going by water, I found only to be of stones piled up for the
purpose of fishing and deepening the water to enable the boats laden
with cotton (some of which I saw on their way down) to pass the more
easily, in other places there is abundance of water. The banks of
the river are high, and at most places formed by low hills and some
steep rocks ; the distance by water is about fifteen miles, and by land
eight or ten.
The elephants which had taken the route formerly traversed by
Captain Jenkins, which we left two or three miles below Somboo-
gong, joined us here.
January 7th. Starting from Patpoah at 9 a.m., we passed over
some cotton grounds, and gradually ascended a range of hills running
north and south, and after continuing along the summit of the ridge
till 2 p.m., we descended by rather a steep path to the Langti
river where, on account of the elephants not having come up, we were
obliged to halt for the day; the road throughout was good, through
bamboo forest.
The Langti is a rapid clear stream, of about thirty yards width,
knee-deep in the cold weather with a pebbly bottom.
January 8th. At 7° 45’ a. m. left the Langti river, and ascended a
rather steep hill, and an hour afterwards left Captain Jenkins’ road
which we had met at Patpoah, and took a more easterly direction to
Aloogong, crossing the Dyung at a Szbatah, or weir, where the water
rushed with a good deal of velocity. The distance to-day was only
about five miles ; but our next march being a long one, I was unable to
go on further without distressing the men, as we should have found it
difficult to have reached Chota-Semker in one day from the Langti
river, and no other village or watering place was available. Boats come
up to Aloogong during the cold season, though they experience much
difficulty at the Barrak ford from the rocks in the river, the boats
requiring to be unladen and forced up empty. The road_ continued
good to Aloogong through bamboo and tree forests. Alooitil consists
of about twenty or thirty houses of Cacharees.
1839.] the Naga territories of Assam. 447
January 9th. Left Aloogong at 9 a. m. and ascended a ridge of
hills running east-south-east ; traversed them till they divided into
two ridges, when taking the one to the right, in a south-west direction,
reached the site of a Cacharee village, which had the appearance of
having been burnt; from thence, by an undulating path, we came to
a hill of good size at 12 p.m. and in about an hour afterwards
reached Chota-Semker, which lay on our right, about 500 yards.
It consists of about fifteen or twenty houses of Cacharees and Nagas ;
the latter had on account of some feuds left Bura-Semker, which
is about two days march eastward. We halted about two miles beyond
the village on a small stream ; the elephants did not come up till late ;
the path throughout was good.
January 10th. Sending the elephants back from this place we set
out at 8° 15' a. m. and crossing a small stream called Delasapanee,
continued by a wavy path till 10 a. m. when we descended to the bed
of the Dyung, where we met the Mohurir of the Tossildar of the
Cachar Hills. From this our course was about south-south-east and
south up the bed of the river, the repeated crossing of which rendered
the marching both painful and dangerous, from the difficulty of keeping
one’s footing over the round slippery stones with which the river in
every part abounds. At1 p.m. we halted a short way beyond the
village of Joori, which is a good sized one, and is inhabited by Ca-
charees and Kookees; it is on the left bank of the river. The road
to-day was not so good, the latter part of it being in the course of the
river. 3
January llth. Started from Joorigong at 8 a. m. our route being
the same as the latter part of the previous day—up the bed of the
river, and the same difficulties were again experienced, which prevent-
ed our reaching the stockade under Goomegogoo till 12 p. m., though
the distance is not more than five miles. I found the Shans in the
stockade, who had arrived two days previous. Toolaram Sanaputtee
had accompanied them. I requested him to send some person of his to
_ Semker to prepare habitations and provisions, but he immediately of-
| fered to go himself if I gave hima guard, I therefore detached a Naick
' and ten Shans to accompany him. Finding that the Thannadar, who
_ had only lately arrived, could give me but little information regarding
| the incursions of the Angamee Nagas, and finding no instructions
waiting my arrival, I resolved, as Captain Burns’s head quarters were
. only four days’ journey off, to proceed to Silchar at once, to consult with
_ that officer on the plan of future operations. This journey I com-
_™enced on the 13th January, taking with me a guard of one Naick
_ and four Sepoys. Leaving the stockade at 9 a. m. we reached the Naga
448 Narrative of an Expedition into [JuNE,
village Mysumpa at 10 a.™., passing through which I reached the
original site of the Thannah of Hoflong, close to the above village,
which had been a short time before removed to its present location,
Goomegogoo, to protect from the Angamees the large Naga village of
that name, four persons of which had been killed some time previous
by them. Beyond the old site of the Thannah of Hoflong is the hill
called by the Cacharees and Nagas Honklong, which by corruption
has become Hoflong; passing over it the road descends to the bed of
the Pytinga, a small river here flowing towards the south-west. Down
its rocky bed we continued till we reached the Cacharee village of
Poorah, on the left bank of the river, consisting of about twenty or
twenty-five houses. The first part of the road was good, but became
bad on entering the river.
January 14th. Leaving Poorahgong at 7° 45’ a. m. we set out en
the bed of the river as on the 13th till 9° 20’ a. m., when we reached
the Hagoosa-Deesa, a small stream running from its source at the
summit of the Bura-Ail range in two branches, one falling north and
one south. We quitted the Pytinga, and ascended by a very steep path
the Bura-Ail range of hills; from the summit, which we reached at 10°
30’ a. m. we descended by an easy path to the south side, and found two
streams joining at the base, the Hagoosa-Deesa coming from the west,
and the Mati-Deesa from the east. The great range is chiefly cover-
ed with large trees and light underwood ; amongst the former I recog- —
nised the Nageser tree, of tolerable magnitude ; I saw no bamboos on
the higher ranges. Proceeding a short distance we encountered the Ma-
tura-Deesa, which flows from the eastward. Rising in the great range,
the Mati-Deesa empties itself into the Matura here. We continued
down the bed of the Matura some short way, and then followed a bad
path frequently up by water courses. At 12° 50’ p.m. crossed a small
mountain torrent called Ballon-Deesa, which runs over a bed of solid
rock ; at 3 p. m. reached the Goonmara-Deesa (Deesa signifies a small
river in the Cacharee language) which is the only convenient halting
place between the foot of the great range and the plains ; we encamped
here.
January 15th. Started at 7° 30’ a. m. and about a couple of hours
afterwards passed the Cacharee village of Longerong, which remained
on our right on a ridge of hills separated from those we were travers-
ing by the Dhesema river, which flows into the Matura after receiving
the Goonmara river. At 10° 25’ ascended to the summit of the last
elevated hill of the ridge, from whence a very fine prospect is enjoyed.
of the extensive level of the entire Cachar plain, with its numerous
hamlets and sheets of rice cultivation. The road from hence to the
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. 449
lower hills was steep. Having descended to them we passed through —
patches of deserted cultivations of the wandering Cacharees. At 2 p.m.
erossed the Hogigugaw river a short way above its junction with the
Kuttna, which river terminates in the Matura. At3 P.M. we pas-
sed through the large Cacharee village of Guabari, and here saw evi-
dent signs of improvement in the condition of the country. After
crossing fine sheets of rice lands belonging to several villages of Ben-
gallis and Muneeporees we arrived at the Bengalli village of Bhogur-
konah and encamped. The fields of rice here appeared fine, but the
ryots seemed to be less particular in the comfort of their Khatts, or
farms, than the Assamese. They lived in fewer houses, which however
were larger than those in Assam.
The absence of the useful and ornamental jack, tamool, and moon-
gah trees made the appearance less rural and comfortable than the
generality of the Assam farms.
January 16th. At 8° 30’ a.m. crossed the Tecul or Degul river, and
passing another swampy nullah, and some jungle, reached a cluster of
low hills covered with small bamboos ( Bagul Bans) over which we
passed, and came to another sheet of rice land attached to some widely
scattered Muneeporee hamlets.
The road was now south-south-west over the rice fields, till we
reached the village of Oodarbund, on the right bank of the Matura river,
a place of considerable importance, being the entrepot to which the
Cachar Nagas take down their cotton to barter it for salt, dried fish,
conch shell, beads, &c. and I heard also for slaves, who are stolen from
the weaker Naga villages ; an infamous trade of this kind seems carried
on in the hills of Cachar. The Nagas are particularly fond of the conch
shells, which they cut up for neck ornaments, and which are valued at
one rupee per shell. From Oodarbund we went across a fine plain
_ of rice stubble to Mennabund, and then passed through a strip of —
_ jungle and recrossed the Matura; from this our road lay across rice
fields of about a league in extent; we then ferried over the Barak
river opposite Silchar, which we reached at 3 p.m. The Barak is
a considerable river, evidently, from the broken state of its banks, liable
to a very great rise of water in the rains. |
January 17th. Captain Burns, who was absent on my arrival, re-
turned this morning, and availing myself of his kindness, I remained
)) till the 19th, and obtained much valuable information and assist-
| ance from him with regard to my future plans, &c. I recommended
_ that the expedition should start immediately against the Angamees
(who were supposed to be located a short way beyond Semker) with
the party I had brought over from Assam, as great delay had occurred
450 Narrative of an Expedition into [ June,
in the arrival of arms for the levy, and there was no certainty when
they might come, and as the season was fast approaching when troops
would be of little service in mountains, like those inhabited by the
Angamees. All the arms in Silchar were therefore put under repair,
and about thirty muskets with bayonets, furnished weapons to an
equal number of the levy, who, under a Jemadar, accompanied me
back.
On the 19th I retraced my route of the 16th to Bhogurkonah,
where we halted. The next day, the 20th, I followed my former
route to Guabari, where the Bengalli coolies were to be relieved by
Cacharees. The inhabitants of the village being all away on our ar-
rival a great delay occurred, which obliged me to alter my course and
make a circuit to Agoosagong to get good encamping ground, where
we remained that day. The village consists of about fifteen or twenty
houses inhabited by Cacharees, who cultivate the lower hills under
the great range bordering the Cachar plain.
January 2Ist. Started from Agoosagong at 8 a. m., and ascended a
high ridge adjoining the one we came by, and shortly afterwards re-
gained the old road, along which we continued till we reached the
Matura river, where we encamped. This route, I fancy, is impassable
in the rainy season, as it is frequently up the bed of the river. A
good one, however, might easily be made with little trouble, either at
the foot of the hills or on their summits.
January 22d. Left at 8 a. m. and ascended the Bura-Ail range half
an hour afterwards, by a good path ; we reached the top in forty minutes,
from whence we quitted our former route from Poorahgong and con-
tinued along the summit of the great range by a very good path,
leaving Poorahgong on our right, and in the valley beneath. We fol-
lowed this route about an hour, and then by a long and pretty steep
descent crossed the Goomara-Deesa, and shortly afterwards the Longkli-
Deesa, both flowing from the great range into the Pytinga, parallel to
which we were going. We then entered the bed of the latter river,
and followed our former route over the Haflong hill to the stockade.
January 23d. Some provisions that had been left behind the previ-
ous day arrived.
January 24th. I visited the Goomegogoo Thannah on an height of —
about 5000 or 6000 feet elevation, and took some bearings of peaks,
sources of rivers, and situations of villages in sight. Isent on the Shan
detachment this day with grain to Semker to relieve the coolies, and en- —
able them to return and carry more grain with the Sebundy detachment.
Whilst here, I got in several villagers upon whose villages some of the
attacks had been made, and took down their depositions. The people
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. 451
of all except of one village, Longki, accused the Angamees of being the
guilty persons in the late murderous attacks on their villages. The
people of Longki stated that the inhabitants of Deelong and Kollering
were the aggressors in the incursion on their village. The people of
those villages, however, most positively denied having done so when
summoned at Semker.
On the 26th, having collected a sufficient number of coolies,
I set out for Semker from Goomegogoo with the detachment of Sebun-
dees and the part of the levy that came up with me, who were joined
here by about twenty more men from the Jumnah, who had come up
previously under their commandant, Doogaram Subadar, who had
arrived from Doodputtee. We started at 8 a. m. by a good path over
a ridge of low hills, in an easterly direction, skirting the Goomegogoo
mountain. At 9° 30’ a. m. passed the former site of the Naga vil-
lage called Nerlasso, which was deserted three years ago in consequence
of an attack on them by the Boesompoe Nagas, who killed several of
them. At 10° 30’ a. m. we came toa mineral spring on the banks of the
Mootee, a smal] stream running towards the Dyung, into which it falls.
Ascending and gradually winding round some hills, and leaving the
village of Hassung-Hagoo to our right, we descended to the Mahoor, a
good sized stream flowing north to its junction with the Dyung below
Aloogong, and forming a good boundary line of Toolaram Sanaputtee’s
country. We crossed and went down its bank, and halted at 2 p. m.
after a march of about thirty miles. )
January 27th. Leaving our encampment at 8 a. M., wecrossed over some
low hills by a good path, and crossing two streams, the Yah and Yhoo,
which empty themselves into the Mahoor, passed some more low hills
and entered the bed of the river Hah, the banks of which were covered
with the foot-prints of wild elephants and deer. Along this stream we
continued for an hour, and then ascending a very steep hill reached
the large Naga village of Rangai, then completely deserted in con-
| sequence, as I was informed, of the Angamees having attacked it,
and having, it is stated, killed 107 persons and carried away 30. I
_ however think the number stated to have been killed is exaggerated.
| A fine view of the country is obtained here, and the hills towards the
Assam side appear mere undulations in comparison to the gigantic
| ranges on our right. From this we had a fine view of the Deoteghur
mountain, which hitherto had appeared to be a part of the main range,
| but now we had a full sight of it, shewing itself independent of any other
hills. Large patches of brown clearances for cotton cultivation were
visible; the wind was very high and cold on this mountain. We
went along its summit, and descended winding round another very
452 Narrative of an Expedition into [June,
high hill till we came to cultivation, from whence we looked down
upon Semker, on the foot of a hill beneath us. By a very steep path
we descended to the encamping huts erected by Toolaram Sanaputtee,
who had previously arrived with the Shans I had attached to him.
He had not been up to Semker for many ‘years, and therefore was
ignorant till now where the Angamees were located, which to my as-
tonishment I found to be eight days journey further on. I applied to
Toolaram Rajah for a statement of the depredations committed by the
Angamees on his people, and found several of his Naga villages had also
been sufferers; and on inquiring the reason of these attacks, I was
informed that they were merely to extort conch shells, cloths, &c- and
that the Angamees seized as many people as they could, to obtain ransom
from their relatives, and killed all that attempted to escape, cutting off
their heads (with the blade of their spears) which would be ransomed
by their relatives also, this being one of the barbarous customs of the
Nagas. I also applied for a statement of the sufferers of the village of
Rangai, but the Rajah could not furnish one, as the people had all fled
into the jungles, he knew not whither. I was told that the people of
Semker also were thinking of leaving their village for another place,
till they heard that troops were going against the Angamees, for they
also were in daily fear of being cut up, which they certainly would be
the moment they refused to bribe them with salt, dried fish, &. The
Semker people are not great cultivators, but live chiefly by the pro-
duce of their salt springs, and by traffic with the peaceful Nagas around
them. They bring dried fish, beads, conch shells, and brass ornaments
from Oodarbund Haut, and barter them for cotton, wax, ivory, chillies,
&e.; and an extensive and infamous trade is carried on in slaves,
- who are stolen indiscriminately by. all in that quarter, and sold to
the Bengalli merchants who go up for cotton. I hear that a slave
can be procured for twenty packets of salt, seven of which are
to be had for one rupee. I saw many Muneeporees, who had been
thus seized whilst young, and sold both amongst Kookees, Cacharees,
and Nagas.
There are 140 houses of Cacharees, and five or six of Nagas, but
the Semker Cacharees are demi-Nagas, and many of them have mar-
ried Naga girls. They have lost the good qualities of the Cacharee,
and resemble more the meaner and more cowardly Nagas of the
lower hills of Cachar. I found here Ohkonah of Umbawlo, or Ing-
hong, and Hajootoe, on the part of Equigimpo of Beren, two chiefs of
independent villages who had heard of the approach of the troops,
and both came to offer submission, and to seek protection from the
Angamees. They seemed much afraid lest we should not attack
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. 453
the Angamees, and return, and leave those who had sought protec-
tion, and afforded assistance to us, to the vengeance of their cruel
neighbours ; they also seemed anxious in regard to their villages, but
I assured them we would not go near them, if they could cut a road
by which we might avoid them, and that they had not the least cause
to fear ; on which they appeared much satisfied, and said many other
villages would come in after they had heard of the kind treatment
they had received. I gave them presents, and dismissed them, and told
them to prepare grain for us, which they promised to do. I found here |
the following friendly chiefs, besides those above alluded to, viz. Kaptao
of Kareabong, Kamtao of Galiga, Katalong of Ohong, whose villages
were on our right, in the direction of the Angamee mountains. They
also agreed to furnish grain as we passed their respective villages, and
each received presents. Immediately on arriving at Semker finding that
I could only calculate upon 100 Kookees, who were as bad as Nagas
themselves for throwing away their burdens and running off, I appli-
ed to the Bura Bundaree, who farmed the Cachar hills, to furnish 300
men, which he could easily have done, and which he promised to do.
Delay occurred, however, and so I wrote to him again and again in-
forming him that if the expedition was kept much longer from ad-
vancing, through his dilatoriness, it might prove of serious consequence.
I learnt that he was not collecting the men as he wrote to me to say
he was doing, but that he had sent a petition to Captain Burns, Super-
: intendent of Cachar, stating that he found great difficulty in comply-
ing with my request. At the same time that I received Captain
| Burns’ letter informing me of the difficulty stated, two Kookee chiefs
| joined me, and informed me of the injustice the Bura Bundaree ex-
_ ercised towards their tribes, in pressing all the Kookee population and
| not calling upon Cacharees, on whose account the expedition was un-
| dertaken. I was told that many of those excellent ryots the Kookees
had left the Hills in consequence of bad treatment, and their being
employed and worked on every occasion, whilst the Cacharees were
never called on for their service. I ordered the Bundaree to furnish an
| equal number of men from each tribe, but deeming it imprudent (from
| the lateness of the season) to remain any longer at Semker, disputing
with one who instead of throwing obstacles in the way ought to have
been the first to have put his shoulder to the wheel, I resolved not to
run the risk of being again put off with his falsehoods, and informed
Captain Burns of his misconduct ; then collecting all the Naga and
. Cacharee men I could, I sent off the Shan detachment and Ram Doss
/
|
;
Morhuir to Beren, with instructions to collect as much grain as they
could get, no coolies having arrived. I left Semker with forty Cacharee
oN
454 Narrative of an Expedition into [ June,
and Naga coolies of that village at 12 p.m. I was obliged to leave
Doorgaram Subadar behind with part of the levy, as there were no
means of carrying provisions for them. The Subadar had instructions
to follow when he could get coolies. Passing over two ravines we
crossed the Kondekong river, flowing in a north-west direction towards
the Langting. This latter river rises near Semker, and falls into the
Dyung. Our route here being up the bed of the Kondekong was very
unpleasant ; after continuing this for two miles we crossed over a
small hill in the middle of the valley, which brought us to the Dikkan
river where we encamped, some in huts which the Shans had erected ;
the distance we travelled was about five or six miles.
February 16th. Started at 7 a. m. and passing a few inconsiderable
ravines, formed apparently by mountain torrents, we came to a small hill
from which there is an extended view of the valley beneath, and of the
great range which runs north-east. From thence we descended to the
Sorebackee river; following its course a short distance, we left it
to cross over a small plain to the Par river, a stream of about thirty or
forty yards broad, flowing northerly. Leaving it we crossed over
another plain to a river of similar size called the Aungootee, which is
joined here by the Harikondee, a small stream, along the bank of
which we continued our course. These streams all flow from the
Bura-Ail range, as do indeed all rivers tending from the north to ©
Assam. The ground over which we passed was partly free from |
very heavy jungle, and appears to have been at one time under cul-
tivation, and of a rich nature. Shortly after leaving the Aungootee
we ascended a hill and passed the site of an old Naga village, and
then descended to the encampment of the Shans on a tongue of land
formed by the junction of the Tomkee and Toolongkee rivers. The
distance we travelled to-day was about twelve or thirteen miles.
We were obliged to remain to-day, as the torrents of rain prevented our
stirring, and we found the inconvenience of the wild plantain-leafed —
houses, which let in the rain in every direction.
February 17th. The Naga coolies having run away during the hea-
vy rain of the previous day, we were obliged to divide the party, and —
leave six men in charge of the baggage. Started at 11 a. m. and as-
cended to the deserted village Ekkenja, which I intended to have
reached the day before, but had been deterred from doing so by the
accounts of there being no water. This village was said to have been
attacked by the Angamees some years ago, and the inhabitants had
gone and settled across the valley, under the great range. This new
village is called Sergi; the road was tolerably good, excepting in
some places where it was impeded by fallen bamboos. After gradually
1839. } the Naga territories of Assam. 455
descending we reached a small winding stream, over which we
crossed several times, and which ran through a fine flat country
composed of rich reddish clay, and lightly covered with forest and
the very large Kakoo bamboos. Passing over the plain we came
to the Tamakee, or as it is called by the Assamese, Dhunsiree, a good
sized river flowing in a northerly direction, but the depth was not
very great; indeed none of the rivers I had met with were very
deep, and the shallowness of their banks leads one to imagine that no
considerable body of water remains in them any length of time.
The Dhunsiree was filled with round stones, and an opening in
the great range to the south from whence it flows leads one to
believe that it originates at some distance within the range. After
quitting it we almost immediately ascended a middling sized hill,
which we passed over and ascended to a small streamlet. Border-
ing it we came to the hill on which Kareabonglo is situated ; it is of
a moderate height. Ascending it we found the village deserted, and
the guard who had gone on with grain snugly stowed away in
a capacious house; the Semker coolies had dropped their loads and
run off one and all. Kareabonglo is a Naga village of about twenty-five
houses, on a hill that commands a good view of the surrounding
country, as also of the two villages called Galaga and Harapalo, of
about equal size. These Nagas, who speak the same language as
the Cachar Hill Nagas, are quite distinct from the Angamees, who
speak a different language, and would rejoice in the subjugation
of the Angamees, who force them to give them conch shells and
other things to purchase the preservation of peace. The chief Kaptoa,
to whom I had given presents, brought us grain, for which he was
duly paid ; other chiefs who brought any thing had the money al-
ways tendered to them in payment ; some however refused it, but
when I told them it was our custom, they carelessly took the money
| as if it was not of the least value to them ; some again indignantly
refused. ‘The view from the place last described was good, the huge
i range of mountains one mile to the southward stretching out in a
north-east direction, and apparently terminating in large mountains. On
_ the north-east were two hills heavily clothed in dark green, to the west
the same, but broken by a plain or two. To the north, the first part
| Was the same description of country, till an opening in a distant ridge
of hills brought to view an extensive plain, which is Toolaram Senaput-
_ tee’s country: a mist generally hung over the land, which was against
_ any distant prospect being obtained. The Cacharee coolies that had
_ accompanied us from Semker, under pretence of going to dine by
the stream-side at the bottom of the hill, ran off, and left us with-
456 Narrative of an Expedition into [ JuNE,
out any coolies at all, situated on a mountain, and in a sea of
forest and hills; some of the same tribe of men who accompanied
the Shan detachment served them the same trick. The Shans there-
fore left their grain at Kareabonglo and pushed on for Beren.
The chief here promised to give us thirty coolies, which added to
those the interpreter had brought up with the baggage, and the guard
that had been left behind, enabled me to carry eight days grain.
On the 21st February, left Kareabonglo, having been detained for
the want of coolies three days. At 10° 35’ a.m. by a good path went
over some undulating ground, and then gradually ascended at 1 p. m.
to the Dadakee stream, which is about forty yards wide, with fine clear
cold water gushing through large round pebbles; it falls into the
Tamakee or Dhunsiree. Ascending, we went along by an excellent
path till we came to the Inchurkee river, another stream of nearly equal
size to the Daddkee, discharging itself into the Tamakee. Passing it
we had alternatively good and steep paths till we had passed over
a plain and up the bed of a rocky rivulet. We then ascended and
passed over the hill on which Umbolo, or Juckong, is situated ; we left
this village out of sight on our left, and encamped in very good huts,
erected for us by the chief Okonah at 7 p.m. Umbolo consists of
about eighty or a hundred houses. The Nagas hereabout are a much
finer race than those of the Cachar Hills; and the colour of the
eastern Nagas is a much more wholesome brown than of those in the
vicinity of Goomegogoo, who are more of an ochre colour. The chief —
brought down eggs, &c., and relieved those men who had come from Ka-
reabonglo by another band. He seemed quite delighted at the idea
of the Angamees, the tyrants of the Hills, being put down; and collected
twenty maunds of grain for us, which however we could not take with
us as we had no porters. I was informed by a Muniporee (who had
been captured whilst young, and sold to a Naga of this village, and
had married a Naga girl) that there was a road from this to Assam
in five days vid Sumoogoding. The distance from this to the village
we had left (Kareabonglo) is about 12 or 13 miles, and there area .
good many hills to go over. |
February 22d. We left at 10° 20’ a.m. and crossed a small stream,
and an hour afterwards ascended the great range to the village of —
Unggong, from whence a most commanding view is disclosed of the
low hills up to and beyond Tooleeram’s country, with the course of
the Dhunsiree or Tamakee. The hill on which stands Sumoogoding
is plainly visible, as also the whole of the Angamee valley, and par-
tially grass covered hills. The people of this village treated us civilly,
and collected grain (rice) for us of a very good kind. The village consists
1839.] - the Naga territories of Assam. 457
of about sixty houses, on the top of a very high hill joining the great
range. I went into their village, the people were a little frightened at
first, but afterwards they came round to look at the singularity of our
dress and difference of colour. They were very much astonished at
the whiteness of our cloths, they indeed are in a most primitive state
of nature; the road went at the back of their village. We halted
about an hour afterwards on the banks of a small stream having
passed the Unggrongrow river at the base of the hill the village stands
on; it falls in the Tamakee, at a distance of one day’s journey from
the village in question. The distance to-day was only six miles, owing
to some of our Semker coolies (who had joined us at Kareabonglo)
having run off on the way.
February 23d. Left at 8° 5’ a.m. by a tolerable path, and entered
the great range which we had hitherto skirted, and went up and
down hill till we suddenly diverged from the continued forest to a
most noble opening, which disclosed to our view an extensive valley
surrounded by partly cleared mountains, with topes of firs, these
were in solitary groups and in ravines ; the large village of Beren ap-
peared on the summit of a high mountain across the valley. The
encampment of the Shans was visible on a knoll below the village.
On arriving nearer to what we supposed to be cleared ground, we
found extensive wastes of low grass, such as is met with in the Kas-
syah hills. Winding over several ravines, and passing a river flow-
ing south, we met the Mohurrir, Ram Doss, anda party of Shans who
had come out to meet and warn us to keep together, as the Angamees
had the night before attacked them and wounded one man, and were
prowling about in parties to catch stragglers.
On further inquiry, I was sorry to find that it was through their
own very great neglect, and to their total inattention to the warning
I had given them, to keep their bayonets fixed on guard and sentry
duties, that one of the party, the Shan sentry, was speared in the leg.
I believe there were ten or twelve Angamees about the camp, and two
_ of them crawled up through the grass at 12 p. m., and actually spear-
ed the sentry who was sitting down, and most probably asleep.
After being speared he attempted to fire his fusil, but the powder
being damp it missed fire, whereupon he had time to butt him, but
the Naga forced himself away and ran off; the second sentry came up
and fired, but missed; had the bayonets been fixed, the fall of the
Angamee would have been inevitable. I found the camp built on
the remains of an old circular fort, erected formerly by Raja Krishna
Chunder of Cachar, who was driven out of the country by famine,
after losing one or two men by the spears of the Angamees; he came
458 Narrative of an Expedition into [ June,
up to revenge the attacks made on his subjects by those banditti. He
brought up a long ten or twelve pounder to frighten these wild people
with, but he found an enemy that made his great gun useless, and
was obliged to leave it behind in the jungles. The chief of Beren,
Iquijimpo, was most accommodating, and offered to sell the old cylin-
der for one hundred rupees. On arrival, finding the dried grass around
the stockade had not been removed, I set fire to it to save our enemy
the trouble of doing it for us, and had the good fortune to drive the
fire away from three sides of the stockade, when deeming all danger
passed from the fourth side I left some persons to finish what I had
begun ; but from carelessness, ord sudden gust of wind, the fire spread,
and the cry of houses on fire, soon made me aware of what had happen-
ed. I seized first the magazine and placed it out of danger, then the
grain was all removed, and just as the last bundle was rolled over the
paling the flames devoured the store house. A little cordage was burnt,
but no material accident or loss occurred, and all parties behaved very
well. The troops were drawn up in line after the removal of the stores,
ready to have repelled any attack the enemy might have made. I
sent up to the people of Beren, who were all assembled on the height,
to come down to re-build the camp, but they.would not do so ; I there-
fore sent up some Shans to fire a few shots to frighten any wandering
Angamees from the neighbourhood, when the Beren people came
down and re-built our camp on the ground of the circular fort. This —
fort was a raised knoll of earth, built up with stones to the height of
three feet, with a gradual slope all round. I was perfectly astonished _
at the fine athletic mountaineers we now had to do with, and was much
amused at their accounts of the Angamees. The chief of Rassam
and Sarralo who had met us at Umbolo came down from the vil-
lage, and in a most mysterious manner pointed to the stream and said
the Angamees had poisoned it ; I replied with a smile, and the gravity
of his countenance ceased. I imagine the Angamees had instructed
him to try and frighten us out of the country by some such story.
The two chiefs also hinted at the retreat of the Cacharee and
Munipooree forces sent against the Angamees, and the absurdity of
our attempting it. In fact they tried in every way to talk us over,
and boasted of their superior cunning in the most barefaced and at —
the same time ridiculous manner. The evening we arrived, suspect-
ing the Angamees might favour us with a visit, I remained close
to the sentries till 10 o’clock, when the jingle of a shield in the jungle
warned us of the vicinity of our enemy. I foolishly fired a couple
of shots in the direction of the noise, which drove the Angamees away ;
had they not been thus alarmed, and had they approached, we might
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. ) 459
have then punished them for their intrusion at such unseasonable
hours.
They remained in the neighbourhood all night, but deeming it
waste of powder and shot firing at sounds, I directed the sentries to
adopt a rather primitive mode of letting them know of our watch-
fulness, and that was, to pelt stones into the jungle when they heard
any thing in it, and only to fire when they saw their enemy ; this
order had a very good effect, for the enemy remained at a distance all
night, and retired before day-break. Whilst at this place the chief of
Gopelo, a larger village than Beren, came to pay his respects in order
to prove that he was friendly ; the chiefs of Moolookee, Jalooka, Ba-
laka also came. The jealousy existing amongst the different villages
is very great, and after the Beren people had built our huts, they
said—‘“ There’s such a village has done nothing, make them build
the railing.’ On the 26th the brother of Impuisjee, one of the two
greatest chiefs of the Angamees, came to the village of Beren, but
would not come down to the camp until I had sent Ram Doss Mohurir
accompanied by a Naick and five Shans and the interpreter to assure
him on oath of his safety, and to receive his oath of amity in return.
On seeing the party approach however he ran off into the jungles, not-
withstanding the chiefs of Beren and Rassan were with them, and
assured him that nothing would be done to him. The Shans were
then left behind, and Ram Doss went out to meet him, but he objected
to the sword and shield the Mohurir had with him ; these being left
behind he came close, and the oath was taken in the following man-
ner—A chicken was produced, the head of which the Mohurir held, and
the Angamee the body ; they both pulled till they severed it in two,
which was to signify, that if either was treacherous his head would be
divided from his body in the same manner. They then held a piece
of a spear at the ferule end, which was cut in two, and each retained
the bit in his hand ;—this is one of the most sacred oaths amongst these
wild men. The chief then came down to the camp, and I assured him
that his brother need have no fear for his life, if he would come in,
_ and swear not to molest the Honorable Company’s subjects any more.
He agreed to every thing proposed, and volunteered on condition of
their lives being spared, to pay a tribute of ivory, slaves, &c. He said
his brother had gone to fetch the articles referred to. I showed him a
| ‘watch and a telescope, and told him I could see every thing he did
in any villages, and after frightening him by firing at a pumpkin, I gave
him some presents and dismissed him. I waited till the Ist March
for his brother’s coming, as also for grain from Semker, but neither
arriving, I got coolies from Beren and started for Balaka, a vil-
460 Narrative of an Expedition into [ JuNE,
lage six miles on our route, and to which the Beren people had
agreed to take our traps and the little grain we had. The road was
good the whole way, with only one or two hills. We encamped on a
flat piece of ground near a well below Balaka, which is always built
near villages for the cattle to drink out of. The chief of Ungolo
came in with eggs, &c. and said his young men had joined Ikkaree in
the incursions into the Cachar Hills; that they were forced to go, but
should not do so again. The term ‘ youths’ is applied to all able bodied
villagers. I deemed it needless to bind the smaller chiefs, who stood
at the beck of the greater ones, to oaths they could not keep. The
chief of Jykama (or as it is written in Captain Pemberton’s map of the
North-east frontier, Yueékhe) sent in a person of his village to know
whether his coming in would cause the loss of his life; I assured him
that we were most desirous for peace, but that his not coming in
would be a sign of his enmity, and that in that case I should attack
his village ; the chief departed quite satisfied.
March 2d. I was unable to move for want of coolies. I this day
got intelligence of Doorgaram Subadar and of the levy having come to
Beren according to order, with forty Kookees out of one hundred who
had arrived at Semker. The chief of Umponglo came in, and said
Impuisjee, the greatest chief of the Angamees, who had promised to
meet me, had gone to Umbolo, or Sirchong, to ask advice of the chief
of that village regarding a meeting with me. This chief is his nephew ;
he promised to give us grain as we passed his village, he also said the
children of his village had gone in Ikkaree’s train to the Hills, but that
they would not do so again. Ikkaree is the second chief of the Anga-
mees, and the principal leader in the predatory attacks on the Cachar
Nagas ; he was captured by Doorgaram Subadar in one of his incur-
sions to Goomegogoo, but escaped, as he said himself, by the neglect of
a burkundaz. Our grain being all expended, and finding none com-
ing forth from the villagers, I placed the chief of Balaka in arrest, to
induce them to exert themselves for us, but my experiment had a
very opposite effect, for they all fled from the village and left their
chief to his fate. On his taking an oath to bring coolies and grain, if
I let him go, I released him, which was another kind of experiment,
and proved something like letting go a newly-caught bird, for we
never saw him again. Doorgaram Subadar came up to-day.
On the 3d March I was obliged to divide the party, as it was
necessary to increase our rate of going onwards, or to return, for
every moment reduced our supply of grain. I therefore left the Shan
and levy detachments under Doorgaram, with instructions to. make
the best of his way after me, or otherwise to act according to cir-
:
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. 461
cumstances, and return if he was obliged to do so; as I had deter-
mined to push on, and if nothing else could be done, to find the exit
from this tract to Assam, of which I had heard from Toolaram Raja
and the Munipoorees. Notwithstanding their ignorance of the existence
of a road pretended to by the Nagas, with only one day’s provisions
I started for Malhye, a village six miles off. I had no guide, but
trusted to a path which the Balaka people had pointed out before they
ran away as the direction to be pursued. I was rather anxious about
meeting any villagers at Malbye, imagining that the Balaka people had.
communicated our having seized their chief. We found the Malhye
people assembled and prepared to protect their village had there been
any attack from us; but with a hog and some grain laid at the
entrance we pacified them, and got what we wanted. It was rather
amusing to see them assembled with their spears, looking very fierce
and warlike, whilst we were aware one shot would have sent them
flying over hill and dale, and proved to them their weakness. They
are however very persevering in their mode of fighting, viz. wan-
dering behind bush and stone, on the look out for an opportunity
to spear their enemy when off his guard. Whilst standing making
inquiries for a convenient encamping place, Keereebee, chief of Jykama,
or Yueekhe, bounded down the hill side and presented a piece of
cloth and a spear. A finer specimen of a wild mountaineer was never
before me ; he wore the blue kilt, ornamented with cowries, peculiar to
the Angamees, which set off his fine, powerful figure very much. I told
him to come to camp and receive some presents, which he did ; but he
refused to accompany me to Ikkaree’s village, as he said he was at
enmity with that chief, and if he caught him he would kill him.
March 4th. Lookakee, chief of Unggileo, came to pay us a visit, and
left us to get some grain ready. Healuckeng, chief of Ungolo, came
and gave a black cloth as an amicable offering, and brought some
| coolies to relieve our Kookees; the men he brought were all fine strap-
ping fellows. Left camp at 7° 30’ a.m. and ascended to near the
_ Ungolo village, which consists of about 30 or 40 houses situated on the
top of a lower hill of the great range. We found two baskets of rice at
the path leading to their village ; the path from this was newly cut,
and therefore not a good one. We skirted the great range, which
from Onggong took an easterly direction. We met with no bamboos,
| our route being through forest trees with small underwood. We pas-
sed the bed of a mountain rivulet, which was now hardly trickling
_ sufficient water to allow of a good draught, but which in the rainy season
| must discharge a considerable body of water, and going over several
| low hills reached Unggililee, where the coolies from Ungolo dropped
3 0
462 Narrative of an Expedition into ' [ June,
their loads and ran off. We got a couple of baskets of rice from the
people of the village and a small pig, but the total of to-day’s supplies
was not more than sufficient to allow of half a seer per man, and all
the salt had been expended, which made the privation greater.
March Sth. Sent the Mohurir Ram Doss to the village with ten
Shans who had accompanied me, to get some rice ; but the people
assembled with spears, and said our intention was to burn their vil-
lage; but on being assured that we only wanted rice they gave some,
though a small quantity, and we marched off. At 9° 50’ a. m. went
over a hill and ascended to Umponglo, the chief of which seemed very
friendly, and offered to accompany us and bring Ikkaree to terms,
which offer I gladly accepted. We had some difficulty in getting suf-
ficient rice to admit of each man’s getting his half seer ; we succeed-
ed only by hard pressing, and remaining under the village for some
time. We descended thence and passed a good sized river, flowing in
a northern direction towards the Tamake into which it falls; it is
called here the Unnuruce ; passing it we ascended and came to a fine
flat space of clear rice land, on the top of a hill; winding over several
heights we descended to a small stream, on which we encamped in
rather stony ground.
March 6th. Broke ground at 5° 45’ a.m. and went a short way
through the forest, when we came toa wide rocky space with scattered
jungle, apparently the course of a considerable body of water in an-
other season, but now confined to a clear stream of little magnitude ;
on its right bank there is fine encamping ground amidst topes of the
large Kakoo bamboos. We passed no less than four or five streams in
the course of our journey this day, and ascended a very high hill on
which were the remains of an old village. The great range became
more broken in its regularity here, and we ascended over several hills
and reached the valley beneath Tukquogenam, a village of about sixty —
or seventy houses, written in Captain Pemberton’s map, Takojunom-
nee. We encamped in a triangular-shaped rice cultivation, which was
raised by steps (the highest about thirty feet) above the level of the
valley, for the purpose of retaining the water to nourish the rice crops.
Through the centre ran a clear rocky stream of about twenty or thirty
yards broad, with which they could irrigate at pleasure. On our
arrival we found Bahoota, a lad who called himself Impaisjee’s ne-
phew, but who was merely an adopted son of that chief, and who had
promised to bring in Impaisjee and Ikkaree at Beren, but broke his
promises as easily as he made them. I had fortunately taken the pre-
caution to send the interpreter with the chief of Umponglo before us
to calm any fears the villagers might have had, and lucky it was I did
|
1639. ] the Naga territories of Assane. 463
so, for they found them all ready to fly at the first signal of our ap-
proach. The chief and his two sons came and brought eggs and grain,
not more however than would allow of the old allowance of half a
seer. They informed me that the head man of Ikkaree’s village was up
in their village and would come down if I would not molest him, which
being guaranteed he came down and offered a spear, and said Ikkaree
was most anxious to come to terms, but feared coming to camp from
dread of being seized again, which I assured him would not be the
ease, and that he might depend upon our word, as it was our custom
to act as we spoke, which appeared to satisfy him, and he departed
with a promise to bring Ikkaree the next day.
March 7th. Sent our Cachar Naga interpreter with the Tukquoge-
nam Angamee interpreter to Cheremee to fetch grain, which he
succeeded in getting, to the delight of the coolies, who had had none
the day before. He informed me that at the village he had met with
two men from Sumoogoding, whom he wanted to come and see me ;
but they replied, that a body of troops were on their way from Dhejna,
and that they must return to their village to get grain ready for
them. This fable served my purpose most admirably, and I told
them to tell Ikkaree that if he did not come in soon,-I should give
him no terms, but advance and burn his village directly the Dhejna
troops arrived. ‘This threat brought him to the village of Tukquoge-
nam, and a promise to come down and accept terms next morning.
The people of this village had the insolence to say they could drive us
out of the country, but they feared the other troops that were coming
from all directions to attack them.
March 8th. Ikkaree sent word to say he feared coming into camp,
on which I sent the Mohurir Ram Doss and the chief of Umponglo, who
had been trying to allay his fears. They returned after about an hour’s
absence, and said they could not persuade him to come down to camp,
but that he would meet me half way between the village and the
camp. Seeing that we had no grain for that day’s consumption, and
fearing that if I should be obliged to attack any of their villages I
should only be put in possession of an empty place, as all the grain
had been previously secreted in the jungles (as indeed it had been in
those we had passed, for they had long been aware of our coming)
I determined on going to meet him in his own den. Placing a pistol
in my pocket and a sword by my side, and giving a pistol to the Mo-
hurir, I sallied forth with an Assamese Mohurir to take down the
questions and answers; a quarter of an hour brought us through an
open vale to five or six men watching on a slightly rising ground, be-
yond them were more men scattered about in an open plain or dale of
A464 Narrative of an Expedition into [ June,
about five hundred or six hundred yards wide; in our front stood
the village on a hill, behind which were the high peaks of the great
range; on our left were more low hills, and on our right, a wood
with a river behind ; in the centre of the plain there was a stone Chu-
bootar to which I advanced and sat down. I then perceived Ikkaree,
whom I knew immediately by the red collar round his neck edged
with human hair. I had heard that this was the distinguishing
marks of these chiefs, from their villagers. Ikkaree was sitting ona
heap of stones ready to fly up the hill, if there was occasion ; he did
not however come till after many calls from his people and my threa- —
tening to return, when he came up rather sulkily, with a red spear in
his hand, which I commanded him to leave behind. This being
done, he came along cautiously and sat on the Chubootar, continually
looking behind for a clear coast for a bolt, and had I given but a
single halloo, he would have been off like a shot; his own men even
abused his timidity. On getting a little confidence he commenced boast-
ing of his cunning, &c. which I soon stopped, by telling him that
if I chose at that moment I could walk him off to the camp, but that
I had promised him safety, and that he need have no fear; on this he
seemed very anxious to depart, but I made him take oath not to mo-
lest in future the Honorable Company’s subjects, which ceremony was
administered in the most simple and the rudest manner, for it merely
consisted in his holding one end of a spear and I the other whilst it
was cut in two, each retaining his bit. Ikkaree was wanting to be
off before it took place, but I made him remain, and thrust the bit of
iron into his hand when half cut, and made him hold it till it was cut
through, so that he might have the full benefit of the sanctity of the
oath ;—it is considered one of the greatest oaths amongst these sa-
vages. He promised to send rice next day, and departed much like a
jackal], looking round every second step. He is a fine specimen of a
brigand, tall and slight, and made for activity, of a brown colour ; he
has small black eyes, in one of which there is a cast, black whiskers and
mustaches, and a savage sneer always playing on his lips. He is at —
variance with many of his own tribe, and is a most cold-blooded mur-
derer ; he wore on his neck a collar made of red coloured goat hair, and
ornamented with conch shells and tufts of the hair of the persons he |
had killed on his expeditions. I returned to camp, and the Tukquoge-
nam people brought us rice, but said they could not afford any more.
March 9th. Bahoota came down, and said something about Im-
paisjee having arrived, which proved false. On the Mohurir Ram
Doss going up, he reported that he had met the interpreter on the
road, who feared to go up to the village as there was a body of men
1839. the Naga territories of Assam. 465
on the road who threatened him; Ram Doss however went on with
Bahoota and the interpreter, and met 200 men armed with spears, who
attempted to obstruct the passage, but Ram Doss pushed on, and they
retired. Ram Doss said they belonged to Ikkaree, and that that chief
had sent word to say, he would give us grain if we went to his
village, but that he would not, or could not, send it, (as he had pro-
mised to do) if I did not move forward. My chief object being
accomplished, viz. that of settling affairs amicably, and discovering the
locality of these brigands, moreover having found the exit to Assam,
via Sumoogoding, and deeming it a rather dangerous experiment
remaining any longer ina country where the roads ran chiefly in
the beds of rivers sure to be stopped up in the rains, which had
already commenced on the upper parts; doubting also the word of
Ikkaree to supply us with grain, and the consequent likelihood of a
quarrel had we gone to his village, I determined to return.
* * * * * * * & *
We had not a grain of rice for that day, soI marched off towards
Sumoogoding, where it was most likely we should get provisions, that
village being in communication with Toolaram’s Cacharee subjects at
_ Dheghna, leaving a message to the two chiefs Impaisjee and Ikkaree to
the effect that, as they had taken oaths not to molest the Honorable
Company’s subjects I should not trouble their villages, and hoped they
would attend to their oaths. We left camp at 9 a. m. and by a very
good path reached Cheremee at 11 a.m. it being about five miles from
Tukquogenam. It is a small village of about fifteen houses, situated
_ upon a middling sized hill; the silly people assembled to prevent our
going into their village, armed with spears, little imagining that one
volley as they stood would have blown them of their hill. We
pacified them, and got a little rice, but it not being enough, I threa-
tened them if they did not bring more to camp, to return. From
the hill several other villages were pointed out to the east, but I did
not observe them, Papamee, and Jingpen were among their names.
The great range seemed to take a turn to the south of east from
beyond Tukquogenam. The directions of Moongjo and Sookamjo
were also shown, the former a village of Ikkaree’s, consisting of five
hundred houses, and the latter belonging to Impaisjee of eight hun-
dred houses.
Leaving Cheremee we descended to a small river bearing the Naga
| name of Ompoa; we continued down its bed for about a mile, and then
encamped on its left bank in a newly burnt jungle, opposite the
village of the same name, which stood about a mile off on a hill, and
| was hid by the tree jungle. In the valley we were in the huts had
466 Narrative of an Expedition into [June,
just been erected, when a lad belonging to the Shans came running in
breathless and said he had seen two Nagas with spears and shields.
I immediately took a couple of Shans and went out in the direction,
but only met a couple of sepoys and coolies cutting wood. Returning
and recalling all stragglers, I found the chief of Umpoa with grain,
which greatly relieved the spirits of the party, as there was a good
chance before that of their going without their usual allowance. I
gave him some presents, and he returned to his village. About an
hour afterwards, it being evening, the men were all cooking in the
bed of the river, when two Nagas sneaked up through the jungle from
the opposite bank and threw two spears at the right flank men, one of
which lodged in the thigh of the dhobee and the other grazed the
skin of a sepoy ; the Nagas instantly fled, and several shots were fired
in the direction they had gone, which was all that could be done; as
evening was too far advanced to pursue them. Our Tukquogenam
guide, who had promised to show us the road to Sumoogoding, said
that it was the people of the village of Pepamee and Cheremee that
had attacked us, but I very much suspect that Ikkaree was at the
bottom of it, and fearing for his own village he had ordered these two
small villages to annoy our return ; but it is very difficult to speak with
any degree of certainty, as the Angamees are all in clans, and each
village is its own master as long as its doings do not affect the great —
chiefs. As far as I can learn in regard to the two great chiefs, —
Impaisjee, who is the greatest, is wishing for peace, but his more ad-
venturous countryman, Ikkaree, is unwilling to give up his predatory
habits and his attacks on the Cacharees, who yield him much plunder —
in cloths, conch shells, &c. besides what he forces them to give to
release any of their relatives who may have been captured in an |
inroad, and also toransom any skulls of their relatives ;—for leaving the
latter in the hands of the enemy is considered amongst the Nagas a |
very dishonorable thing.
March 10th. The chief of Ompoa came down, and said the Nagas
that had attacked us were of the villages of Papamee and Cheremee, |
but I suspect the people of Cheremee, the village we had left behind, |
were the parties concerned. The night was extremely stormy, it rained |
heavily and thundered and lightened, but our leafed roofs luckily did |
not leak. We heard the Nagas around us the whole night trying |
to sneak up, but a shot drove them off in a great hurry. They are very |
much frightened at the report of fire-arms; they follow their enemy |
with great perseverance till they wound or kill one or two, when they |
run away. We left this early, and followed the course of the river for |
about eight or nine miles, and then ascended the high ridge on the |
1839. ] the Naga territories of Assam. 467
summit of which Sumoogoding is situated. The stream was joined
by another river called Omporo, which increased its width towards
the end of the journey. Some Nagas were observed to follow, but on
several men detaching themselves to go after them, they fled in all
directions. ‘The chief of Ompoa accompanied us, as also Bahoota, as
far as the Sumorginding ridge, where they left us. The weather was
very threatening, and as we ascended the ridge the clouds lowered and
rolled through the opposite high range we had left, and we expected to
have been deluged before we reached the top ; however it cleared off
and we ascended, but met a fierce looking foe in the shape of the vil-
lagers of Sumoogoding drawn up in battle array to resist our ingress
into their village. We found many who could speak the Cacharee lan-
guage ; these were informed of our only wishing for rice and a convenient
locality for our camp, and on this they showed us the road across the
range, and from it, a most extended view is laid open of a vast plain
to the north, (which greatly pleased our inhabitants of the plains, who
were sick of mountain life) and on the south, of the whole Angamee
_ valley and mountains ; we then descended to a small nullah under the
north side of this range called Narrow, and encamped on its bank.
We got enough grain for the party to allow of halfa seer for each per-
son, the chief however did not seem much inclined to give us the
quantity we required to take us to the end of our journey, viz. three
days. Next day he brought only one maund, and said he could
give no more, on which I sent the Mohurir Ram Doss with ten men
and a Naick up to the village with the men who brought down the
grain, one of whom however I took the precaution to retain, as
the Cacharee interpreters had not made their appearance, according
to promise, and in case we should require to force grain out of them
and have a dispute, and thus obtain no guide. The party returned
and said they could not get any more grain, and that the Nagas who
| had followed had come into the village, and were only prevented from
attacking us by the villagers, who were afraid of our burning their
| village. Taking twenty-five men under the Jemadar, and the Kookee
eoolies, and leaving the same number under the Subadar, who had
been ill since our leaving Semker, to protect the baggage, I proceeded
up to the village, which I found empty, but saw parties of Nagas
Scattered about on the neighbouring hills, and the villagers in a small
stockade on the crown of a hill beyond the village. Finding plenty of
| grain, I set the Kookees to work to clean it whilst I attempted to get
the villagers down from their citadel, but to no effect. After some
grain had been beaten out we observed some Nagas attempting to
sneak through the jungle up to us, but as I was unwilling to injure
a
maakt id
468 Narrative of an Expedition tnto [ June,
any of them, as they traffic peaceably with the Dhegun Cacharees,
I made the Kookees take each a bundle of Dhan and a threshing board
and left the village, and beat our grain out in camp.
March 12th. We left camp and followed the narrow nullah for
about an hour, and then went across the plain in a north-westerly di-
rection to the Dhunsiree or Tamake river, fifteen miles from the first
range of mountains on which Sumoogoding is situated. We reached it
after crossing a good sized stream, which I imagine to be the Un-
grow river that flows beneath Ungong. At 2 Pp. m. we went up
several reaches of the Dhunsiree and encamped, as the Naga we had
brought with us persisted in denying any knowledge whatever of any
road leading further than the Dhema, or Dhimsire, as it is called by the
Sumoogoding and Dhejna people. Dhema literally signifies a river
in the Cacharee language. Parties were sent out from this in all
directions to search for traces of a path, and one of them that re-
turned late brought in some men left by Tooleeram to show us the
route in case we should return that way. The Rajah had returned
from Semker via Kareabonglo down the Dhunsiree. His fires had
given rise to the report of the troops coming from Dhejna. It was
most fortunate he had left these men, as had the Naga not been aware |
of the road, as he pretended he was not, we should have found very —
great difficulty in forcing our way through the forest to Dhejna. |
March 14th. Left encampment at 7 a. m. and went through the —
forest. At 7° 45’, passed through a reedy country ; at 8° 30’ came to
a small river, crossing which we went over some undulating ground,
and at ll a. m. met Toolaram Senaputtee, who was going to look
after us with grain. At 12° 30’ reached Dhejna, where we encamped, |
having come a distance of about sixteen miles.
March 15th. Left Dhejna 8° 45’ and went over undulating ground
till 11° 20’, when we came to Mohong Dhejna on the banks of the
Joomoonah river, in Zillah Nowgong, where I halted to allow the |
- Subadar to come up in a doolee, as he was very ill.
I here heard that Doorgaram with his men had followed me, and
had arrived at Dhejna, having experienced the same difficulties from
want of supplies that I had. I made arrangements to have the Shan
detachment left at this post.
* * 6 * * %* * * *&
Toolaram Rajah kindly offered to cut a road to Sumoogoding, pass- —
able in the rains, which offer I gladly accepted, and have been informed |
that it is nearly accomplished. The levy under Doorgaram returned
from Dhejna to the Goomegogoo Thanna to await further orders,
and the Sebundee detachment was ordered to Gowahatty, as there |
¢
1839. | the Naga territories of Assam. 469
was no further use for them., From the difficulty of understand-
ing the Angamees, and from my requiring interpretations through the
Cacharee-Hindoostanee, Cachar-Hill, Naga, and Angamee, dialects I
found it no easy matter to get information regarding the Angamee
customs; besides, the impatience of the wild Angamee to remain any
time in one place or attitude is a great obstacle to obtaining such
information. The Angamees, or as they are termed by the Assamese
the Cachar Nagas, are a very different race from the Nagas of the
Cachar hills ; they are a much finer and independent set, and have for
some time exacted tribute from their pusillanimous neighbours of the
lower hills, and collect from Mahye to Gumegoogoo, obliging the
Semker Cacharees even to give them salt, &c. to preserve peace.
The young men in particular are fine, sleek, tall, well made youths,
and many are very good looking ; they pride themselves much upon
their cunning. The formation of their joints struck me as being singu-
lar, they are not bony or angular, but smooth and round, particularly
those of the knees and elbows. They are continually at war with each
other. Their dress is that peculiar to most other eastern highlanders,
but of a more tasteful make than most others. It is a blue kilt,
prettily ornamented with cowrie shells, and either a coarse grey or
blue coloured cloth thrown over their shoulders, which in war time is
tied up in such a manner as to allow of a bamboo being inserted
to carry the person away, should he be wounded. Their defensive
weapon is a shield, of an oblong shape, made of bamboo mat work,
with a board behind to prevent any weapon from piercing it; their
offensive weapon is a spear of seven or eight feet long, which they throw
or retain in their hand in attacking. Their villages are generally good
sized ones, built on the high hills below the great range, which appear
most difficult of access, and are usually in two parallel lines, with
the gable end of the houses towards the front, in a diagonal position
to the street. Their houses are commodious, being one large roof raised
from the ground, with mat walls inside; the interior is divided into
two apartments—a cooking apartment and a hall, in which all assem-
ble. In this last every thing they possess is kept, and equally serves
for a sleeping apartment, sitting room, or store room, large baskets
of grain being generally the furniture of one side. There are always
two large fires, round which are benches of planks forming a square
seat for all the gentlemen and ladies of the family ; one fire is set apart
expressly for the youths and children, who are not allowed to mix
with the sage old people. In front of their houses are either round or
square stone pigsties, on which, of a morning and evening, the villagers
sit sipping with a wooden ladle froma gourd bowl a kind of spirit
3 P ~
479 Narrative of an Expedition into, &c. [June,
made from rice flour and Bajara seed. Their main street is a
receptacle for all the filth and dirt in the place, and is most offensive.
In front of the houses of the greater folks are strung up the bones of
the animals with which they have feasted the villagers, whether tigers,
elephants, cows, hogs, dogs, or monkeys, or ought else, for it signifies
little what comes to their net. They have very fine large straight
backed cows and buffaloes ; they have also goats, hogs, and fowls, but
no ducks or geese. On each side of their villages are stockades and a
ditch, which is filled with Pangees, or pointed bamboos, and on the
sloping sides of the ridge the earth is cut away and a wall built up;
these fortified villages would make a formidable resistance to any
force without fire-arms, but they are generally overlooked by neigh-
bouring heights, which disclose the whole interior economy of the
place. They cultivate rice in the valleys between mountains, and
several other kinds of grain (names unknown) also a very fine fla-
voured kind of purple vetch. I was informed that cotton did not
grow in the higher mountains, and that they got what is procured from
the lower hill Nagas. The peach tree grows in a most luxurious state
round the different villages, I also saw an apple tree off which we got
great abundance of fine large wild apples, which were greedily de-
voured by the whole party. The Angamees get all their iron instru-
ments from the Munipore Nagas ; they are great wanderers, and make
incursions into Munipore itself, and carry away children, who are sold
up in the Hills. I met several who had been seized in that manner,
and who had adopted the wild Naga customs, and were unwilling to
return ; Semker is a great mart for this kind of trade. The Anga-
mees have no idea of ploughing or agriculture, or of preparing the ©
ground, and sowing crops, in the way civilized nations do. The poorer
classes make their cloths from the pith of a nettle which is procurable
in great abundance, and which makes a very fine fibred hemp. The bay
leaf is a native of the higher mountains, as also a small species of
wild orange. The country between the Sumoogoding ridge and Dhej-
na is remarkably fine, particularly so on the banks of the Dhunsiree,
which much resembles the species of forest scenery found in Ame-
rica, and remains uncultivated only from the fear that is entertained
by all the ryots, &c. of these wild Angamees. Thé Dhunsiree, I should
think, would be navigable for canoes at parts of the year up to Be
point I crossed it.
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1839.] On the Experimental Copper Mine in Kumaon. 471
Art. II.—Report by Lieut. Joun GuasFurp, Executive Engineer
Kumaon division, on the progress made up to the \st May, 1839, in
opening the experimental Copper Mine in Kumaon.
The ground selected for the experiment is at Pokri in the Per-
_gunnah of Nagpoor in Gurhwal, where mines of Copper have long
been worked.
The mines, or rather excavations, are numerous, and are situated on
the western side of a steep hill in talcose schist and clay slate. The
soil is extremely soft and decayed, and has defied all the efforts of the
present race of native miners, according to whose accounts the workings
do not extend beyond 120 feet from the entrance in any of the excava-
tions, which are constantly liable to accidents, and of which a new one
is generally commenced after every rainy season. It is however univer-
sally admitted that the Pokri mines have been very productive, and it
is said that the one known by the name of the Rajah Kan, yielded one
year upwards of 50,000 rupees. Judging from the ruins of the houses,
workshops, &c., and the accumulation of slag, the working must have
been carried on, on an extensive scale.
The village of Pokri is situated about 6,100 feet above the level of
the sea, and 3,800 above the Alukmenda river, from which it is distant
nearly nine miles ; the distance from Almora is eighty-six, and from
Sreenuggur little more than thirty miles, and to both of these places
there are good roads. The climate is good but changeable, owing to the
vicinity of the Snowy range; and the temperature is from the same
cause as cold as that generally found at elevations from 7,000 to 7,500
feet. The vegetation, as might be expected, is European in its character,
and the forests of oak, rhododendron, and the common long-leaved
pine are almost inexhaustible in the immediate neighbourhood of the
| mines. During the greater part of the year there is water sufficient
for washing the ores in the immediate vicinity, and at a distance of
about two miles, there is enough for the purposes of machinery through-
out the year. The village consists of eighteen to twenty-two houses,
and from sixty to eighty inhabitants, who are chiefly of the Chowdry
and Mining castes. The right of mining was rented by them from Go-
vernment on a quinquennial lease of 100 rupees per annum, which
expired about a year ago; but the people are so poor, and their resources
so limited, that they have been unable to undertake any new lease, and
indeed before the present experiment was commenced they hardly at-
tempted more than the re-smelting portions of the slag from the old
working.
472 On the Experimental Copper Mine in Kumaon. (June,
The mining ground lies in two ravines, both on the western face of
the hill, and about 500 yards apart, separated by a low ridge, the direc-
tion of the ravines being nearly east and west. The most northern of
the two, and in which the village is situated, is where the old mine called
the Rajah Kan was. The right, or northern side of the ravine is of —
dolomite, the left being talcose schist, which forms the ridge separa-
ting the two. The southern ravine is known by the name of Chumittee,
and is full of old excavations ; the formation is tale, bounded on the south
by a dolomite limestone, and on the north by the low ridge of talcose
schist through which in one or two places granite protrudes. Besides
these, there are several other localities on the same hill where copper has
been extracted ; one very promising situation is an old mine known by
the name of the Dandu Kan, or hill mine, about four miles from Pokri,
and there are also many other places in the Pergunnah of Nagpoor,
where copper is known to exist. |
The experimental works now in progress were commenced in Janu-
ary last, and consist of two adits, or galleries, one in each ravine; that
in the northern, or Rajah Kan ravine, has been driven and secured
with timber to a distance of 1494 feet from the entrance ; the gallery is
six feet high by three feet wide, and the frames, which are oak branches
of three and a half to four inches diameter, are placed from two to two and
a half feet asunder ; the top and side sheeting are also of oak branches,
the diameter of which is about two and a half inches. The gallery is being
carried in with a slope of one inch per foot nearly on the ruins of an
old working, which has been roughly secured with timber, but has long —
fallen in. The soil is an alluvial deposit filled with masses of rock,
chiefly of dolomite, and the water proceeding from the gallery is slight- |;
ly impregnated with sulphate of copper. When about sixty-three feet |
from the entrance the superincumbent soil gave way, and fell in on the »
head of the gallery ; this breach has been cleared and converted into a
rough shaft, which at present answers for the purpose of ventilation,
but as it is directly in the line down which the water runs in the rainy
season, it will probably be necessary to close it.
In the Chumittee ravine a gallery has been driven and secured with
timber to a distance of 111 feet from the entrance; it is in size and
mode of timbering exactly similar to the other, the slope averaging
only half an inch per foot. The first seventy-five feet were driven
through tale slate, with occasional beds of quartz, in which were small |
quantities of copper pyrites ; the next six feet passed through an old
working which apparently went down obliquely, and had been regularly _
timbered with deal; on reaching this working, traces of copper were |
found, but were lost on entering it. The next twenty-four feet went —
1839.] On the Experimental Copper Mine in Kumaon. 473
through firm talc slate in which copper ores, in trickling strings, and
also disseminated, were found. The ores were of various kinds, but
vitreous copper ore predominated. From these twenty-four feet fifty-
eight or sixty seers of rich ores, worth about twenty per cent. of
copper were obtained, one-half of which reverted to the miners, ac-
cording to previous agreement, also a quantity of stuff supposed to con-
tain about forty maunds, which would probably produce twelve to
fifteen per cent. of copper. The last six feet of the gallery passed
through another old working exactly similar to the former, and which
also appears to have gone down obliquely. A perpendicular shaft has
been commenced 150 feet from the entrance of the gallery, for the pur-
pose of ventilation ; it has been sunk to a depth of thirty feet, and it is
expected that by the time this shaft has attained the requisite depth,
the gallery will have advanced far enough to join it. The dimensions
of shaft are 6X3, the frames are of oak, and the sheeting fir; the first
three feet were through alluvial deposit, the next ten through tale slate,
and the next five through what appears to have been an horizontal adit
filled with deal timber and blue talcose mud, ten pounds of which on
being washed, left four ounces of ore, worth probably ten per cent.
The remaining twelve feet went through alternate tale and dolomite,
or rather having tale on the north side and dolomite on the south.
The water oozing from the old working has much impeded the shaft,
the quantity discharged by wooden buckets averaging daily about 500
gallons. .
The supply of iron required for the works is obtained from the
mines of that metal in the Khutsaree valley, about forty miles from
Pokri, on the road to Almora. In this valley there are large reposi-
tories of compact red iron ore in clay slate, containing beds of lime-
stone. The manufacture of iron is carried on here more extensively
than at any other place in the province, and the metal produced is con-
sidered superior to any other here manufactured. There is no want of
iron ore in the district, and it exists in many places nearer to the Pokri
Mine than Khutsaree. At Dewalgurh, half way between Pokri and
Sreenuggur, good iron is worked, and about two miles south of
the village of Pokri there is an old deserted mine, the specimens from
which are specular iron ore, which might probably be worked with ad-
vantage.
The present race of native miners have been at Pokri for three
generations, and have no recollection or tradition of fir timber having
been used in the mines; and until it was found on the old workings,
they strongly protested against the use of it. The timber found in the
Chumittee gallery appears to have been put together with considerable
474 On the Experimental Copper Mine in Kumaon. . [June,
care, and where firmly bedded in the mud is perfectly sound, but where
at all exposed it is much decayed.
The natives of the place are well satisfied with the experiment as far
as it has gone, and the applications for employment are more than re-
quired ; they are also very willing to adopt any improvement on their
own rude system, and readily falling into and becoming expert in
the use of the tools, &c. |The work in the galleries has been perform-
ed partly by contract and partly by hired labour ; in the former mode
the rate paid is about one rupee per foot with half the ores found, and
in the latter two annas per day. In the Chumittee gallery the people
prefer contracting, in the hope of obtaining profit from the ores found ;
whereas in the Rajah Kan gallery, as no copper can be expected while
passing through the alluvial deposit, they are not at present willing to
contract.
The result of the experiment so far may be considered satisfactory,
and it is quite certain that copper in considerable abundance has exist-
ed in the ground through which we are now passing in the Chumittee
ravine, assuming that this ground has been more or less disturbed to a
depth of 120 feet—the greatest the native miners say has ever been at-
tained by them, although I question if ever they got so far. We may rea-
sonably hope that by the time the gallery has reached to a distance of
about 280 feet we will enter upon ground hitherto untouched, and until
this is reached no fair criterion of its capabilities can be formed. Ido
not expect to make much progress during the rains, owing to the very
loose nature of the soil ; wherever we have passed through old workings
considerable delay has been experienced from the constant falling in of
the soil.
(True Copy, ) H. T. PRINSEP,
4th July, 1839. Secy. to the Govt. of India.
Art. III.—Account of a Journey from Sumbulpir to Mednipir,
through the Forests of Orissa. By Linur. M. Kirtor.
( Continued from page 383.) _ 3
I resumed my march towards Mednipar at 3 a. M. the following day,
and reached Deogurh, the capital of the Baumurra district, at 8 o’clock ;
on leaving, it was too dark to see any distance, this was of no conse-
quence, as there were high hills close on either side. I had to descend
a slight ghat, at the foot of which I crossed the Burghat torrent; were
the dawk road to pass this way it would be necessary to have a suspen-
sion bridge over it, likewise on most of these hill torrents. For the first
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1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 475
six miles the path is very circuitous, winding round the bases of several
hills, there are many water courses, and the number of loose stones of
all sizes strewed about, render it very painful to travel over. The Saul
forest is very dense, and there are some very fine timbers, it continues
so for five and a half miles. Our course thus far had upon the whole been
north-easterly, we here turned to the southward, in which direction we
continued for a short distance, and crossed a shallow running stream
called Jurritoora, flowing to the right; we then came upon an open spot
in the centre of a beautiful plain, with fine mango topes around it; this
is a Bunjara halting place; there was formerly a small hamlet close
by, but during the disturbances between the Raja and the Sumbulptr
people, some years ago, it was destroyed. Half a mile further forward the
same rivulet is recrossed, the road then turns to the eastward, and
together with the stream passes through an exceedingly narrow defile,
called Juraikilla, into the valley of Deogurh ; the hills are exceedingly
high on either side, those to the left (or north) have faces nearly per-
pendicular. There are the remains of a stone wall and of a stockade,
by means of which the Deogurh people are said to have often success-
fully defended themselves against their invading enemies.
On passing the defile the valley appears in all its beauty, extending
west to east as far as the eye can reach, widening with a perceptible
fall in that direction which is towards the valley of the Brahmeni
river, into which the Jurritoora rivulet empties itself, after winding
along the valley at the foot of the hills skirting its southern boundary,
The view from the pass, looking east, is exceedingly beautiful, indeed
nothing could be more grand. About two miles in advance, I came to a
large village called Kainsur, between which and the pass I had thrice to
cross a large nullah and several smaller water-courses, over all of which
it would be necessary to have bridges. After resting a little, I conti-
nued my journey, and passing several large villages, including old
Deogurh, reached the modern town of that name, distant 134 miles
from last ground. I found a large red and white tent ready pitched for
me by the Raja’s orders, and an abundance of supplies had been collect-
ed ; this civility was quite unexpected, but there was probably a reason
for it.
Deogurh is a large straggling village, distant one mile from the hills
on the northern side of the valley, which may here be about two and
a half miles wide. The Raja’s Noor, or palace, together with some
small temples are the only pucca buildings; there are small water-
476 Lieut. Kittoe's Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (June,
courses or aqueducts passing through every street and garden, the
water being conducted from the famous cataracts which is in the hill
| just above the town ; the fields for several miles are irrigated from these
falls. I was too much fatigued on my arrival to look about me, added
to which it was late in the day.
Although the apparent comfort of a tolerable good tent was thus
provided, I had more reason for anger than pleasure, for I had sent on
part of my guard and the Political Agent’s Muktar (an Ooriya)—who
had been so officious in attempting to prevent my coming by this route—
to have a bower prepared in some shady spot, distant at least two miles
from hence, and had given most positive orders on this head; for in the
first place, I wished to avoid an interview with the Raja, travelling in
the uncomfortable manner I was forced to do. secondly, I wished to
put it out of the power of my followers to extort money, ‘ Salami,”
from him, a regular practice with native servants of political establish-
ments, particularly with the worthies of Cuttack, two of whom accom-
panied me* on the present occasion. This kind of systematic plunder
is perhaps one of the chief causes of aversion the inhabitants have
to our making a thoroughfare in their different states.
I suffered more from the heat this, than on any of the previous days
of my journey, but towards 3 Pp. M. a severe north-wester came on,
followed by a heavy shower of rain, which cooled the atmosphere for
the time being, but the steam from the wetted ground rendered the
heat at night nearly suffocating.
~ The Raja paid me a visit at 5 p. M. he isa fine handsome lad, of
about eighteen years of age, but rather effeminate ; he does not appear
to be very wise. He expressed great anxiety about the new road, and
begged I would not bring it through Deogurh, as there were (of course)
other much better paths, but that if I did do so, that Lehragurh and
* When I went on my tour to the Coal Mines of Talcher last year, I was informed, on
credible authority, that a Chuprassie of the Commissioner’s establishment who accom-
panied me, had declared that the trip was worth fifty Rupees to him, and that he
wagered that he would not make less before he returned to Cuttack. This man subse-
quently gave me much trouble by his unceasing attempts to lead me by a round-about
route through Dhenkennalgurh, Hindolegurh, Ungoolgurh, that he might secure the
usual nuzzers which the Raja’s offer on paying their first visit ; and when he found that
I was not to be led, he prevailed upon me to allow him to go to Dhenkennal with the
Commissioner’s Purwanah, assuring me that unless he did so I should get no supplies or
aid; he again attempted the same trick in Ungool, but I prevented him, and suffered no
small inconvenience in consequence; yet this man was the most active and best in-
formed person on the establishment.
1889.] Lieut Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 477
Keunjurgurh must have the road through them likewise, for it to be
at all a straight line; there was more in this sapient remark than meets
the eye; part of the meaning is this,—that if he were to have the nuisance
imposed on him, he thought that the Lehra and Keunjur Rajas should
share it likewise. I was subsequently informed that he had paid a good
deal of money to some of Mr. Babington’s people and to my own,
to ensure their good services in dissuading me from adopting this line.
The Raja when about to leave, let me know through the medium of
his ‘‘ Spreach sprucher” that he had a very urgent request to make. I
requested him to speak out, when he told me a long story about some
Mussulman Saudagurs from Cuttack who were sitting Dhurna* at his
gate, wishing to insist on his paying them some debts of old standing, with
compound interest thereon, and that he wished me to interfere in his be-
half, as he was about to proceed himself Cuttack to wed a daughter of the
old ex-Rani of Sumbulpar ; having no power to interfere I declined do-
ing so, further than recommending the merchants to have patience;
I accordingly directed their attendance in the evening, took leave of the
Raja, and proceeded immediately to see the falls, where I was told that
there were many “ Assura ka har’ or giant’s bones, a denomination
generally applied to fossils ; so that I proceeded with all haste, expecting
a fine harvest. It was becoming dark just as I reached the lowermost
basin of the falls, in a beautiful woody recess, the rocks towering several
hundred feet above. I never saw amore enchanting spot, the mango
and other trees growing to an incredible height. There are five falls and
as many basins formed by them; the height of each may be about
seventy or eighty feet; the volume of water is considerable. I climbed
to the second basin, and there waited till torches were procured to en-
able me to see the “giant’s bones,” but, lo! what was my disappointment
when I found that these said bones were nothing more than large
masses of stalactite in which were fantastic caves. The inhabitants
make lime with it, as an ingredient for their paun and betel nut,
and their method of burning it is rather singular; some hold a slab
of stone with a heap of lighted charcoal against the roofs of the caves ;
: the parts affected by the heat drop off into the fire, which is then ex-
tinguished, and the particles of lime separated from the coal. Another
* Sitting Dhurna is a common practice with natives who wish to attain any particular
object ; the custom is, to sit at the door or gate of a person without taking food or drink
until the party entreated yields, and should the petitioner die, the curse of his blood is
supposed to rest on the latter.
3 Q
A478 Licut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [Junx,
method is this, a few small pieces of the rock are put into a wisp of
damp rice straw along with some lighted charcoal, the wisp is then
wound up into a ball as tight as possible and tied to a string, by which
it is kept swung smartly round until the lime is ready, this the burn-
ers know by the state in which the wisp appears. This practice I have
observed elsewhere in use in burning the limestone nodules (Kunkur)
for the same purpose. But to return to the falls—I could not see much
by torch-light though I had several, the glare of which added to the
magical appearance of this truly romantic spot; a cold breeze blows
down from the upper falls, which the guides assured me never ceased
all the year round. There are several fabulous stories connected with
the spot, and a large serpent is said to inhabit one of the caverns, which
is not however improbable.*
I felt very much inclined to halt and pass a day here, but the rains
having commenced, it would have been dangerous to prolong my stay in
jungles, I therefore returned to camp where I found the merchants in at-
tendance together with the Raja’s people; the former seemed little inclined
to listen to any terms short of payment in full of their exorbitant de-
mands ; the latter urged the inability of their master to pay more than
250 Rupees out of 3,000 with an I. O. U. for the balance when he
should return from Cuttack with his bride, and, what to him was per-
haps more valuable, her dowry. °
I should here observe that there are many Mussulman and other
merchants who come from Benares and Cuttack with indifferent horses
and inferior merchandize of kinds, which they pawn upon the ignorant
grandees of these outlandish places; they give long credit on promise
of interest, and consider themselves lucky if some few years afterwards
they realize the amount of purchase money, which from its exorbitant
nature, renders ample remuneration for the trouble and delay they
are subjected to, sometimes having to wait for several months together,
being put off with repeated promises of payment, and as many plausi-
ble excuses for non-payment, till at last an order is given them upon
the farmers of one or more villages who may be in arrears to their
lord; from these the merchants screw as much as they can, the amount
of which, of course, very much depends on their power and temper, and
* Mr. Motte in his Narrative describes an enormous serpent called Nagbunse, which is
worshipped some where near Sumbulptir, see p. 82, Asiatic Annual Register, Vol. 1.
[have been told that this reptile is still in existence, and that the diamond washers
make offerings, if they neglect which, they suppose their search will be fruitless.
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 479
serious frays are not uncommonly the consequence. Formerly the com-
missioners and political officers used to interfere and enforce payment
to the merchants, but I believe this bad practice has been discontinued,
I think that if a few merchants were licensed to proceed into the Gurhjat,
previously manifesting their goods, and paying a light tax to cover the
expense of a registry of them, and of their fair market value, upon an
understanding that the settlement of any unadjusted claims on any
Zemindar would be insisted on to the extent of a reasonable profit, much
good might accrue, and a great deal more merchandize, both European
and country, would find a ready sale with advantage to both parties.
The merchants seemed to agree to the terms proposed, when the
motley group retired and left me to enjoy as much rest as the steam-
ing heat and stunning noise of frogs and chicadas would allow of.
Z7th May. I rose at a very early hour, when having dismissed half
the guard of the Ramgurh Battalion and that of the 19th N. I. and
the Political Agent’s Mooktar, whom I had yesterday directed to return
to their stations via Sumbulpar by the Baghlot ghat and the road which
had been hidden from me, I proceeded on my journey. I walked several
miles through a thick but low jungle, along a very good road, toa place
called Sonamoonda, where I rested a little to allow the stragglers to
come up; thus far my course was a little to the northward of west,
having the hills at a short distance to the left, the path then began to
wind considerably more than any obstacles rendered it necessary, and
upon the whole in a southerly direction. The forest is very thin, with no
underwood, and. the ground undulates considerably ; there are several
large nullahs and a great many small water-courses, almost all of which
would require bridging. The next place I reached was a large village
of Guallas, called Korapeeta, situated on an elevated spot in the
centre of an extensive plain, on to which the Deogurh valley opens ;
from hence the ground (still undulating) has a perceptible fall to-
wards the Brahmeni river, on the banks of which, at a place called
_ Barsing, I encamped for the day. I took up my quarters in one of
several large huts which Major W. ’s Mooktar and the guard of
_ the Ramgurh Battalion had had constructed while awaiting the arrival
of my predecessor. I have learnt sufficient regarding the oppressive
conduct of these knaves to satisfactorily account for the Mooktar’s
_ anxiety to prevent my travelling by this route; it appeared that he
| had passed himself off with the credulous Zemindars here, as the Poli-
tical Agent’s assistant and friend ! !—and used to have déllis, &c. &c. sent
480 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (June,
him daily. I felt the better pleased at having dismissed this worthy at
Deogurh, for he was more a hindrance than otherwise to my operations.
Barsing has been a large place, but famine, misrule, and cholera have
reduced the number of inhabitants to one-half, so that many of the huts
are in ruins. The river flows under the village; though its span here is
very great the water is shallow, and wends its way in small rills between
numerous rocks and islets which every where stretch across the bed;
the banks are not more than eighteen or twenty feet high, and are sel-
dom overflowed, so that the river can never rise sufficiently to admit of
boats navigating it with safety ; this alone would be a sufficient reason
to seek for a more favorable spot for the road to pass, which might be
found five or six miles either above or below this point, where the banks
are steep and rocky, and the water confined to deep and narrow channels,
equally well adapted for ferries or suspension bridges; the latter would,
for many reasons, be very desirable both on this and other rivers.
I passed this day with more comfort than usual; the hut I occupied
was under a cluster of noble mango and tamarind trees, and facing a
beautiful shady tope; it was a paradise contrasted with what I had
hitherto met with; I could not help reflecting on the truth of an
admirable saying of Demetrius, quoted by Addison in the chapter
treating of the Providence of God, that ‘nothing would be more un-
happy than a man who had never known affliction ;’—a truth deeply im-
pressed on my mind, to which I would add, a similar maxim which
called it to mind, ‘‘that he who has never experienced discomfort and
privation, cannot appreciate real comfort, or know the virtue of content-
ment.” I cannot here refrain from acknowledging the consolation I felt,
and the hope of conquering all my difficulties, the frequent perusal of
the beautiful chapter above mentioned inspired me with during the
severe trials I had lately suffered ; many were the times when nearly
driven to distraction and despair, its perusal made me happy in my
misfortune. Reader, pardon this digression. To return to my narrative.
About 4 Pp. M. a very severe north-wester came on, followed by a very —
heavy fall of rain and hail, which lasted until 6 p. m.; it cleared before
sunset, so that I was able to observe and sketch the features of the 7
country, but could not resume my march, for there was every indication ~ |
of bad weather. I began to feel uneasy at the prospect of the evil
effects of the rain, and I resolved passing the night here, and to push on
at all hazards at day-break. .
( To be continued. )
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 481
Art. 1V.—WNotice of a Grant engraved on Copper, found at Kumbhi
in the Saugor Territory.—By the Editors.
We present our readers with another Zamba Patra in the original,
and with a translation which we have made. Dr. SriusBury has obli-
gingly presented this valuable relic of antiquity to the Asiatic Society.
He writes, that ‘“ the two Copper plates joined by a ring seal were
“dug up at Kumbhi, on the right bank of the Herun river, thirty-five
* miles north-east of Jabalpoor, and were forwarded by Major Low,
“ Magistrate of this district. The letters engraved on the plates are
‘in great preservation, and from their date upwards of 900 years old,
*‘ corresponding nearly with inscriptions in stone in the same character
(facsimiles of which were forwarded by the late Major Franx.in to
the Society). ‘Something may be gleaned of the period when a large
* city existed, only six miles west of Jabalpoor, now to be traced by
* little more than mounds of bricks and cut stones.”
The skill and kindness of Lieut. Kirrox, has enabled us to prepare
a plate exhibiting facsimiles of the seal and specimen of the letters, —
together with a table which shews the alphabet of the plates in juxta-
position with the modern Nagri alphabet. The character of the plates
approaches that of the Rajgarh slab, of which we published the inscrip-
tion in our March number by oversight.
Lieut. Kirror’s neat engraving was published in our May number ;
to which we refer our readers. The Seal is that of Sri-mar Visaya
Sinena Deva. The Legend is Durca in her form Mana Laxmi
supported by two Elephants. At the foot is the Bull of Siva.
The grant gives us eight generations of the Kula-Churi dynasty,
beginning with Yuva Raga Deva, who was a descendant of the re-
| nowned Karrra Viryya of the race of BHARAT.
“iV
Yuva’ Rasa Deva
KOoKALLA
GaNGEYA DEva
Karna Deva married AVALLA Devi
Yasus Karma Deva
Gaya Karna married ARHANA DeEvI
pe a SE pa
Nar Sincu Deva Visaya SInGH m Ga’saALta Devt
AsAYA SINGH DeEva
482 Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. [ June,
Asaya Sincu Deva, Visaya SINGH, as heir apparent, by order of
his mother Ga’saLa makes the grant to the Brahmin Sirya Sarma,
in the year Sambut 932, or a. p. 876, It-is more ancient by 87 years
than the Raygarh inscription communicated by Captain Borr.
This grant does not give us any important information. We obtain
from it however for eight generations a line of Rajas who ruled in those
parts, and it will be observed that a remote ancestor of the grantor
married a Hun. Unless this be a poetic fiction, it may imply that
Hindu princes in remote times assumed some latitude in the selection
of wives,—more perhaps than is allowed by the strict law. We presume
that the Huns were not true Hindus. We have also the designation of
the highest officers of Church and State. The high priest,—the chief
Confessor—the Prime Minister—the Chief Councillor—the Principal
Secretary for foreign affairs—the Chief Justice—the incorruptible Super-
intendent of Police—and the Chamberlain. The titles given to the
ruling prince are most elaborate. Amongst his dependent chieftains are
enumerated the Gaja-pati, Aswa-pati, and Nara-pati—titles peculiar
probably to particular chieftains. The grant, for redundancy, might be
envied by an English conveyancer. The quaintness of some of the old
Hindu names may be also observed from this grant. Several of the
names are quite obsolete.
The initial verses of the grant are not devoid of merit, but are not
so elaborate as the poem on the Rajgarh slab.* The perorations of
grants of this class have always many verses in common, of which some
seem to be puranik quotations. These deprecatory and imprecatory
verses occur with various readings. We have copied, with alterations
suitable to our text, Mr. Colebrooke’s versions of a few; one,—the
forty second verse—is of peculiar beauty and dignity, and in the
translation the classical pen of that distinguished orientalist may be —
recognized. The imprecations against the resumer are terrific: perhaps
they were prophetic. ‘‘ That rascal who by delusion of avarice, &c.”
_ The inscription was.composed by Batsa Raya Dasa-Mulika, or
Dasa-Mou1, the chief Justice who witnessed the gift. We have |
been much puzzled by this unusual term. It seems to be a title de-
noting the capacity of the dignitary for business. There are a few ortho-
graphical errors in the plate, which we have noticed. They seem due —
to the ignorance of the engraver, the “ smith Lema.”
* See our March No. Art. I.
1839.] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 483
It may be observed that in this and other grants the grantor gives
the property in the soil, and says nothing of holding tax-free. May it
be inferred from this, that the Raja was under the old Hindu system con-
sidered as the owner of all the lands in his dominions, and that where he
granted in proprietory right, the tax-free tenure or exemption from rent
to the state, was implied as a matter of course ?
TRANSLATION.
Om glory to BrauMa.
1. That deity () whose navel is a lotus prevails; and so does the
lotus his navel. Excellent too is the lotus-born god (2) produced
therefrom ; excellent is his offspring, that Atri; and after them excels
that luminary beloved by the ocean, who received his birth in the cavity
of his eye.
2. That luminary which glides in the erial expanse, like as it were
a swan on a lake, begat as his son, BopHana(3), the first prince, a son-
in-law domiciled in the mansion of the lotus-loved luminary (4).
3. The son of the god, who rules the waters, obtained as his son
-Purvravas,—him whose concubine was Urvasi ©), endowed with nu-
merous incomparable qualities and whose wife was Urvara’.
4. In that race was born Buarata (6). He was enamoured of the.
earth ( Viswambhara), lovely by her ornament, the ocean, encircling
her as a girdle, and whose pure glory rivetted as it were on the pillars
of more than a hundred Aswamedhas is proclaimed by the Yamuna.
__ 5. Inhis race, excellent is that Karrra-Viryya, that warrior wielding
without effort every weapon, as if by second nature. Then he supplied
the name of Raja (7) to the Hare-spotted luminary, the progenitor of |
his race.
6. That monarch, the lord of kings (firm as the snowy mount), be-
_ gat the Kulachuri race, distinguished by pata spotless in their con-
_ duct like pure pearls.
| 7. In his‘line was the king Yova-Rasa-Deva, foremost of the
(1) Brauma. (2) VISHNU... (3) Alias Bupua, the regent of Merury, or the
Planet itself. (4) The Sun. Mercury is said to be domiciled in the mansion of his
-father-in- law the Sun, from his approach to that luminary in parts of its orbit.
(9) The celestial courtezan. (6) Buarart is the king, by whose name INp1IAa is
yet designated, Bharata Varsha. (7) Shining. (8) InpRa.
484 Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. LJune,
8. Of that lord of the world, the principal ministers placed on the
throne his son Koxatua, whose expanded armies (consisting of four
arms (9)) were stopt by conflict with the four seas ;—
9. Of whom going forth afar, the glory shewed like a forsaken woman,
far surpassing white sandal wood ; it reproved the lustre of the moon,
and eclipsed a string of pearls.
10. Whose son was Ganceya-Deva, the lord of the fortune of the
bold,—a falling thunder-bolt on the heads of his enemies,—by his arm,
surpassing the length of a city bar. He whose face was decked with
smiles, and whose broad chest shewed like an emerald tablet.
11. To whom was dear the abode at the root of the holy fig tree
at Prayag. When he had obtained emancipation in a better world
with his hundred wives, his son Kama-Deva reverenced the various
quarters by pearls extracted from the frontal orbs of elephants, rent
by his sword.
12. By whom was created a pillar in honor of Brauma, called
Kurnavati, as if the mansion of that divinity in this nether world,—the
foremost abode of the virtuous,—the root as it were of the twining plant
of theology, and the diadem of the stream flowing from heaven.
13. By that lord of the Kuluchuri race, on his wife Avatua Devt, —
another Laxmr produced from the ocean of the race of Huna, was
begot YasaskarMA Deva, adorned with glory co-extensive with the —
billows of the ocean, swelling as they did in the doubt of the rise of the —
luminary who cherishes the hare. (10) |
14. Of whose enemies, for an instant, the condition was as if they had —
repaired to the banks of some lake in the cavity of some great hill, and —
there perceiving their images in the water like a confronting enemy, |
they hear the echo of the words “he is come,” interchanged in their ter- |
ror. What beyond this? |
15. His son was Gaya-Karwna, of great renown ; whose mistress |
was the earth stained(1!) as if replete with the blood, from the throats |
of his powerful enemies wounded in war. |
16. Eager to expand the canopy of his glory in all quarters, adorned |
with virtue and robed in majesty,—by whom planted, the aoe of grief |
rankles in the hearts of the beloved of his enemies.
17. On his Rani, Akuana Devt, he begat a son, Nara Sineua, lord |
of men ;—as if a sentient effort on volition. |
(9) The four angas or arms of an army are elephants’ cavalry, cars, and infantry. |
(10) The play on the words is lost in the translation. The damsel separated from |
her lover in Hindu Poetry reproaches the moon. This is a strong hyperbole,
(11) A pun is lost.
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 485
18. By largesses of gold (hiranya) and clothes (kasipa) did he
shew great love to the learned (vibudha (12) ) and robbed of his pride
the god of love, by eclipsing his beauty.
19. Who in the hands of Brahmins placed five or six gifts, in the form
of drops of water—and they with these, quenching their thirst, abashed
the ocean which abounds in gems. (13)
20. That sagacious king, who extended his popularity, gratified sup-
pliants with presents commensurable with his weight and other gifts.
21. Who not less than Paras Ram (14) produces envy,—making the
world the dominion of Brahmins by destruction of the Kshatrayas.
22. His younger brother was the king Jaya Sincu Deva, served by
valiant kings; by whose liberality its glory eclipsed,—Raga Baur, an-
other heavenly tree, withered beneath the surface of the earth. (19)
23. On hearing of the coronation of Jaya Sincu Deva, the king.
of Guirjara deserted his weak kingdom, so also the TurusuxKa ; while
the chieftain of Kuntala neglected amorous dalliance ; other kings too
daffing the world aside, fled beyond the ocean.
24. Of the moon, of whose glory by the light the atmosphere being
rendered brilliant, the descending flocks of birds hardly appeared white.
25. Excellent is his son, the king Visaya Sineu, a lion amidst his
defeated enemies—a ray reposing on the firmament—a sun on earth,
adorned by wide extending glories, the abode of amiable qualities, and
the shrine of auspiciousness.
26. May she be honored, the illustrious Ga’saLa Devi, of whom,—the
sight is as a shower of nectar,—proximity a pure treasure,—and the
voice like the rare gem Chintamani (16)
Prose.
The chief object of homage—the Inpra of the world—the divinity of
‘dependent kings—foremost of the devout in the contemplation of the
feet of Va/ma-Deva(!7)—a god amongst principal and inferior kings—
the chief of the devotees of Srva—lord of TVrikalinga—lord of the
three principalities of the Gaja-pati,. Aswa-pati, and Nara-pati—of
the victorious Visaya Sincu Deva, the heir apparent prince AgaYya
(12) A double sense pervading this is lost. (13) A preliminary rite preceding
_ gift is pouring some drops of water on the palms of the donee. (14) Visunu
assumed the form of Parus-Ram to quell the pride of the XaTrRiyas. (15) Rasa
_ Batt is celebrated for his liberality. Wisunvu, as the dwarf, asked him for three feet
of soil which were granted. But the god’s expanded feet embraced the whole world.
_ Unable to keep his promise, the king was condemned to hell. (16) Chintamani is a
| fabulous gem, supposed to yield its possessor whateyer may be required—( WiLsown).
_ (17) Siva,
oR
486 Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. : {J UNE,
Sinen Deva, son of the great Rani convened the following persons, —
Sarva AcHa’rgya Buatraraka, the great minister,—Vipya Darva,
the Raj-Guru,—the Pandit Yasnapuara the chief Porohit,—the lord
Srikiki, the great councillor, pre-eminent in faith,—the Lord Dasa
Muxma, Barsa-Rasa, the chief judge (18) and reporter of state
affairs(19),—the lord PurusnortTaMa, the principal secretary for foreign
affairs(20),—the great chamberlain (2!),—-the incorruptiblesuperintendent
of the police (22),—the treasurer (23),—-the master of the horse and ele-
phants,—also other persons resident of the village about to be given. After
this, as becometh, he addresses, explains, and orders thus: “‘ Be it known
“to you, Sumbut 932, on the anniversary of the age, at Srimantipuri
“with my assent, by my mother Ga’saLta Devi, who had according to
‘‘ ordinance bathed in the Narmada, and worshipped Manapeva for the
“ sake of augmenting the merit and glory of her parents and self, to the
“ Brahman SirHa Sarma (the son of Cuuitu Pandit, grandson of
“ Sutyana Pandit, and great-grandson of Janarpana Pandit, follower
“‘ of the metrical veda(24) of the Sdvarna Gotra, and devoted to the five
“ Pravaras(2))—Buargava CayavaNna ApNavaNn AurRva JAMA
“‘DaGNn) was given, under a grant, the village Choralaga, in the
“* Patala of Sambala, limited by four boundaries, but exclusive of such
“‘ four limits,—together with pasture for kine, water and land, mango
“« trees and honey, salt-mines, salt-pits,—-with right of ingress and egress,
‘“‘ with wilds and marshes, with trees and grass, and so forth rising
‘spontaneously, (part obliterated,) together with woods and forests,
*“‘ without any let or hindrance. This is the prayer of the giver.” id
27. Ra’maBmapRa again and again exhorts all those future rulers
of the earth: this universal bridge of virtue for princes, is to be pre-
served by you from time to time. :
28. And itis said. By many kings, Sagara as well as others, the |
_ earth has been possessed. Whose-so-ever has been the land, his has then |
been the fruit.
29. He who takes a single tolah of gold, a cow, a finger even of land,
abides in hell until the general annihilation.
30. The resumer of land is not expiated by one thousand pools, by a
hundred sacrifices of horses, by the gift of ten million of kine.
31. He who resumes land, whether given by himself or by another,
is born an insect; in ordure, and sinks with his forefathers.
(18) Mahaxa patalika. (19) Maha pradhanartha lekhi. (20) Maha sandhi-
vigrahika. (21) Maha pratihara. (22) Dushta sadhya chara dhyaxa.
(23) Bhanda garika. (24) Sama Veda. (25) Each Gotra has its tutelary
ot Patriarchal Rishi. The Pravaras are the companions of the Rishi.
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 487
32. Furrowed by the plough, together with seed,—in proportion as he
gives culturable land acquired by himself, does he abide in heaven.
33. The giver of land dwells sixty thousand years in heaven. The
resumer and the abetter live so many years in hell.
34. They who seize property dedicated to the gods or Brahmins are
born black snakes, residing in dry caves, in woods destitute of water.
35. Wrongly taken, or caused to be taken, of the taker or causer, the
race until the seventh degree burns.
36. Those of our lineage say—This gift is to be respected. The for-
tune of men is fickle, like bubbles of water ; gift is the fruit of another,
and therefore to be preserved.
37. For the benefit of the subject, the wise should regard fixed
ordinances. That rascal who by delusion of avarice resumes, suffers a
miserable existence.
38. The gifts, which have been here granted by former princes,
producing virtue, wealth, and fame, resemble orts and vomited food.
What pure man would resume them ?
39. He who receives lands, and he who gives, both are virtuous
doers, and certainly go to heaven.
40. A conch, a coach, a parasol, lands, a horse, a good elephant, are
the indications of land-giving. This is the fruit, Oh Puranpara.
4]. In this race and in another race whoever may be king, of him
a suppliant, I beg with clasped hands—Let him not resume this grant.
42. This sovereignty of the earth totters with the stormy blast ;
the enjoyment of a realm is sweet but for an instant; the breath of
man is like a drop of water on the lip ofa blade of grass ;—virtue is the
greatest friend in the journey to the other world.
43. Born in my race or in the race of other kings, those stern
monarchs of futurity who may preserve the lands of gods and priests,
in honor of them do I place my clasped hands to my forehead.
Prose.
Written by Barsa Rasa, son of Srt Doarma removing wounds, a
stranger, and capable of ten works. The Pundit Srr Kesava caused to
be written, and the smith named Lema engraved. Be there auspi-
ciousness.
488
Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. (June,
Saat TAIT |
safe qasaTaAea ALTA Si
aaa sata ARATSMAAT ATT A: |
ag wate @ aearaeqafaerzuu
wey Safa Bea aTaaTASaTaE
AA TaAaTa(SIAGA TEAAMTASHANTATITE |
aaa AAIFIAT TAT AMTATATMASTACTIM ST: 2
Ta TECTIA CAAT FF
Faey TARA Aas |
WMA TASITAATTINATTATAT
TATA THAATSTILT FT UR!
sara faa vatfenafrae
qaragayatafatamathe: |
Va feuLaCaa TAU aa
framrcrgyrch WCAT TAT 1131
CAN] SAAC A TALAT ST
Ta Brean T ATANA: |
aaa Raaqrerayegfa
asifaara weet aracice: wa
a fe xa “oak iSite WaATyAT WAT |
aaratufafcarrerg st: Ta Hulafata: ei
(a) In original @& is erroneously written.
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. "489
aaeIs TIAA Wal Aeeg:
aeettiars Tet aTet Vara:
Area eT eayTTT ATA ATS
faatreraafeyant aaUses sy Ins)
friars qufafeearea aq
AEC TAA aT TATA SM:
HACAAUT ATS IANS
VISTA ATC H AAA EI
aeeaat farrefa STS
WU TAA TIA |
aa wy RAT Wala
faalfartta afar AAA Net
acarafuaen saat: ferareat
areafcazey Waa saa |
farcfer afersrarat Beet Feet
OPAC TT WMATA 11% of
Wa marraaaeatraaaeat
aig waa qfetttreys afai
Taper yeaa cancte zea
TATA ee aaa RUST LUI
Bray ura Baal aefaen
TVTIAT: AQaeray: fHOs |
TAMIA AT RUA
WAS TAAAT AMA WRI
(b) For the dental § miswritten in the plate this is substituted.
490
Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. [June,
safest FaTui earfaat sat BUT
sqgaafauaaeat Blaeraeae ast |
WHATTIMAT SUE TU Tegal
AeaAAU AY PALA] T! VSI
HTT FTAA FABRA
aofastaatgumafata aeaaetatam: |
aaa afrzreaia fast fad frre ftaq
dqrea wuarfad faaat scarlet TAT Vs!
ARTTCAA wi zqaMAT: Wragaraw xfs TATA |
AT RAAT AAs CAUSA TSIWA URUACAT NLU
faniaat feq amtfanraqaeiaa qurfeaa |
SarCHAT STAY AISA Hae: ASS MAA LEI
qarreuset acfsratsat |
vagafrawerat wae BIT Gr NI
Des =~
va fecurafaanfauieatat
Ha wei fraudatay wyTT |
deeaare fa ar icaareaa
fad agreaaaet acfeees: Re
at gaat wfug wyarfa
eatfa wer ware Tater |
aqTT THUIAATYT FT
TaTHel WAT CITTAT WEI
i VA
ARAM Aeiziaederearygeaneta: |
afantracera arate alsa: Rel
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 49]
(ar wet srquertorsfaren: |
C. YON iN :
aig waa gy eagrafecreta LRU
aeataeh acafawsrfiees:
weassaacaqe: fRAATUaT! |
TETAATAAMAT TCFAT
agifa yarareataat aetta RRN
uF ORT q Rast Ta TWAT Y
eA FAAATTAA THAT ATA aARA |
mea MAAS EET TACT SAT NT aut:
METAS vTTET BAT We aTATFTS: RIAU
wafaaauay at arated l
aaa Wead wifet waa VSATEla WRI
causa: saat TRATAT
sqencaati te fae ATT:
SRIGRCIGCIGICECICE I ICiG| ,
sata fasafee: deataaee: Ru
fea: wagfe: efafaarte etary:
arent farate: aH aAMeAS TST URE
TY WAASCANTTA ACIATATAT HAAS TATA
STRUTT TCA ASTC HA STITT ITAA LAAT WLAATE IAT (4
afm fafa frost aissarserafaarsratarrcatacray sat
(c) Obscure in the original; supplied by conjecture.
(d) An orthographical error is corrected.
(e) Inserted by conjecture.
492 Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. [June, —
fuifamaferaiecaiaeataa: were:
Brasifaeza: wera Fatararearercasftagraretae
a @
ATSIC SAT (USAT MICA EA ATTA BTA CASAC TATA
aeTquiaa TeMAefasgy ewafearasg
aeRreafaatensat TRA ARIMA RITZ ERTA TUT
Cee a. ;
VTMAUS TAM CARAT ACU aT A Teaaleeaisyy A
TRIAAA Ma aAAAIIAIweIaaTS ATaafa alyata
aararata a | aarfatearequaal | Taq <3e | Batata
wert aaay aera fates aereied URAC
aratiaatcrenay qa awtfagga TAGTATTA ATT |
WAQPRAIT AIG Saat: WANG CATT
AAAYR: TITTAL TATTTT: ClaAAIL THAI A
sarees raraqenigetica:
agranrftaiziaferater: waren wa ararfar
feta: araild erawaipara aia waa STyATA la TTA
qrafa wana exiatfaa witsashaare ann sTs
ufterigguaata ufteaitfaqqaa 9 wieeasee
WAT TPC TATA MTNA T TAT ATT
BMIAKIATS ST ASA! | :
TATeATTATTTTA TA SAT I
waaay Atfaa: wrfya esta
VAAL AIT TAA: |
VATA as BRAT ATUT
ATIATS UTA AT ATTH: |RI
(f) Correction. (g) Sie in original. (hr) Here a line is obliterated.
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 493
asfraqur wat caf: warts: |
me AT AT PAA AST AST We URE
YMA AAA! YACATTA FT |
SCACHATH fet ATATSTYATTT URL
ASMA AAU BwaaATITT |
vai alfengiaa afeent a meatal ize
CATT UCTU IT Tl Bla TAU |
a fasrai arfarey eat faq ia: we asia RU
Hae TE TATA aati AeaaTAtay |
ATA LAs Hal MHMATAT Aa APA [BR
afemacarty wat sata afi:
ATS UT AAA F ATATATH TIA RRM
afcsiacrcay wennlzcartaa: |
AMAT Had SAAUAETLT: avi
mearia Eat yfacearsa q Uther |
SLAT CILAATIT THAT TAAFHSA |NRUII
FTATCHATRATAL TASTEC fart
waaay erage
Vaya eastqecaacrai
(2)
ela we Waa: afCaTaAATae (Bell
(7) In original &
494
Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. [ June,
wafer feaaa: wertar
yeny faeta afcareaa |
al MATAR ECA FUCA
ae asrea fray FEt ROU
mate carta ge a ts
eiatfat wee
fasateraraafaatta atta
Hl ATA QTY TATTSSTA BTM
ufa a: afapetia Ty ya waeRfer |
way ay Tere fara eat Re
Wal Wea ST PCITITATATCT: |
yfaataea fratit Wea FCT Bel
afeaq drat a a: afaquiatad |
RITE CATA eH Treat T ThA UB
qtarataaatag aaurtaresr
ATITAATS AYR FaaaywayT: |
WUTTATeasegTAT TTT
UFH: TAT ULAR HATA BR
ASMA WATTS TAT AT
(J)
eTATUeSHAa YRaaicyat: |
B apaaecaacfanya: TaUSy
ant war facfertafateats een
(7) Correction hazarded.
1839. ] Notice of a Grant engraved on Copper. 495
MACLUA BEATA
fafad aeacsa Seq eat
afesa sfams Shed |
SIMA AAMT |W IT
MecqTrteda poaitlacufweda yw
SIR RUC CIC SC aa
ArT. V.—Mr. MippieTon on the Meteors of August 10th, 1839.
To the Editor of the Asiatic Journal.
Sir,—I beg to send you an account of several meteors, commonly
called @rolites, which appeared at Calcutta on the evening of Saturday _
the 10th instant, and trust that simultaneous observations in other parts
of India, may confer upon it scientific value. It is particularly de-
sirable, that if the same phenomena were witnessed by others, they
should publish the particulars, since by numerous and varied observa-
tions alone can any hope of ultimate acquaintance with those yet
mysterious bodies be entertained.
At 11 p. m. the atmosphere being particularly clear, my attention was
attracted by a meteor of comparatively small size, and of a reddish
colour, like that of the planet Mars, and unaccompanied by any train. It
first appeared at a point in or near the prime vertical, and having about
40° of zenith distance, and it disappeared about 30° above the horizon.
This was, about thirty minutes after, followed by another of far greater
brilliancy and magnitude, which appeared in nearly the same place and
followed the same path, projecting behind it a luminous train, stretching
from the place of its appearance to that of the disappearance of the body,
and vanishing simultaneously with it. The train while it lasted most dis-
tinctly marked the path of the @rolite, which appeared to be a curve of
small curvature; while the height and direction of the body, as indicated
by it, was such as to have carried it far beyond my horizon. The velocity
of this meteor, like that of the others, was amazing, carrying it through
between 50° and 60° in as near as I could guess, about 11 second. At
five minutes past eleven another appeared in the zenith, and swept along,
in apparently a straight line, vanishing at about the same elevation above
(x) In original &
496 On the Meteors of August 10th, 1839. [June,
the horizon as the former ones. The magnitude and brilliancy of this
body was nearly like that of the planet Venus, as seen at present; its
bright train being thickly strewed with sparkling points without pro-
- gressive motion. Between this time and half-past eleven six others ap-
peared, some to the westward and others to the eastward of the meridian,
but much less conspicuous for magnitude and brilliancy than the two
last described, and only one of them which appeared about 20° to the
west having a train.
The general facts observable regarding them were these,—First, they
all appeared at points in or near the prime vertical. Secondly, their
common vanishing limit was about 30° above the horizon. Thirdly,
their paths appeared to be parallel and lying from north to south.
Fourthly, their velocities appeared to be equal.
I may mention, in conclusion, that no sound was observable either
on their appearance, progress, or disappearance.
I am, Sir, yours truly,
CaLcurTta, J. MIDDLETON,
16th August, 1839. Hindu College.
Art. VI.—WNote to the Editors on the Native mode of preparing the per- —
fumed Oils of Jasmine and Bela. By Dr. Jackson, Ghazeepore.
In my last communication on the subject of Rose-water, I informed
you that the natives here were in the habit of extracting the scent from
some of the highly smelling flowers, such as the Jasmine, &c., and that I
would procure you a sample, and give you some ‘account of the manner
in which it is obtained. By the present Steamer I have dispatched two
small phials containing some of the Oil procured from the Jasmine and
the Bela flower. For this purpose the natives never make use of distilla-
tion, but extract the essence by causing it to be absorbed by some of
the purest oleaginous seeds, and then expressing these in a common
mill, when the oil given out has all the scent of the flower which has
been made use of. The plan adopted, is to place on the ground a
layer of the flower, about four inches thick and two feet square ; over
this they put some of the Tel or Sesamum seed wetted, about two inches
thick, and two feet square; on this again is placed another layer of —
flowers, about four inches thick, as in the first instance; the whole is then
covered with a sheet, which is held down by weights at the ends and
sides. In this state it is allowed to remain from twelve to eighteen
hours ; after this the flowers are removed, and other layers placed in the
1839.] Note on the perfumed Oils of Jasmine and Bela. 497
same way ; this also is a third time repeated, if it is desired to have the
scent very strong. After the last process, the seeds are taken in their
swollen state and placed in a mill ; the oil is then expressed, and possesses
most fully thescent of the flower.* The oil is kept in prepared skins called
dubbers, and is sold at so much per seer. The Jasmine and Belat are
the two flowers from which the natives in this district chiefly produce
their scented oil, the Chumbult is another; but I have been unable
to procure any of this. The season for manufacture is coming on. The
present oils were manufactured a year ago, and do not possess the power-
ful scent of that which has been recently prepared. Distillation is never
made use of for this purpose as it is with the roses, the extreme heat,
(from its being in the middle of the rains, when the trees come into
flower) would most likely carry off all the scent. The Jasmine, or
Chymbele as it is called, is used very largely amongst the women, the
hair of the head, and the body, being daily smeared with some of it.
The specimen I send you costs at the rate of two Rupees per seer.
July 10, 1839.
Art. VII.—Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the extent
and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. By C. A. Bruce,
Superintendent of Tea Culture.
(Presented by the Tea Committee, August 16th, 1839.)
I submit this report on our Assam Tea with much diffidence, on
account of the troubles in. which this frontier has been unfortunately
involved. I have had something more than Tea to occupy my mind,
and have consequently not been able to commit all my thoughts to
paper at one time; this I hope will account for the rambling man-
ner in which I have treated the subject. Such as my report is, I trust
it will be found acceptable, as throwing some new light on a subject of
no little importance to British India, and the British public generally.
In drawing out this report, it gives me much pleasure to say, that our
information and knowledge respecting Tea and Tea tracts are far more
extensive than when I last wrote on this subject ;—the number of tracts
now known amounting to 120, some of them very extensive, both on
the hills andin the plains. <A reference to the accompanying map will
* A closely similar plan is followed in Europe in the preparation of the Jasmine, and
several other very fugitive perfumes. The fixed oil employed is usually that of the
Ben or Moringa nut, with which cotton is soaked. The cotton and flowers are then
placed in alternate layers, as in the Indian process.—Eps.
t Jasminum zambac.
t Jasminum grandiflorum.
498 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the (Juwnz,
shew that a sufficiency of seeds and seedlings might be collected from
these tracts in the course of a few years to plant off the whole of Assam ;
and I feel convinced, from my different journeys over the country, that
but a very small portion of the localities are as yet known.
Last year in going over one of the hills behind Jazpore, about
300 feet high, I came upon a Tea tract, which must have been
two or three miles in length, in fact I did not see the end of it; the
trees were in most parts as thick as they could grow, and the Tea seeds
(smaller than what I had seen before) fine and fresh, literally covered the
ground; this was in the middle of November, and the trees had
abundance of fruit and flower on them. One of the largest trees
I found to be two cubits in circumference, and full forty cubits in
height. At the foot of the hill I found another tract, and had
time permitted me to explore those parts, there is no doubt but I
should have found many of the Naga Hills covered with Tea. I
have since been informed of two more tracts near this. In going along
the foot of the Hills to the westward, I was informed that there was
Tea at Teweack, or near it: this information came too late, for I had
passed it just a little to the east of the Dacca river, at a place called
Cheriedoo, a small hill projecting out more than the rest on the plain
to the northward, with the ruins of a brick temple on it ; here I found
Tea, and no doubt if there had been time to examine, I should have
found many more tracts. I crossed the Dacca river at the old fort
of Ghergong, and walked towards the Hills, and almost immediately
came upon Tea. The place is called Hauthoweah. Here I remained
a couple of days, going about the country, and came upon no fewer
than thirteen tracts. A Dewaniah who assisted me to hunt out these
tracts, and who was well acquainted with the leaf, as he had been
in the habit of drinking tea during his residence with the Singphoes,
informed me that he had seen a large tract of Tea plants on the Naga
mountains, a day’s journey west of Chzridoo. I have no reason to doubt
the veracity of this man; he offered to point out the place to me,
or any of my men, if they would accompany him; but as the country
belonged to Raja Poorunda Sing, I could not examine it. I feel con-
vineed the whole of the country is full of Tea.
Again, in going further to the south-west, just beforeI came to Gabrew
hill, I found the small hills adjoining it, to the eastward, covered with
Tea plants. The flowers of the Tea on these hills are of a plea-
sant delicate fragrance, unlike the smell of our other Tea-plants; but
the leaves and fruit appear thesame. This would bea delightful place
for the manufacture of Tea, as the country is well populated, has abun-
dance of grain, and labour is cheap. There is asmall stream called the
1839. ] eatent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 499
Jhangy river, at a distance of two hours walk ; it is navigable, I am in-
formed, all the year round for small canoes, which could carry down the
Tea ; and the place is only one and a half day’s journey from Jorehaut, the
capital of Upper Assam. South-west of Gabrew Purbut (about two days
journey) there is a village at the foot of the hill, inhabited by a race
called Norahs; they are Shans, I believe, as they came from the
eastward, where Tea abounds. I had long conversations with them,
and the oldest man of the village, who was also the head of it, in-
formed me, that when his father was a young man, he had emigrated
with many others, and settled at T2pum, opposite Jazpore, on ac-
count of the constant disturbances at Munkum ; that they brought
the Tea plant with them and planted it on the Tepam hill, where it
exists to this day ; and that when he was about sixteen years of age, he
was obliged to leave Tum, on account of the wars and disturbances at
that place, and take shelter at the village where he now resides. This
man said he was now eighty years of age, and that his father died a very
old man, How true this story is, I cannot say, and do not see what
good it would do the old man to fabricate it. This was the only
man I met with in my journeys about the country who could give
any account of the Tea plant, with the exception of an Ahum, who
declared to me that it was Sooka, or the first Kacharry Rajah of
Assam, who brought the Tea plant from Munkum ; he said it was
written in his Patty, or history. The Ahum-Putty I have never
been able to get hold of; but this I know, that the information about
the Tea plant pointed out by the old Norah man, as being on the T7pum
hill, is true; for I have cleared the tract where it grew thickest,
about 300 yards by 300, running from the foot of the hill to the top.
The old man told me his father cut the plant down every third year,
that he might get the young leaves.
To the west of Gabrew I did not find any Tea ; but to the westward
of the Dhunseeree river I found a species, though not the same as
that we use. If the people on the west side of the Dhunseeree river were
acquainted with the true leaf, I think Tea would be found. I planted
it all along the route I went, which may lead to its eventual discovery ;
but people should be sent to search for the plant who are really acquaint-
ed with it. I think a vast quantity of Tea would be brought to light
if this were done. A reference to the map will shew how our tracts
are distributed all over the country. . How much Tea they would all -
produce if fully worked, I will not pretend to say ; but in the course
of this subject, I will mention such matters relative to the tracts and the
plants on them, that every one may make his own calculation. Until
lately we had only two Chinese Black-Tea makers. These men have
*
500 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the | JuNE,
twelve native assistants ; each Chinaman with six assistants can only
superintend one locality, and the Tea leaves from the various other
tracts, widely separated, must be brought to these two places for
manufacture. The consequence is, that an additional number of la-
bourers must always be employed to bring the leaves from so great a
distance. The leaves suffer when brought in large quantities from a
distance, as they soon begin to ferment, and the labour of only prepar-
ing them so far in process that they may not spoil by the morning, is ex-
cessive. The men have often to work until very late to accomplish this.
When labour falls so very heavy, and on so very few, it cannot be expect-
ed that it can be equally well executed, as if more had been employed.
The leaves last gathered are also much larger than they ought to
be, for want of being collected and manufactured earlier ; consequently
the Tea is inferior in quality. I mention this, to shew the inconveni-
ence and expense of having so few Tea makers.
The samples of Black-Tea made by the twelve assistants having been
approved of by the Tea Committee in Calcutta, it was my intention to ~
have distributed the men amongst the different tracts, but the late
disturbances on our frontier have prevented this arrangement; and I,
have been obliged to employ ten men in Assam (two others having
gone to Calcutta in charge of Tea) at the tract called Kahung,
which is becoming a very extensive and important Tea locality—so
many others being near it, which can all be thrown into one. When
we have a sufficient number of manufacturers, so that we can af-
ford to have some at each tract, or garden, as they have in China,
then we may hope to compete with that nation in cheapness of pro-
duce ; nay, we might, and ought, to undersell them ; for if each tract,
or garden, had its own Tea maker and labourers, the collecting of
the leaves would not perhaps occupy more than twelve days in each
crop ; after which the men might be discharged, or profitably em-
- ployed on the Tea grounds. But now, for the want of a sufficient num-
ber of labourers and Tea makers, there is a constant gathering of leaves
throughout the month; and as I said before, those gathered last. can
only make inferior Teas; besides the great loss by the leaves getting
too old, and hereby unfit for being made into any Tea ; and all this en-
tirely for want of hands to pluck the leaves. It is true we have gained
twelve Black-Tea makers this year, in addition to the last ; and twelve
more native assistants have been appointed, who may be available next
year to manufacture Tea independently, as they were learning the art
all last year. We have also had an addition to our establishment of
two Chinese Green-Tea manufacturers, and twelve native assistants
have been placed under them as learners ; but what are these compared
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 501
to the vast quantity of Tea, or the ground the Tea plants cover, or
might be made to cover in three years, but a drop of water in the ocean ?
We must go on at a much faster pace in the two great essentials—Tea
manufacturers, and labourers,—in order to have them available at
each garden, when the leaves come into season.
e If I were asked, when will this Tea experiment be in a sufficient
state of forwardness, so as to be transferable to speculators? I would
answer, when a sufficient number of native Tea manufacturers have
been taught to prepare both the Black and the Green sort; and that
under one hundred available Tea manufacturers, it would not be
worth while for private speculators to take up the scheme on a large
scale; on asmall one it would be a different thing. In the course of two
or three years we ought to have that number. Labourers must be
introduced, in the first instance, to give a tone to the Assam Opium-
eaters; but the great fear is, that these latter would corrupt the new
comers. If the cultivation of Tea were encouraged, and the Poppy put
a stop to in Assam, the Assamese would make a splendid set of Tea
manufacturers and Tea cultivators.
In giving a statement of the number of Tea tracts, when I say
that Tengrz, or any other tract is so long and so broad, it must be
understood, that space to that extent only has been cleared, being
found to contain all the plants which grew thickly together; as it
was not thought worth while at the commencement of these experi-
ments to go to the expense of clearing any more of the forest for the
sake of a few straggling plants. If these straggling plants were fol-
lowed up, they would in all probability be found gradually becoming
more numerous, until you found yourself in another tract as thick
and as numerous as the one you left; and if the straggling plants of
| this new tract were traced, they would by degrees disappear until not
| one was to be seen. But if you only proceeded on through the
| jungles, it is ten to one that you would come upon a solitary Tea
| plant, a little further on you would meet with another; until you
| gradually found yourself in another new tract, as full of plants as the
one you had left, growing absolutely so thick as to impede each
others growth. Thus I am convinced one might go on for miles from
| One tract into another. All my Tea tracts about Tingri and Kahung
| are formed in this manner, with only a patch of jungle between them,
which is not greater than what could be conveniently filled up by
| thinning those parts that have too many plants. At Kahung I have
| lately knocked three tracts into one, and I shall most probably have
\ to continue doing the same until one tract shall be made of what now
consists of adozen. I have never seen the end of Juggundoo’s Tea tract,
oT
502 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the |Junr,
nor yet Kwjudoo’s or Ningren’s. I feel confident that the two
former run over the hills and join, or nearly join, some of our tracts
in the Muttuck country. Nor have I seen the end of Kahung tract,
all about that part of the country being one vast succession of Tea
from Rungagurra on the Debrew, to Jatpore on the Burt Dehing.
It may be seen on inspecting the map how thickly the Tea localities
are scattered—those that are known ; and they are but a small portion
compared to those that are unknown. There is the Namsong tract on
the Naga hills, the largest that has yet been seen, and the extent of
which is not ascertained. The tracts on the Gwbznd hills are unknown ;
and this is likewise the case with Haut Holah and Cheridoo ; so that
there is a large field for improvement throughout, to say nothing of
the Singho tracts, which may be found to be one unbounded link to
Hookum ; and who knows but it crosses the Irrawaddy to China?
Many Tea tracts I know have been cut down in ignorance by the
natives, to make room for the rice field, for firewood, and fences, but
many of these tracts have sprung up again, more vigorous than before.
Witness that at Nzngrew, where the natives say that every thing was
eut down, and the land planted with rice, except on the high ground.
With respect to the Tea plant being most productive on high or low
ground, I cannot well say, as all our tracts are on the plains ; but from
what little I have seen of the hill tracts, I should suppose they were
not more productive. In China the hill tracts produce the dest Teas,
and they may do the same here. Almost al] my tracts on the plains
are nearly on the same level, I should think. Nwdwwa perhaps is a lit-
tle higher than Tengrz, and Tingr? a little higher than Kahung, but
I believe they are equally productive ; although if I leaned towards
any side, with my limited experience, I should say that the low land,
such as at Kahung, which is not so low as ever to be inundated by the
strongest rise in the river, is the best. The plants seem to love and court —
moisture, not from stagnant pools, but running streams. The Kahung —
tracts have the water in and around them; they are all in heavy tree-
jungles, which makes it very expensive to clear them. An extent of |
300 by 300 will cost from 200 to 300 rupees ; i. e. according to the
manner in which the miserable Opium-smoking Assamese work. This |
alone ought to point out the utility of introducing a superior race of |
labourers, who would not only work themselves, but encourage their |
women and children to do the same ;—in plucking and sorting leaves |
they might be profitably turned to account for both parties. This |
I have not been able to instil into the heads of the Assamese, |
who will not permit their women to come into the Tea gardens.
Indeed unless more labourers can be furnished, a larger amount :
4 i
1839.]. extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam, 5038
of Tea must not be looked for at present. Last season it was with the
greatest difficulty that I could get a sufficient number of hands to
gather the leaves. The plucking of the leaves may appear to many
a very easy and light employment, but there are not a few of
our coolies who would much rather be employed on any other job ;
_the standing in one position so many hours occasions swellings in
the legs, as our plants are not like those of China, only three feet high,
but double that size, so that one must stand upright to gather the
leaves. The Chinese pluck theirs squatting down. We lie under a
great disadvantage in not having regular men to pluck the leaves ;
those that have been taught to do so, can pluck twice as many as
those that have not, and we can seldom get hold of the same men two
seasons running. I am of opinion that our trees will become of
a smaller and more convenient size after a few years cultivation ; be-
cause, trimming of the plants, and taking all the young leaves almost as
soon as they appear, month after month. and year after year, and the
plants being deprived of the rich soil they had been living on from
time unknown, must soon tell upon them. Transplanting also helps
to stunt and shorten the growth of these plants. The Chinese declar-
ed to me, that the China plants now at Deenjoy would never have
attained to half the perfection they now have, under ten years in
their own country.
I may here observe, that the sun has a material effect on the
leaves ; for as soon as the trees that shade the plants are remov-
ed, the leaf, from a fine deep green, begins to turn into a yellowish
colour, which it retains for some months, and then again gradu-
ally changes to a healthy green, but now becomes thicker, and the
plant throws out far more numerous leaves than when in the shade.
The more the leaves are plucked, the greater number of them are pro-
duced ; if the leaves of the first crop were not gathered, you might look
in vain for the leaves of the second crop. The Tea made from the
leaves in the shade is not near so good as that from leaves exposed
to the sun ; the leaves of plants in the sun are much earlier in season
than of those in the shade ; the leaves from the shady tract give out a
more watery liquid when rolled, and those from the sunny a more
glutinous substance. When the leaves of either are rolled on a sunny
day, they emit less of this liquid than on a rainy day. This juice de-
creases as the season advances. ‘The plants in the sun have flowers
and fruit much earlier than those in the shade, and are far more
numerous ; they have flowers and seeds in July, and fruit in November.
Numerous plants are to be seen that by some accident, either cold
or rain, have lost all their flowers, and commence throwing out fresh
504 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the (Juns,
flower-buds more abundantly than ever. Thus it is not unfrequent to
see some plants in flower so late as March (some of the China plants
were in flower in April) bearing at once the old and the new seeds, -
flower-buds, and full-blown flowers—all at one and the same time.
The rain also greatly affects the leaves; for some sorts of Tea cannot
be made on a rainy day; for instance the Pouchong and Mingehew.
The leaves for these ought to be collected about 10 a. m. on a sunny
morning, when the dew has evaporated. The Pouchong can only be
manufactured from the leaves of the first crop ; but the Mingehew, al-
though it requires the same care in making as the other, can yet be made
from any crop, provided it is made on a sunny morning. The Chinese
dislike gathering leaves on a rainy day for any description of Tea, and
never will do so, unless necessity requires it. Some pretend to dis-
tinguish the Teas made on a rainy and on a sunny day, much in the
Same manner as they can distinguish the shady from the sunny Teas—
by their inferiority. If the large leaves for the Black-Tea were
collected on a rainy day, about seven seers, or fourteen pounds, of
green leaves would be required to make one seer, or two pounds, of
Tea ; but if collected on a sunny day, about four seers, or eight pounds,
of green leaves, would make one seer, or two pounds, of ‘Tea ;—so the
Chinamen say. I tried the experiment, and found it to be correct.
Our season for Tea making generally commences about the middle of
March ; the second crop in the middle of May ; the third crop about the
first of July ; but the time varies according to the rains setting in sooner
or later. As the manufacture of the Sychee and the Méngehew Black-
Teas has never been described, I will here attempt to give some idea”
how itis performed.
Sychee Black-Tea. The leaves of this are the Souchong and Pouw-
chong. After they have been gathered and dried in the sun in the usual
way (see my former account of Black-Tea) they are beaten and put
away four different times; they are then put into baskets, pressed
down, and a cloth put over them. When the leaves become of a
brownish colour by the heat, they throw out and have a peculiar smell,
and are then ready for the pan, the bottom of which is made red_ hot.
This pan is fixed in masonry breast high, and in a sloping position,
forming an angle of forty degrees. Thus the pan being placed on an in-
clined plane, the leaves, when tossed about in it cannot escape behind, or_
on the sides, as it is built high up, but fall out near the edge close to the
manufacturer, and always into his hands, so as to be swept out easily.
When the bottom of this pan has been made red hot by a wood fire,
the operator puts a cloth to his mouth to prevent inhaling any of
the hot vapour. A man on the Jeft of him stands ready with a basket
1839.] eaxtentand Produce of the Tea Plantations tn Assam. 505
of prepared leaves; one or two men stand on his right with dollahs,
or shallow baskets, to receive the leaves from the pan, and another
keeps lifting the hot leaves thrown out of the pan into the dollah, that
they may quickly cool. Ata given signal from the Chinaman, the
person with the basket of prepared leaves seizes a handful and dashes
it as quick as thought, into the red hot pan. The Chinaman tosses
and turns the crackling leaves in the pan for half a minute, then
draws them all out by seizing a few leaves in each hand, using them
by way of a brush, not one being left behind. They are all caught
by the man with the dollah or basket, who with his disengaged
hand continues lifting the leaves, and letting them fall again, that they
may quickly cool. Should a leaf be left behind in the pan by any
accident, the cloth that is held ready in the mouth is applied to
brush it out; but all this is done as quick as lightning. The man
that holds the basket of leaves watches the process sharply ; for no
sooner is the last leaf out of the pan, than he dashes in another hand-
ful, so that to an observer at a little distance, it appears as if one man
was dashing the leaves in, and the other as fast dashing them out
again—so quickly and dexterously is this managed. As soon as one
basket has received about four handsful of the hot leaves from the pan,
it is removed, and another basket placed to receive the leaves ; and so
on, until all is finished. A roaring wood fire is kept up under the pan
to keep the bottom red hot, as the succession of fresh leaves tends
greatly to cool the pan, which ought always to be scrubbed and
_ washed out after the process is over. In China these pans are made
f
of cast iron, and if great care is not taken they will crack in the
cooling ; to prevent which, one man keeps tapping the inside of the
edge of the pan briskly with a wet broom, used in the cleaning of the
vessel, while another pours cold water in gently ; thus it cools
in a few seconds, and is ready for another batch of Tea. The leaves
are rolled and tatched the same as the other Teas, and put into the
drying basket for about ten minutes. When a little dry, people are
employed to work and press the leaves in the hands in small quan-
tities, of about one and a half to two rupees weight at a time, for about
half a minute; they are then put into small square pieces of pa-
per and rolled up; after this they are put into the drying basket,
and permitted to dry slowly over a gentle fire for some hours, until
the whole is thoroughly dry. This Tea is not sold in the China
Market, it is used principally as offerings to the priests, or kept for
high days and holidays. It is said to be a very fine Tea, and there
is not one man in a hundred who can make it properly. The
Pouchong Tex is made in the same way as the Sychee, with this
exception, that it is not formed into balls.
506 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the June,
Mingehew Black-Tea. The leaves ( Pouchong) are plucked and
dried in the sun, and are then beaten and dried in the shade for half
an hour ; this is done three successive times, and the leaves are very
much shaken by a circular motion given to them ina sieve, so as to keep
them rolling and tumbling about in the centre of it. This treatment
continues until they are very soft; they are then allowed to re-
main for a short time; the contents of the first sieve are then placed
in the centre of a close worked bamboo basket with a narrow edge, and
the leaves are divided into four equal parts. The contents of the second
sieve are placed in another bamboo basket like the former, and this
basket is placed on the top of the first, and so on, piling one basket
upon another until all is finished ;—there may be about two pounds
of leaves in each basket. The red hot pan is used the same as in Sy-
chee, only now the men cast in one division of the leaves into the bas-
ket, and this is tumbled and tossed about in the red hot pan, like a
plaything, for about thirty seconds, and then swept out ; another divi-
sion is cast. in, and so on, until all the prepared baskets have been emp-
tied. The contents of each basket are still kept separate, by placing
the leaves when they come out of the pan in separate baskets. The
whole is a brisk and a lively scene, and quite methodical, every one
knowing his station, and the part he has to perform. The baskets are
then arranged on shelves to air ; the contents are afterwards tatched
the same as our Black-Teas, and fired in the drying baskets, but with
this difference, that each division is placed on paper and dried. When
it is half dry (the same as our Teas) it is put away for the night, and
the next morning it is picked, and put into the drying baskets over
gentle deadened fires, and gradually dried there; it is then packes
hot. This Tea is a difficult sort to make.
Shung Paho Black-Tea. Pluck the young ( Paho ) leaf that has not
yet blown or expanded, and has the down on it ; and the next one
that has blown with a part of the stalk; put it into the sun for half an
hour, then into the shade ; tatch over a gentle fire, and in tatching
roll the leaves occasionally in the pan, and spread them all round the
sides of the same; again roll them until they begin to have a withered
and soft appearance ; then spread them on large sieves, and put them in
the shade to air for the night ; next morning pick, and then fire them
well. Some Tea makers do not keep them all night, but manufacture
and pack the Tea the same day. This Tea is valued in China, as it is
very scarce ; but the Chinamen acknowledge that it is not a good sort.
They prefer the Teas, the leaves of which have come to maturity.
The China Black-Tea plants which were brought into Muttuck in
1837, amounted in all to 1609—healthy and sickly. A few of the lat-
/
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 507
ter died, but the remainder are healthy, and flourish as well, as if they
had been reared in-China. The leaves of these plants were plucked in
the beginning of March, and weighed sixteen seers, or thirty-two pounds.
Many of the plants were then in flower, and had small seeds. They
are about three feet high, and were loaded with fruit last year, but the
greater part of it decayed when it had come to maturity, as was the
case with the Assam Tea-seeds, and almost every seed of these wilds,
in the past year. The seeds should, I think, be plucked from the plant
when thought ripe, and not be permitted to drop or fall to the ground.
I collected about twenty-four pounds of the China seeds, and sowed
some on the little hill of Z%puwa in my Tea garden, and some in the
Nursery-ground at Jazpore ; above three thousand of which have come
up, are looking beautiful, and doing very well. I have since found
out that all the China seedlings on Tzpwm hill have been destroyed by
some insect.
The Assam and China seedlings are near each other ; the latter have
a much darker appearance. I have made but few nurseries, or raised
plants from seed, as abundance of young plants can be procured, of
any age or size, from our Tea tracts. There may be about 6,000
young seedlings at Chubwa; at Deenjoy about 2,000; at Tingrt a
few; and some at Paundooah. In June and July, 1837, 17,000
young plants were brought from Muttuck, and planted at a place called
Toongroong Patar, amongst the thick tree jungles of Sadzya.
In March of the same year six or eight thousand were brought from
Muttuck, and planted in different thick jungles at Sadiya ; many of
these died in consequence of the buffaloes constantly breaking in
amongst them; the rest are doing well, but I am afraid will be
killed from the above cause ; and now that I have removed to Jaipore,
they are too far off for my personal superintendence.
In 1838, 52,000 young Tea plants were brought from the Nem-
song Naga hill tracts, about ten miles from Jazpore ; a great portion of
these have been lately sent to Calcutta, to be forwarded to Madras ;
should they thrive there, it is my opinion that they will never attain
any height, at least not like ours, but be dwarfish like the China
plants. Deenjoy, Chubwa, Tingri, and Geela-Jhan tracts have been
filled up or enlarged with plants from the jungle tracts. In trans-
planting from one sunny tract to another, when done in the rains,
very few, if any, die; if the plants be removed from a deep shade to a
sunny tract, the risk is greater, but still, if there is plenty of rain, few
only will die. If from adeep shade to a piece of ground not a Tea tract,
and exposed to the sun—for instance from the Naga hills to Jazpore—
_ if there be plenty of rain, and the soil congenial, as it is at this place,
508 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the —|Juwne,
few will die; if shaded by a few trees, less will perish; if taken
from shade, and planted in shade and the soil uncongenial, but there
is plenty of rain, the greater portion will live ;—witness T'oongroong
Patar at Sadiya. Wf the plants are brought from deep shade, and
planted in the sun in uncongenial soil, let them have ever so much
rain, not one in fifty will be alive the third year ;—witness 30,000
brought to Sadiya. I believe the Tea plant to be so hardy that
it would almost live in any soil, provided it were planted in deep
shade when taken to it. There should be plenty of water near the
roots, but the plant should always be above inundation. As soon as it
has taken root, which it will soon do, the shade may be removed, and
there will be no fear of the plant dying.
The advantage of getting plants from the jungle tracts is, that you
can get them of any age or size; nothing more is necessary than to
send a few coolies early in March, just as the rains commence, and
have the plants of the size required removed to your own garden ;
and if they are of a moderate size, you may gather a small crop of
Tea from them the next year. As these plants are very slender,
it would be best to plant four or five close together to form a fine
bush. If the plants are raised from seed, you may expect a small crop
of Tea the third year, but they do not come to maturity under six
years. It is said they live to the age of forty or fifty years. The
Chinese way of digging a hole, and putting in a handful or two of
seed, does not succeed so well in this country, as putting two or three
seeds on small ridges of earth and covering them over, which I have
found to answer better.
In clearing a new Tea tract, if the jungle trees are very large
and numerous, it would be as well to make a clean sweep of the whole,
by cutting them and the Tea plants all down together ; for it would
be impossible to get rid of so much wood without the help of fire.
The Tea plants, if allowed to remain, would be of little use after
they had been crushed and broken by the fall of the large trees, and
dried up by the fire; but admitting that they could escape all this,
the leaves of trees from twelve to twenty feet high could not be reach-
ed, and if they could, they would be almost useless for Tea manufac-
ture, as it is the young leaves, from young trees, that produce the best
Teas. But if all were cut down and set fire to, we should have a fine
clear tract at once, at the least expense, and might expect to have
a pretty good crop of Tea one year after the cutting, or, at furthest, the
second year ; for it is astonishing with what vigour the plant shoots up
after the fire has been applied. And we gain by this process ; for, from
every old stock or stump cut down, ten to twelve more vigorous shoots
™1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 509
spring up, so that in the place of a single plant you have now a fine
Tea bush. I think from what I have seen of these plants, that if
eut down every third year, they would yield far superior Teas ;
neither am I singular in this opinion; the Green-Tea Chinamen
having told me that they cut down their plants every ninth year,
which may be reckoned equivalent to our third year, taking into
consideration the size of our trees and the richness of our soil. Our
trees, or plants, are certainly more than four or five times the size
of theirs, and must consequently yield so many times more pro-
duce; theirs is the dwarf, ours the giant Tea. The size of the leaf
matters nothing, in my opinion, provided it is young and tender ; even
their diminutive leaf, if one day too old, is good for nothing.
As the Green-Tea Chinamen have just commenced operations, I will
try to give some account of this most interesting process. All leaves
up to the size of the Souchong are taken for the Green-Tea. About
three pounds of the fresh leaves, immediately they are brought in, are
east into a hot pan (sometimes they are kept over night when abun-
dance have been brought in, and we have not been able to work all
up); they are then rolled and tossed about in the pan until they
become too hot for the hand. Two slips of bamboo, each about a foot
long, split at one end so as to form six prongs, are now used to tum-
ble and toss the leaves about, by running the sticks down the sides of
the pan, and turning the leaves up first with the right hand, then
with the left, and this as fast as possible; which keeps the leaves
rolling about in the pan without being burnt: this lasts about three
minutes ; the leaves will then admit of being rolled and pressed with-
out breaking. They are now taken from the pan and rolled in
dollahs, much the same as the Black-Tea, for about three minutes, in
which process a great quantity of the juice is extracted, if they be fresh
leaves ; but if they have been kept over night, very little juice can be
expressed from them in the morning, on account of its having evaporated.
The Chinamen say, this does not matter, as it makes no difference in
the Tea. The leaves are then pressed hard between both hands, and
turned round and pressed again and again, until they have taken the
Shape of a small pyramid. They are now placed in bamboo-baskets
or dollahs with a narrow edge, and the dollahs on bamboo frame-
work (see fig. 2 of my former account of Black-Tea) where they are ex-
posed to the sun for two or three minutes, after which these pyramids of
Tea are gently opened and thinly spread on the dollahs to dry. When
the Tea has become a little dry, (which will be the case in from five to
ten minutes if the sun be hot) it is again rolled, and then placed in
the sun as before ; this is done three successive times. But should the
(2
PO}
510 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the | JuNE,
weather be rainy, and there is no hope of its clearing, all this dry-
ing is done over the fire in a small drying basket, the same as with
Black-Tea. The Green-Tea makers have as great an aversion to dry-
ing their Tea over the fire, as the Black-Tea makers. The third time it —
has been rolled and dried, there is very little moisture left in the
Tea; it is now put into a hot pan, and gently turned over and over,
and opened out occasionally, until all has become well heated ; it is
then tossed out into a basket, and while hot put into a very strong bag,
previously prepared for it, about four feet long, and four spans in cir-
cumference. Into this bag the Tea is pressed with great force with the
hands and feet; from fourteen to twenty pounds being put in at one
time, and forced into as small a compass as possible. With his left —
hand the man firmly closes the mouth of the bag immediately above
the leaves, while with the right hand he pommels and beats the bag,
every now and then giving it a turn ; thus he beats and turns and works |
at it, tightening it by every turn with one hand, and holding on with |
the other, until he has squeezed the leaves into as small a compass as |
possible at the end of the bag. He now makes it fast by turns of the cloth |
where he held on, so that it may not open ; and then draws the cloth
of the bag over the ball of leaves, thus doubling the bag, the mouth of ©
which is twisted and made fast. The man then stands up, holding |
on by a post or some such thing, and works this ball of leaves under his
- feet, at the same time alternately pressing with all his weight, first
with one foot and then the other, turning the ball over and over, and occa- |
sionally opening the bag to tighten it more firmly. When he has made |
it almost as hard as a stone, he secures the mouth well and puts the bag :
away for that day. Next morning it is opened out and the leaves gently |
separated and placed on dollahs, then fired and dried until they are
crisp, the same as the Black-Tea, after which they are packed in boxes |
or baskets.. In China the baskets are made of double bamboo, with leaves |
between. The Tea may then remain on the spot for two or three months, |
or be sent to any other place to receive the final process. This first part |
of the Green-Tea process is so simple, that the natives of this country |
readily pick it up in a month or two. |
The second process now commences by opening the boxes or baskets, |
and exposing the Tea on large shallow bamboo baskets or dollahs (see
former account, fig. 1) until it has become soft enough to roll ; it is then
put into cast iron pans, set in brick fire-places, the same as described
in making the Sychee Black-Tea. The pan is made very hot by a|
wood-fire, and seven pounds of the leaves are thrown into it and rub-
bed against the pan, with the right hand until tired, and then with the’
left, so as not to make the process fatiguing. The pan being placed on
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. S11
an inclined plane the leaves always come tumbling back towards and
near the operator, as he pushes them up from him, moving his hand
backwards and forwards and pressing on the leaves with some force
with the palms, keeping the ends of the fingers up, to prevent their
coming in contact with the hot pan. After one hour’s good rubbing
the leaves are taken out and thrown into a large coarse bamboo-sieve,
from this into a finer one, and again a still finer one, until three sorts
of Tea have been separated. The first, or largest sort, is put into the
funnel of the winnowing machine, which has three divisions of small
traps below, to let the Tea out. A man turns the wheel with his
right hand, and with the left regulates the quantity of Tea that shall
fall through the wooden funnel above, by a wooden slide at the
bottom of it. The Tea being thrown from the sieves into the
funnel, the man turns the crank of the wheel, and moves the
slide of the funnel gradually, so as to let the Tea fall through
gently, and in small quantities. The blast from the fan blows the
smaller particles of Tea to the end of the machine, where it is inter-
cepted by a circular moveable board placed there. The dust and
smaller particles are blown against this board, and fall out at an
Opening at the bottom into a basket placed there to receive it.
The next highest Tea is blown nearly to the end of the machine,
and falls down through a trough on the side into a basket; this
Tea is called Young Hyson. The next being a little heavier,
is not blown quite so far ; it falls through the same trough, which has
a division in the middle; this of course is nearer the centre of the
machine. A basket is placed beneath to receive the Tea, which
is called Hyson. The next, which is still heavier, falls very near
to the end of the fan, this is called Gunpowder Tea; it is in
small balls. The heaviest Tea falls still closer to the fan, and is called
Big Gunpowder ; it is twice or three times the size of Gunpow-
der Tea, and composed of several young leaves that adhere firmly
together. This sort is afterwards put into a box and cut with a sharp
iron instrument, then sifted and put among the Gunpowder, which
it now resembles, The different sorts of Tea are now put into shal-
low bamboo baskets, and men, women, and children are employed to
pick out the sticks and bad leaves; this is a most tedious process,
as the greatest care is taken not to leave the slightest particle of any
thing but good Tea. But to assist and quicken this tiresome process
beautiful bamboo sieves, very little inferior to our wire ones, and of
Various sizes, are employed. The different Teas are thrown into
Sieves of different sizes, from large Gunpowder to Dust Tea ; they
are shaken and tossed, and thrown from one person to another in
512 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the {June,
quick succession, making the scene very animating; in this way a —
great portion of the stalks are got rid of. After the Tea has been
well sifted and picked, it is again put into the hot pans and rub-
bed and rolled as before, for about one hour; it is then put into
shallow bamboo baskets, and once more examined, to separate the
different Teas that may still remain intermixed, and again put into
the hot pan. Now a mixture of sulphate of lime and indigo, very
finely pulverized and sifted through fine muslin, in the proportion
of three of the former to one of the latter, is added; to a pan
of 'Tea containing about seven pounds, about half a tea-spoonful of
this mixture is put and rubbed and rolled along with the Tea in
the pan for about one hour, as before described. The Tea is then
taken hot from the pan and packed firmly in boxes, both hands —
and feet being used to press it down. ‘The above mixture is not —
put to the Tea to improve its flavour, but merely to give it a uniform
color and appearance, as without it some of the Tea would be light
and some dark. The indigo gives it the colour, and the sulphate
of lime fixes it. The Chinese call the former Youngtin, the latter
Acco. Large Gunpowder Tea they call Tychen ; little Gunpowder
Cheocheu ; Hyson, Chingcha ; Young Hyson, Uchin ; Skin-Tea, or
old leaves in small bits, Poocha ; the fine Dust, or Powder-Tea, Cha-_
moot.
the difference lies in the manufacture, and nothing else. The Green-
Tea gatherers are accommodated with a small basket, each having
a strap passed round the neck so as to let the basket hang on the
breast. With one hand the man holds the branch, and with the
other plucks the leaf, one at a time, taking as high as the Souchong
. leaf; a little bit of the lower end of the leaf is left for the young leaf to
shoot up close to it; not a bit of stalk must be gathered. This is a very
slow and tedious way of gathering. The Black-Tea maker plucks the
leaves with great rapidity with both hands, using only the forefinger
and thumb, and collects them in the hollow of the hand ; when his
hand is full he throws the leaves into a basket under the shade of the
tree ; and so quickly does he ply his hands that the eye of a learner
cannot follow them, nor see the proper kind of leaf to be plucked ; all
that he sees, is the Chinaman’s hands going right and left, his hands fast
filling, and the leaves disappearing. Our coolies, like the Green-Tea
Chinamen,hold the branch with one hand, and deliberately pluck off the
The leaves of the Green-Tea are not plucked the same as the Black,
although the tree or plant is one and the same, which has been proved —
beyond a shadow of doubt; for I am now plucking leaves for both ©
Green and Black from the same tract and from the same plants;
2? 4 pare
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 513
leaf required, then the next, and so on, by which process much time is
lost, and a greater number of hands are wanted. Not having a regu-
lar set of pluckers is a very great drawback to us; for the men whom
we teach this year we see nothing of the next ; thus every year we have
to instruct fresh men. ‘This difficulty will be removed when we get
regular people attached to the Tea plantations ; or when the natives of
these parts become more fixed and settled in their habitations, and do
not move off by whole villages from one place to another, as they have
of late years been doing ; and when the aversion they have throughout
Assam to taking service for payment, has been overcome. They seem to
hold this as mean and servile ; preferring to cultivate a small patch of
ground which barely yields a subsistence. I can perceive, however, that
there is a gradual change taking place in the minds of the labouring
class of people, or coolies ; for occasionally some good able-bodied men
come forward for employment. ‘The generality of those that have
hitherto offered themselves, has been from the very poorest and the most
worthless in the country. In the cold season, when the men have
nothing to sow or reap, two or three hundred can be collected; but as
soon as the rains set in, all but those that have not bonds, or are not
involved in debt, go off to their cultivations, at the very time when
our Tea operations commence. As long as things continue in this
state, the price of Tea will be high ; but if this drawback were removed,
there is nothing to prevent our underselling the Chinese, exeept the
experience of a few more years.
But let us return to our Teas, and take a comparative view of the
qualities of the Black and Green-Teas, which may nearly beas follows:
Paho Black-Tea leaf would make Green-Tea, some Gunpowder, and
some Young Hyson. Pouchong, although classed as a second Black-Tea,
on account of the price it fetches in the market, is a third-rate leaf, for
it is rather larger than the Souchong. Some of it would make Young
Hyson, and some Skin-Tea. Souchong would make Hyson and
Young Hyson. Toychong would make Skin-Tea.—I will here men-
tion the different kinds of Black-Teas, to make the matter more
clear to those who take an interest in the subject. Thowung-Paho
(the Sung fa is the same leaf as this) is the downy little leaf not
expanded, and the one next to it that has just unfolded a little.
This Tea when made appears full of small white leaves, which
are the little downy leaves just mentioned. Twvazee-Paho is from
the second crop, and nearly the same kind of Tea, only a little older ;
the leaf. next the small downy one (being a little more expanded)
and the small leaf below this, are taken, making three in all ;
this has also numerous white leaves, but not so many as the former.
514 | Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the —|June,
Souchong is the next largest leaf; this is well grown, but embraces
all the leaves above it. When the upper leaves have grown out of
season for Thowung-Paho and Twazee-Paho, they are all plucked
for the Souchong from the third and fourth of the upper leaves.
From Souchong leaves, the Minchong and Sychee Teas are made
in the first crop, and no other. Pouchong is the next largest leaf ;
it is a little older and larger than the Souchong. From this leaf
the Sychee and Minchong Teas can be made in the first crop only.
The Pouchong is never made in the second crop, on account of its not
having a good flavour: many of the Souchong leaves are mixed
up in this Tea. The Toychong leaves are those that are rejected
from the Souchong and Pouchong, as being too large and not taking
the roll. When the Teas are picked, these leaves are put on one side.
The Chinese often put them into a bag, and give them a twist,
something in the Green-Tea way, and then mix them up with
the Souchong to add to the weight. This leaf (Toychong) becomes
worse in the second and third crops ;—it is a cheap Tea and sold to
the poor. All the Black-Teas that are damaged have the flower of
what the Chinese call Quz fa, and another called Son fa, mixed up
with them. One pound of the flowers is put to each box of damaged
Tea. After the Teas have been well tatched and mixed up with
other sorts, these leaves give them a pleasant fragrance. The Son fa
plant is about two feet high, and kept in flower pots; it is propagated
from the roots. The Quz/a plant is from three to four feet high; one
pound of the flowers is put to a box of Tea. This plant was seen
in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta by our Chinese interpreter.
The flowers of this plant are considered finer than those of the Son fa.
I annex a rough drawing of each of them, as given to me by the inter-
preter ; the dots in the drawings are intended for small flowers.*
The Black-Tea makers appear to me to be very arbitrary in
their mode of manufacture; sometimes they will take the leaves
of the Thowung-Paho, or perhaps Twazee-Paho; but if it has
been raining, or there is any want of coolies to pluck the leaves
quickly, or from any other cause, they will let the leaves grow
* These two sketches are not deemed sufficiently instructive to be added here. One
of them is entitled Qu? fa, which is the name of the Olea fragrans, or Sweet-scented
Olive, the flowers of which are said to be used for perfuming Teas. But it is more like the
Aglaia adorata, a very different plant, which is also supposed to be applied in China for
asimilar purpose. This last, however, is called Tsjiulang by the Chinese, according to
Rumpf, and Sam yeip lan according to Roxburgh. The other sketch, entitled Lan fa,
seems to be intended for a liliaceous, or at any rate an endogenous plant. I am
unable to offer any conjecture about it.—N. W.
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 515
a few days longer, and turn all into Souchong; which it must
be remembered, takes all the small leaves above it. If it is the first
crop, the Souchong and Pouchong leaves may all be turned into
Souchong Tea; but even if it is the second crop, when the Pouchong
leaves ought not to be gathered, they are nevertheless plucked and
mixed up with the Souchong leaves. Almost all our Black- and all
the Green-Teas have just been made from one garden. When
the Green-Tea makers complained that the leaves were beginning
to get too large for them—that is, they were fast growing out
of Souchong and running into Pouchong—the Black-Tea makers
took up the manufacture, plucked all the leaves, and made excel-
lent Pouchong; so that between the two, there is not a leaf lost.
When the Black-Tea makers have a garden to themselves they
are cruel pluckers, for they almost strip the tree of leaves for
the Souchong, and are not at all nice in the plucking; the third
and even the fourth leaf on a tender twig is nipped off in the twink-
ling of an eye; they then look about for more young leaves, and
away go the Pouchong, and Toychong too, which is the largest
leaf of all. But the Green-Tea men pluck quietly, one by one, down
to Souchong. The Black-Tea men separate all their Teas into first,
second, third, and fourth crop; but the Green-Tea manufacturers
make no distinction ; they prepare all the Tea they can, throughout
the season, box or basket it up, and when the season is over, they
set off for Canton with their produce; at least all those who do
not wish to sell their Tea on the spot. The different merchants go in
quest of it there. It now indiscriminately undergoes the second
process ; that is, the different crops are all mixed up together. No
old leaves can be mixed in the Green, as in the Black-Teas; for
the long rolling in the pan crushes them, and the fan blows them
away, so that only the young leaves are left.
We shall now take a comparative view of the number of men
required by the Black and the Green-Tea makers for one pair of pans.
For the Black-Tea makers there will be required,
to tatch, ote at Ny “a ~. 2men
— roll, ate cs aig of Paha” iSeen
— attend to the fire, .. : ae Eee Wns
— dry, ie ie fi ; Bian ail ss
— beat and put inthe sun, .. oS gti Eu
Total number of men a -- 10
To keep these men fully at work, from twenty-five to thirty coolies
will be required to pluck leaves, and they will turn out about two
516 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the |June,
boxes of Tea per day, (weighing one maund, or 80 pounds) if the
weather be fine and sunny ; but scarcely half that quantity it if be
rainy, on account of the coolies not plucking so much on a rainy,
as they would on a fair sunny day. As the people of the country -
become acquainted with the gathering and manufacturing, three
boxes, of forty pounds each, may be expected in fine weather, adding
perhaps a few men to the number of coolies.
A pair of pans for the Green-Tea makers would require during the
first process,
to tatch, nah fe Migr an aa
— receive the Tea from the pans, al
— roll, .. “ es - a BP susie
— attend to the fire, .. ot : eke
— put the leaves in the sun and turn uftm! ee
Total number of men, ... .. ..- 16
Thirty coolies would be required to keep these men in full play,
and they would turn out two boxes of twenty-three seers, or forty-six
pounds each, per day ; in all ninety-two pounds of Tea. If the weather
be rainy, of course the produce is much less; as the gatherers then do
only. half work. Thus the difference between the Black and Green
is, that the former requires six manufacturers less; and that when
the Black-Tea is finished, boxed, and ready for exportation, the
Green has only undergone the first process, and is but half finish- -
ed; although it is ready for exportation to any appointed place to
receive the final and troublesome, as well as most expensive part of
the process. Nevertheless the first part of the Green-Tea preparation
is easily learnt by the natives of this place in about two or three
months. In speaking of the trouble and expense attending the se-
cond process of the Green-Tea making, I beg to observe that it ap-
pears to me, from what little I have seen of it, that machinery
might easily be brought to bear ; and as Assam is about to become a
great Tea country, it behoves us to look to this. The Tea half
made, as above described, I am informed by the Green-Tea China-
men now with me, is put either into boxes or baskets, with bamboo
leaves between ; it has to make in this state a long journey by land
and water, and then to go one or more months in a boat by sea,
before it reaches Canton, where it is laid aside for one or two months
more, before it undergoes the second process; making in all about
five months from the time it was first prepared. All that is required —
is to keep it dry. Now if all this be true, which I have no doubt it is,
I see no reason why we could not send it to England, and have
it made up there. JI rather see every thing in favor of such a plan,
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 517
and nothing against it. After a year’s instruction under Chinamen, it
might be left to the ingenuity of Englishmen to roll, sift, and clean the
Tea by machinery, and, in fact, reduce the price of the Green-Tea
nearly one-half, and thus enable the poor to drink good unadulterated
Green-Tea, by throwing the indigo and sulphate of lime overboard.
At all events the experiment is worthy of a fair trial, and the first step
towards it would be to manufacture the Tea at Calcutta; or perhaps it
would be better to let the China Green-Tea makers go direct to Eng-
land along with it, and have it manufactured there at once.
Now for a word about the Lead-canister maker, who is a very im-
portant man in our establishment; for without him, we could not
pack our Teas.—On two tiles about an inch thick and sixteen inches
square, is pasted, on one side, a sheet of very fine thick paper, said
to have been made in Cochin-China, over this another sheet is pasted
only at the edges. The paper must be very smooth, and without any
kind of hole, knob, or blemish. To make it answer the purpose better,
fine chalk is rubbed over it. The tiles thus prepared are laid one
over the other and moved backwards and forwards, to ascertain if they
work smoothly. The lower tile rests on two pieces of wood, about
four inches in thickness, and the exact length of the tile. The room
where the sheets of lead are made must be very smooth and level, as the
tiles are apt to break when there is any unequal pressure on them. In
the corner of the room there is a sunken brick fire-place, the up-
per part of which rises just a little above the floor; into this fire-
place is inserted one of the cast iron pans used for making Tea,
and in one corner of the masonry is a vent hole on which in general
a Tea-kettle stands. The pan is heated by a wood fire; an iron
ladle with a handle, about six or eight inches long, answers the
purpose of taking the lead out of the pan when required. The pan
may hold about twenty pounds. There is also another ladle
with a long handle, and holes at the bottom, to take the dross off.
When lead for the sides of the boxes is required, the proportion of
one maund of lead to five seers of tin is put into the pan. When
well melted and freed from dross, the two tiles above mentioned are
placed on the two pieces of wood, one piece being nearly under the
centre, and the other at the edge of the lower tile; the upper tile is
placed on the lower tile even and square, projecting perhaps a little
backward towards the operator. The tiles being thus placed near the
Melted lead, the Chinaman squats down on them, placing his
heels near the edge, with his toes towards the centre; while with
his left hand he lays hold of the corner tile, and with the right
holds the short ladle, which he dips imto the boiler, and takes out
3x
518 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the |June,
about half a ladleful of the molten metal, tipping up the upper tile
with the left hand about three inches, at the same time assisting this
operation by pressing on his heels and gently lifting his toes. The upper
tile being thus raised he dashes in the contents of the ladle between
both, lets go with the left hand, and presses on with his toes, which
brings the upper tile with some force to its former position over the
lower one, and occasions the superfluous lead to gush out right and left
and in front. The upper tile is then raised like the lid of a box, while
the lower one rests on the piece of projecting wood underneath, and a
fine thin sheet of lead, nearly the size of the tiles, is taken out, and thrown
onone side; the upper tileis then gently lowered down, another ladle
of hot lead dashed in, and so on in quick succession, about four sheets
of lead being made in one minute. The lower tile projecting a little
beyond the upper one assists the man to lay the ladle on, and pour in
the metal firmly and quickly. To vary the operation, the man some-—
times stands up and places one foot on the upper tile, working with his
heel and toes, the same as if both feet were on, and just as quickly.
Many interruptions take place, such as examining the papers on the
tiles, rubbing them with chalk, turning them round, and reversing them.
Sometimes half a split bamboo is placed in front and under the tiles,
with a piece of paper on it, to receive the lead that falls down, so that
it may not come in contact with the ground. This lead is every now
and then taken up and put back into the boiler. A maund of lead may
make about twelve or thirteen boxes, which will hold forty pounds.
There are also two other tiles, about a cubit square; these are used for
making the tops of the canisters, which are generally of tin only, but can
also be made from the above mixture. It is necessary in making this
sheet-lead, to hold the sheets up and examine them; for if not properly —
prepared, there are sometimes a number of very fine holes in them,
which are not perceptible when lying on the ground or table. On this
account the first twenty sheets of lead are thrown aside and rejected, —
even without any examination. When the tiles have become nice and
warm, it is then the fine and even sheets, without holes, are obtained.
_ Before a sheet-lead canister can be made, it is necessary to have a
model box made to fit into the wooden box, that is to hold the sheet-lead
canister ; on this box or shell the sheet-lead canister is made. It has
a hole at the bottom to prevent any suction in putting it in, or draw-
ing it out of the box or canister ; and instead of a top it has a bar of wood
across, by which it is drawn out. For soldering, tin, with the eighth or
twelfth part of quicksilver, and some rosin are used. The wood part of —
some of the boxes is covered with paper pasted on and dried in the sun.
To give the paper on the boxes a yellow colour, a mixture of paste with
1839.] eatent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 519
pulverized and sifted saffron is laid on and dried. The paper on the
corners of the boxes is ornamented by means of a wooden block with
flowers carved on it ; on this bit of wood very thin paper, cut to its size,
is placed, and a mixture, consisting of pulverized saffron, indigo, and
water, having a deep green color, is laid singly on each bit of paper
with a brush made of cocoanut fibres. These slips of paper are put
one above the other, twenty thick, or as long as the paper takes the
impression of the carved wood below. When the corners of the boxes
have been ornamented with this paper and dried, another mixture,
about the proportion of four seers of oil to three seers of rosin, boiled
together, is applied with a cocoanut brush over all the boxes as a
finish ; after these are dry they are ready for the Tea.
The following table will shew the size and produce of the Tea
tracts now worked, and the probable amount of Tea for this and the
next season.
Names of Tea|Length and |Number of|Average pro-
tracts fully | breadth of [plants in |duce of single |Produce in Remarks.
worked in 1838.| Tea tracts. jeach Tea |Tea plants. 1838.
tract.
pee meee | Se Gee | aoe
ae ee | pee Se
No. 1 Tringri,| 267 by 90 2,000 |4 Sa. Weight, | 260 Seers
No. 2 Tringri,} 155 by 70 2,340 {3-12 Sa. Wt., | 160
No. | Kahung,| 480 by 210 | 1,36,000 |4 Sa. Weight, | 680
No 1 Chubwa,| 200 by 160 8,200 |4 Sa. Weight, | 410 ,,
Deenjoy,....... 223 by 171 8,400 |2 Sa. Weight, | 210 ___,, The plants are
; small in this tract
33
3?
1,720 including China
From Shady Tracts, .. o° AG an 390 plants.
The probable increase of the above Tracts for 1839. .... 527
———
Probable produce of 1839. ............ 2,637 Seers 0,274 tbs.
Names of the {Length and |Numberof Probable Probable
tracts to be breadth of | plantsin | produce of one/produce in Remarks.
worked in 1840.| Tea tracts. | each Tea | ‘Tea plant. 1840.
tract.
No. 2 Kahung,| 192 by 114 4,720 |3 Sa. Weight, 177
No. 3 Do.| 215 by 70 3,440 |3 Sa. Weight, 129
No. 2Chubwa,| 160 by 70 2,420 |3 Sa. Weight, 90
_ Nowholea, | 476 by 160 16,480 |3 Sa. Weight, 618
Tipun, 344 by 331 24,620 |3 Sa. Weight, 922 The plants in
Jugundoo, | 400 by 200 17,300 |3 Sa. Weight, 648 |} these tracts now
Ningrew, 300 by 189 12,260 |3 Sa. Weight, 459 |§small will not
—————lyield a good corp
The probable produce of the above 7 tracts, ......+0+- 2,943 |for two years.
Add the probable produce of the other 5 tracts. 2,637
Probable produce of all the tracts in 1840. ..sseeeree 0,980_ {11,160 lbs.
520 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the [June,
It should be borne in mind that this isa rough calculation, and I can
only give the probable amount. Most of these plants are very young,
or have been recently cut down; a few years hence the plants may
yield twice the above quantity. The first table exhibits the abso-
lute produce of 1838. Now let us suppose a new settler were to take
land in these parts; what would be his expenses if he were only ©
to cultivate Tea, and had to clear forest land (in the vicinity of the
Tea) ten times the size of Nowholeah, which is, say 400 by 200 yards,
and which would cost him 200 Rupees to clear. Ten such tracts would
cover 8,00,000 square yards. Now, to cover this surface of ground
with Tea plants, and the plants six feet apart each way, 3,55,555
plants would be required; but if two plants were to be placed
together, as I would recommend, then 7,11,110 plants would be requir-
ed. The cost would probably be at the rate of five annas for 300 plants ;
thus :
The clearing of 10 tracts, each 400 by 200 yards, -- 2,000 0 0
7,11,110 Tea plants, at 5 annas for 300, Ee aoe GaO sae
Planting the above, : 474 0 0
Weeding each tract 3 times ate year, at 30 Rs. ee wo) 900 0 0O
5 Tea houses, at 50 Rs. each, xy Tu See 0 ae
200 Hoes at 1 Rupee each, a # 4c oo PROOF O-9@
100 Axes at 1 Rupee each, ar e co et SOO E Oe
100 Daws at | Rupee each, .. : “ -- 100°0 @
Dollahs, Challonis, &c., bamboo apparatus, ae «s $2008 028
8 Saws at5 Rs. each, .. .- So eee 40 0 0
Charcoal and firewood for patind the Tes te oe ¢ 200s
40 Cast-iron pans, at4 Rs.each, .. .- «.- -- I160 0 O
Paper for Tea boxes, .. ae Rec -. 100 0 4
Chalk and Indigo, re o's ae 50 0 0
3 Maunds of Nails of sizes, at 10 Rit per ciaeae ee 30 0 0
2 Elephants at 150Rs.each .. .. 2 SS OD: Orla
2 Elephant mahoots at 6 Rs. each per ead oo oe Sed Oe
2 Elephant mates at 4 Rs. each per month, .. oe 96 0 O
Rice for 2 Elephants, oe : 96 0 0
Lead for 888 boxes, at 3 seers per = containing 20 seers,
at 8 Rs. per maund, 2 ee ene ae
A Cooly sirdar at 10 Rs. per oni Seren os 120 0
10 Duffadars, or Overseers of coolies at 3 Rs. per frionth 360 0
Coolies to collect leaves, 30 to each tract, 20 days to each
crop; for 3 crops, or 60 days, at 3 Rs. for each man
per month, i wi Ce a at -. 1,800 0 0
SD ES |
Carried over,.. 8,993 8 5 |
oo ©
i
i
1839.] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 521
Brought over,.. 8,993 8 5
4 Native carpenters, at 12 Rs. ditto, .. aS 2 se 7 Bin, Oi O
8 Sawyers, at 4 Rs. ditto, a ane he tives 2, cylegueuia Oi
2 Native Lead-canister makers, at 12 Rs. ditto, Si eALEs OsuO
Coolies to bring in timber for Sawyers, .. .. Site (LOD Oi 0
5 Chinamen at 30 Rs.each permonth, .. .. .. 1,800 0 0O
120 Native Tea makers at 5 Rs. each, for 5 months, or
one season, re ie Wee Tees % an += (500077, O40
Freight to Calcutta, .. .. a ie weve, 400.8 02.20
Ditto to England,.. .. iis a ata -- 1,000 0 O
Total outlay for 10 tracts, Co’s. Rs. 16,591 8 5
Deduct charges that are not annual, viz.—
Clearing of tracts, .. ae -- 2,000 0 O
Purchase of Tea plants, .. .. .. 740 0 O
BV LTO, ok oe cin ue og.) Apt we
Building Tea houses, bia el sod ohn. ihn (LOD
Purchase of Hoes, ee Ie oe eon OO
Do. Axes,.. th si sities Renter. x EO) ac Ore 3)
AW Ss oo ers Ae asia UOi ahead)
Do. Saws, nes ve eke 40 0 O
Do. Bamboo apparatus, : ert p e0Ong On n0
Do. Elephants, .. .. oft wader OO ciO.. Oo 4 304. 0... O
Total annual outlay on 10 tracts, 12,287 8 5
Average produce of 3,55,555 tea plants at 4 Sa. )
Wt. each plant, is 444 Mds. or 17,777 Srs., ahi wl) gb BEAMON 0
or 35,554 Ibs. at 2s., or aes per pound, 1
would be, .. ES ‘ sits ae
Annual profit on 10 tracts, Co’s. Rs. 23,266 7 7
Annual outlay Co’s. Rs. ! Annual profits Co’s. Rs.
For 10 tracts, .. i $2967 |} Onell 0 tracts; sk ian: 235266
Por 100 tracts, ... .. 1,22,870| On 100 tracts, .... .. 2,32,660
For 1000 tracts, .. .. 12,28,700 | On 1000 tracts,.. .. 23,26,600
N. B.—The deduction of 4304 Rs. not being annual outlay is not included in this
- calculation above 10 Tracts.
Tea tract. Duffadars. Takelah. Coolies.
Required for ] 1 10 30
5, tor 10 10 100 300
a fOr 100 100 1000 3000
522 _ Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the (June,
It must be remembered that this calculation has been made on
3,55,555 plants, not on double that number as I proposed, viz. to plant
them in pairs, which would certainly, on the lowest calculation, in-
crease the profits thirty per cent. It should be borne in mind also,
that 4 sicca weight is not the full produce of each plant ; when full
grown: it will yield double that, or 8 sicca weight, and some even
as high as 10 to 12 sicca weight. I have calculated at the rate of
4 sicca, which was absolutely produced in 1838. The plant will, I
should think, produce 25 per cent more this year, and go on increasing
to what I have above mentioned. But then, on the other hand, the
items which I have set down, are not all that will be required to carry
on this trade on an extensive scale. The superintendence, numerous
additional artizans that will be required, and a thousand little wants
which cannot be set down now, but which must necessarily arise from
the nature of the cultivation and manufacture, will go far to diminish
the profits, and swell the outlay ; but this of course will last but a
few years, until the natives of the country have been taught to compete
with Chinamen. It should also be remembered, that the calculation
I have made on ten tracts is on a supposition that we have a sufficient
number of native Tea-makers and Canister-makers, which will not be
the case for two or three years to come. It is on this point alone that
we are deficient, for the Tea plants and lands are beforeus. Yes, there
is another very great drawback to the cultivation of Tea in this
country, and which I believe I before noticed, namely the want of
population and labourers. They will have to be imported and settled
on the soil, which will be a heavy tax on the first outlay; but this,
too, will rectify itself in a few years; for, after the importation of
some thousands, others will come of themselves, and the redundant
population of Bengal, will pour into Assam, as soon as the people
know that they will get a certain rate of pay, as well as lands, for
the support of their families. If this should be the case, the Assamese
language will in a few years be extinct.
I might here observe, that the British Government would confer a —
lasting blessing on the Assamese and the new settlers, if immediate
and active measures were taken to put down the cultivation of
Opium in Assam, and afterwards to stop its importation, by levying
high duties on Opium land. If something of this kind is not done,
and done quickly too, the thousands that are about to emigrate from
the plains into Assam, will soon be infected with the Opium-mania,—
that dreadful plague, which has depopulated this beautiful country,
turned it into a land of wild beasts, with which it is overrun, and has
degenerated the Assamese, from a fine race of people, to the most abject,
1839. ] extent and produce of the Tea Plantations in Assam. 523
servile, crafty, and demoralized race in India. This vile drug has kept,
and does now keep, down the population ; the women have fewer chil-
dren compared with those of other countries, and the children seldom
live to become old men, but in general die at manhood ; very few old
men being seen in this unfortunate country, in comparison with others.
Few but those who have resided long in this unhappy land know the
dreadful and immoral effects, which the use of Opium produces on the
native. He will steal, sell his property, his children, the mother of his
children, and finally even commit murder for it. Would it not be the
highest of blessings, if our humane and enlightened Government would
stop these evils by a single dash of the pen, and save Assam, and all
those who are about to emigrate into it as Tea cultivators, from the
dreadful results attendant on the habitual use of Opium? We should
in the end be richly rewarded, by having a fine, healthy race of men |
growing up for our plantations, to fell our forests, to clear the land
from jungle and wild beasts, and to plant and cultivate the luxury of
the world. This can never be effected by the enfeebled Opium-eaters
of Assam, who are more effeminate than women. I have dwelt thus
long on the subject, thinking it one of great importance, as it will
affect our future prospects in regard to Tea; also from a wish to be-
nefit this people, and save those who are coming here, from catching
the plague, by our using timely measures of prevention.
Monthly outlay of the present sianding Establishment.
Co's. Rs.
Superintendent, e. ne ae ala j) BOD. 2 Oe. 0
ist Assistant to Do. Be hs Sie ete OO O26
‘2nd Do. Do. ae, ey ae mi 70 0 O
1 Chinese Black-Tea maker, .. 8 a 55 11 6
1 Ditto Assistant to Ditto ak a py Liecl. <6
‘1 Ditto Tea-box maker, “is “a wh 450.0
1 Ditto Interpreter, .. as No si 45 0 0
1 Ditto Tea-box maker, iia au deter ecO
2 Ditto Green-Tea makers, at 15: 8:6 ed is Slice la O
1 Ditto Tea-box maker, nt zis aie Sa. 433.6
1 Ditto Lead-canister maker, .. S a ip Ae ree 4,
24 Native Black-Tea makers, at 5 each ,.. Seine pe ae Og. Q
12 Native Green-Tea makers, at 5 each, .. oe, 60 0 0
‘1 Native Carpenter, si Si, Bi ee 4 0 0
0 0
1 Coolie Sirdar, .. a Bhs Be a8 10
Carried over,... 1,122 14 0
524 Report on the manufacture of Tea, and on the [June,
Brought over,.. 1,122 14
4 Mahouts, at 6 each, 50 a a sd 240i
4 Ditto Mates, at 4 each, tk sf, ne! ig 16 0 0
Rice for 4 Elephants per month, as ote Se 18 0 0
4 Sawyers, at 4 each, | é ae ae ve 16 0 0
2 Dak runners, at 3: 8: 0 ‘el? 5 re: oe 7 0 0
4 Duffadars, at 3 each, ee ee mi ie 12 0
Fixed monthly expenditure in Assam, ae ~« 1,215 14 0
Cash paid to Chinese families in China, ae Pa ee
Total monthly expenditure, 1,347 0 6
or 16,000 a year, not including coolies and other items. It should
be remembered that this establishment has been confined to a few
tracts as an experiment, and has never been fully worked. The Chinese —
Green-Tea makers, Canister-makers and Interpreter, have lately been
added to the establishment; their services have not as yet been
brought into account. We are just now availing ourselves of them by
making Green-Tea ; and as the natives at present placed under them
become available, large quantities of excellent Green-Tea will be ma-
nufactured. I suppose two Chinamen might qualify twenty-four na-
tives for the first process ; the second, as I have already recommended,
might be performed in England, which in my humble opinion would
“effect a great saving, by getting machinery to do the greater part of
the work. At all events, it never could be manufactured in Assam
without a great expense, and this for want of labourers. However, it
is gratifying to see how fast the Chinese acquire the Assamese lan-
guage ; for, after they have been a year in the country, they begin to
speak sufficiently well for all ordinary purposes, so that an interpreter
can very well be dispensed with. Our Chinamen can speak the Assa-
mese language much better than the interpreter can the English lan-
guage. They are a violent, headstrong, and passionate people, more es-
pecially as they are aware we are so much in their power. If the
many behave as do the few, a Thannah would be necessary to keep
them cool.
With respect to what are called the Simgpho Tea tracts, I am sorry
to say we have not been able this year to get a leaf from them, on
account of the disturbances that have lately occurred there ; nor do I —
believe we shall get any next year, unless we establish a post at Nin-
grew, which I think is the only effectual way to keep the country —
quiet, and secure our Tea. The Tea from these tracts is said by the
Chinamen to be very fine. Some of the tracts are very extensive, and
1839.] extent and produce of the Fea Plantations in Assam. 525
many may run for miles into the jungles for what we know; the
whole of the country is capable of being turned into a vast Tea garden,
the soil being excellent, and well adapted for the growth of Tea. On
both sides of the Buri-Dehing river, as will be seen by the map, the
Tea grows indigenous; it may be traced from tract to tract to Hookum,
thus forming a chain of Tea tracts from the Irrawaddy to the borders
of China, east of Assam. Ever since my residence at Sudiya this has
been confirmed year after year by many of my Kamtee, Singpho, and
Dewaneah acquaintances, who have traversed this route. It is there-
fore important for us to look well to our Eastern frontier, on account of
our capability to extend our ‘Tea cultivation in that direction. Eng-
land alone consumes 31,829,620 tbs. nearly four laks of maunds, an-
nually. To supply so vast a quantity of Tea, it will be necessary to
eultivate all the hills and vallies of Assam ; and on this very account
a post at Ningiew becomes doubly necessary. A few years hence, it
may be found expedient to advance this frontier post to the top of the
Patkai hill, the boundary line of our eastern frontier. Any rupture
with Burmah would add to our Tea trade, by taking from them
Hookum and Munkoom, and having the Irrawaddy as our boundary
line. These countries are nominally under the Burmese, as they pay
a small annual tribute ; but this can never be collected without send-
ing an armed force. They are said to be thinly inhabited, the popu-
lation being kept down by the constant broils and wars, which one
petty place makes upon another for the sake of plunder. All the in-
habitants drink Tea, but it isnot manufactured in our way ; few, it is
said, cultivate the plant. I have for years been trying to get some seeds
or plants from them, but have never succeeded, on account of the dis-
turbed state in which they live. The leaves of their Tea plants have
always been represented to me as being much smaller than ours.
Muttuck is a country that abounds in Tea, and it might be made
one extensive, beautiful Tea garden. We have many cultivated ex-
perimental tracts in it; we know of numerous extensive uncultivated
tracts, and it appears to me that we are only in the infancy of our
discoveries as yet. Our Tea, however, is insecure here. It was but a
month or two ago that so great an alarm was created, that my people had
toretire from our Tea gardens and manufacture at Deenjoy and Chub-
wa, which will account for the deficiency of this year’s crop. Things
Must continue in this state until the government of the country is
finally settled ; for we are at present obliged, in order to follow a
peaceful occupation, to have the means of defending ourselves from a
sudden attack, ever since the unfortunate affair at Sudiya. Before
the transfer of the Tea tracts in this country can be made, it will be
3 Y
526 Report on the manufacture of Tea, &c. [ June, |
necessary, in justice to all parties, to know if Muétuck is, or is to
become, ours or not. The natives at present are permitted to cultivate
as much land as they please, on paying a poll-tax of two rupees per
year; so that if the country is not ours, every man employed on the
Tea will be subject to be called on for two rupees per annum, to be
paid to the old Bura Senaputy’s son, as governor of the country.
This point is of vital importance to our Tea prospects up here. Many
individuals might be induced to take Tea grounds, were they sure, that.
the soil was ours, and that they would be protected and permitted
to cultivate it in security.
In looking forward to the unbounded benefit the discovery of this
plant will produce to England, to India,—to Millions, I cannot but
thank God for so great a blessing to our country. When I first disco-
vered it, some 14 years ago, I little thought that I should have been ©
spared long enough to see it become likely eventually to rival that of
China, and that I should have to take a prominent part in bringing it to
so successful an issue. Should what I have written on this new and
interesting subject be of any benefit to the country, and the com-
munity at large, and help a little to impel the Tea forward to enrich
our own dominions, and pull down the haughty pride of China, I
shall feel myself richly repaid for all the perils and dangers and fa-
tigues, that I have undergone in the cause of British India Tea.
JAIPORE,
10th June, 1839.
Art. VIII.— Proceedings of the Astatic Society.
(Wednesday Evening, the 7th August, 1839.)
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
Read the Proceedings of the last Meeting.
Read the following letter from Professor WILson :—
Library, East India House, London, 12th April, 1839.
Dear Sir,—The continued serious illness of Mr. J. Prinszp, and the uncertainty of
its termination, render it impossible to communicate with him on the affairs of the
Asiatic Society, and I must therefore trouble you on a subject on which he wrote to me
on the Society’s behalf sometime ago. Under the authority I then received, I appli-
ed to Sir F. Cuanrrey to furnish the Society with a copy of his bust of Mr. Corz-
BROOKE, and of one of Sir W. Jones, from the head of the statue in St. Paul’s
Cathedral. Both have been prepared under his superintendence by a sculptor of great
merit, his pupil Mr. WEEKES, and are nearly completed. The cost is severally sixty
1839.] Asiatic Society. 527
and seventy guineas, (1367. 10s.) and it should be paid as soon as the busts are
removed. I am not aware however if any arrangement has been made to remit the
above sums, although I apprised Mr. Prinsep of the amount. His lamented indisposi-
tion, and hurried departure from India, will probably have prevented him from taking
any steps on the occasion. If the remittance has been made, I shall be obliged to you
to inform me in what manner; if not, as is most likely, I shall be obliged to you to ob-.
tain the authority of the Society to the money being sent me without delay.
It is very probable that a similar omission may have occurred in regard to the amount
of Dr. MiL.’s bust, which you will therefore be kind enough to correct by forwarding
the amount either to him or tome, The plaster model of his bust is completed, and
is most excellent, both as to its general character and individual resemblance. It and
the other two will form most admirable, as well as appropriate decorations of the
Society’s apartments. Yours very truly, ,
H. H. WILSON,
The Secretary informed the Meeting that the draft for 1362. 10s. has been remitted
to Dr. Witson by the last Overland; and that subsequent inquiry had shewn that Mr.
Prinsep had a larger sum than that required at the credit of the Society in the hands
of his London Agents.
Read a letter from J. ForsHatt, Esq., Secretary to the British Museum, acknow-
ledging receipt of No. 80 of the Journal Asiatic Society.
The Secretary brought to the notice of the Meeting that the present Pundit, Ram-
GOVIND GossaMEE, has been found incompetent to decypher the Inscriptions to which
the Society are most desirous to give publicity, either in their monthly publication,
or in their Transactions, he therefore proposed that. the celebrated KAMALAKANTHA
VipyALanka be appointed for that office, and also as the Librarian for the Oriental
Books.
The proposition was unanimously carried.
Library.
The Secretary informed the Meeting of the arrival of several books selected by Pro-
fessor WiLson and Dr. Cantor, amounting in cost to 637. 4s. 6d., as per list forwarded
by the booksellers, Messrs. ALLEN and Co.
Lindley’s Fossil Flora, 3 vols. 8vo. boards.
Agassiz’ Fossil Fishes, Parts | to 9 and 11, folio and 4to.
Russell’s Fishes of the Coromandel Coast, 2 vols. folio.
Russell’s continuation of the Coromandel Serpents, 2 vols. folio.
_ Cuvier and Valenciennes Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, vols. 8, 9, 10, 1], and 12.
Do. additional plates, to vol. 11, 8vo.
Crouch’s Introduction to Lamarck’s Conchology, coloured 4to. boards.
Gould’s Himalayan Birds, 1 vol. imperial folio.
Lardner’s Cabinet Cycloprdia—from the Booksellers.
528 Asiatic Society. [JuNneE,
Literary and Antiquities.
Read the following reply from Government to the request of the Society for a sub-
scription for a certain number of copies of the “Sharya-ul-Islam,” which the Society
has undertaken to print in conjunction with the Nawab Japawur JuNG.
To the Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
General Dept.
Sir,—I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated the 2d May
last, and in reply to inform you, that the Honorable the President in Council will take
25 copies of the Skarya-ul-Islam at 20Co’s Rs. per copy, for the use of the Seminaries
of education which give instruction in Arabic Law. On the receipt of the copies the
necessary orders will be issued to discharge your bill on presentation at the General
Treasury. I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Council Chamber, 24th July, 1839. H. T. PRINSEP,
Secy. to Govt. of India.
Read a letter from Captain P. Grrarp, forwarding two boxes of stone Idols disco-
vered by his late brother, Dr. J. G. Gzrarp, and Lieut. Col, Sir Alexander Burnes,
near Manikayala, on their route to India, 1833 and 1834.
‘I take this opportunity of acquainting you for the information of the Asiatic Society,
of having despatched by water two boxes to your address, to the care of my agents
Messrs. CockKERELL and Co., who shall be apprized of the same. One is a large
square box containing a Stone Idol in excellent preservation and beautifully executed,
and complete excepting the face of one of the female figures, which is wanting.
The face of the other female figure was accidentally broken off, but it has been carefully
packed up in paper, and with a little cement it can easily be united, and appear as
if nothing had occurred to it.
‘The other is a small square box containing fragments of Idols. The whole were dug
’ for at considerable expense in Afghanistan, at or somewhere near Manikayala by my
brother, the late Dr. J. G. Gzrarp, while he was on his return route to India, during
1833 and 1834, from Meshid in Persia, where he separated from his companion and fellow-
traveller, Lieutenant (now Lieutenant Colonel) Sir Alexander Burnes, Kt. May I
e
therefore request that you will do me the favour of presenting the contents of both ©
boxes on their arrival, to the Asiatic Society on my part, as having been the discove-
ries of my brother, the late Dr. J. G. Gerarp.
‘I regret to say that no particulars of their locality were found amongst my late
brother’s voluminous MS. papers, relating to his interesting journey, owing unfor-
tunately to the circumstance of two-thirds of the whole having unaccountably disap-
peared, or been lost, which is much to be regretted, as they contained valuable informa- —
tion respecting Heerat and Kandahar, and the countries between Meshid and Cabul,
especially about the resources of these parts, their trade, manufactures, and productions. —
What remained of his papers (with the exception of his meteorological observations |
during his absence from the end of 1831 and beginning of 1832, till March 1834, which
I shall take an early opportunity of transmitting to the Society for publication at this
interesting period, ) were forwarded to Europe in 1836.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 529
‘Last year I was promised the necessary information respecting the Idols from
Moonshi Mouun Lat, but not having received it, I was unwilling to delay their dis-
patch any longer. Should he favour me with any particulars on the subject, I shall
have great pleasure in communicating the same to the Society.
‘P. GERARD, Captain.’
The boxes and contents were safely received. The thanks of the Society were voted
to Capt. Gerarp for this acceptable donation.
A stone Pillar of exquisite beauty and genuine Hindu style, considered to belong to
the 13th century, was presented by Mr. W. S. ALLEN, by whom it was discovered
with several fragments of a ruined temple, &c., on one of the shallows near Pubna.
Lieut. Kirror has undertaken to prepare an account and drawing of this Pillar for the
next number of this Journal.
Translation of a play exemplifying the popular tone of the Burmese Drama was pre-
sented by Mr. BLUNDELL.
Physical.
Daily Observations of the Tide at Singapore for February, March, and April, 1839.
With reference to the resolution of the Meeting held on the 2nd January last, the
Secretary apprised the Meeting that he had received a letter from Messrs. TayLor and
WALTON, stating that they will supply such impressions of their Anatomical Wood-cuts
as the Society may require.
Upper Gower Street, May 7th, 1839.
Sir,—Your letter of the 10th of February to Dr. Quarn on the subject of the
llustrations in his Elements of Anatomy has been handed to us. In reply, we beg
to inform you that we shall be happy to forward the views of the Society by sup-
plying whatever number of impressions from our engravings the Society may require.
As much of the work in the Wood-cuts is very delicate, we should run a great risk of
seriously injuring the blocks, by attempting to take casts from them. On this
account we are prevented furnishing the metal casts, but the former plan we shall be
happy to carry out in any way the Society may desire. We think your work would
be much improved by the engravings being worked in this country, as the appearance
of a wood-cut depends quite as much upon the printing as upon the engraving, and of
course wood-cut printing has as yet been but little attended to in India. If you
determine upon having the impressions, perhaps you will have the kindness to send
us the following particulars :—
Ist. The size of the volume for which the Plates are required.
2nd. The Number of Copies required.
3rd. The arrangement you would wish of the subject; how many on each plate; and
in what order ?
4th. Whether you would require the same number of the steel plates of the Brain, &c.
We remain, Sir,
Your obedient servants,
TAYLOR ann WALTON.
530 Asiatic Society. [ JuNE,
P.S. Presuming your work to be in demy 8vo. we would supply you with Impres-
sions from our cuts upon the following terms :—
For 500 Sets, supposing each set occupied 5 sheets demy 8vo. printed on one side
only (in all 40 pages of cuts,) 372. 10s. which sum would include the use of the
Blocks, Presswork, and Paper. LS. a:
For 1,000 ditto ditto ditto, .... Sher siete ace eee) OFA @
The four steel plates of the Brain would cost you, including Paper,
Presswork, & use of Plates for 500 impressions 4 platesdemy 8vo. 8 8 0
1,000 ditto ditto ditto, BPA ch KONE? eoee woes ---. 1616 0
To W. B. O’SHauGcuHNgEssy, Esa.
Resolved—That Messrs. TayLor and Watton be requested to send 1000 copies
of each set of plates.
[It will be remembered that these plates have been requested for the illustration of
the “ Shanra Vidya,”’ or Sanscrit translation of “‘ Hooper’s Anatomist’s Vade Mecum.”’
The thanks of the Society were directed to be proffered to Professor Quatn for his
liberal aid in acceding to their request. |
Read a letter from Dr. J. T. Pearson, forwarding an account of the Bora chung.
Read a letter from Dr. G. G. Spiyspury, forwarding a specimen of a vein of Coal
found close to the surface, about nine miles from Jubbulpore.
To the Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
Sir,—Herewith I beg to transmit specimen of a vein of Coal found close to the
surface, about nine miles from this station.
It was first brought to notice by Mr. C. Frasrr, the Agent of the Governor-
General for these territories, who received his information from a Faquir, by whom he
was informed that at a place afew hundred yards above Lametur Ghat, on the Ner-
budda river, when the stream was at its lowest, (Charcoal stone, as he phrased it) was
to be found, and that on applying fire it ignited.
Mr. Fraser and self visited the spot, situated near the middle of the river, and
_ some 30 or 40 square yards, apparently the vein has also been traced on both sides
of the river. Several of the residents have had hackery loads brought in, and find
it answer well for domestic and culinary purposes. The blacksmiths are very un-
willing to use it, and declare there is not sufficient heat from it to smelt iron.
I have no doubt that were a proper shaft sunk, Coal of good quality would be found,
and equal to that discovered by Major Ouseley near Garrahwarrah, and on which
such a good report was lately made in comparative trials at Bombay.
I have the honor to request you will present the specimen to the Society, and shall
be glad to learn the result of its analysis. I remain, &c.,
GEORGE G. SPILSBURY.
Jubulpoor, 29th June, 1839.
The analysis of this Coal has been duly made, and the results will be published, with
several similar analyses in an early number of the Journal.
Read a letter from Dr. H. H. Spry, forwarding on behalf of Captain F. JENKINS,
Political Agent of Assam, for presentation to the Society, specimens of rocks and
minerals of the county of Cornwall, as well as other parts of England.
1839.] Asiatic Society. 531
GENTLEMEN, Calcutta, August 6th, 1839. -
I do myself the pleasure of forwarding for presentation, at the approach-
ing Meeting of the Asiatic Society, the accompanying specimens of the geology of the
county of Cornwall, as well as other parts of England, on behalf of Captain JENKINS,
the Political Agent of Assam; and for him [I have to solicit, in return, any duplicate
geological specimens the Society may possess for presentation to the Royal Institution
of Cornwall. In this request I beg to join with Captain JENKINS, as we both feel as-
sured that the rich stores which the Commish Museum contains will be readily made
available to the improvement of the Asiatic one, and an interchange thus be effected
which will prove of mutual benefit.
I beg further to add, that should the Society be pleased to accede to this proposal,
that I shall be happy to be the medium of communication between the two institutions,
so far as assisting in facilitating the transmission of the specimens.
HENRY H. SPRY.
The Joint Secretaries of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
The thanks of the Society were voted to Captain JENKINS, and the Curator was re-
quested to form a suitable series of the Museum duplicates for presentation to that
officer. With reference to this and some similar egmmunicntions. the President ob-
served that he was very desirous of recording his opinion that the correspondence of the
Society, should on all occasions pass through the Secretaries, the regular and usual
channels. Direct correspondence emanating from other officers of the Society he con-
sidered informal. He thought, for example, that all correspondence relative to the
Museum should pass through the Secretaries, and he proposed a resolution to that effect,
which was seconded by Mr. H. T. Prinszp, and carried unanimously. |
Dr. M‘CLELLAND presented some specimens of Mineral Ore with the following
note :—
_ Sir,—I did myself the pleasure, some time last month, of forwarding to your ad-
dress, a small package containing two or three specimens of Jasper and Asbestos, and
one of Iron ore, entrusted to my care, when at Ferozepore, by Mr. C. Masson, who
told me that he had almost forgotten they were amongst his baggage, not having
paid much attention to what was packed up by his servants when leaving Kabul.
I had mislaid his ticket for the specimen of the ore, which I now enclose, lest I should
have made any mistake in my own label, as to the place from whence the ore was
obtained.
I beg to add that the ore is nearly similar, but not quite so pure or rich looking, as
that obtained from the mines in the southern portion of the Busahir state.
GEORGE JEPSHON.
Meerut, July 27th, 1839.
Mr. H. T. Prinsep recalled the attention of the Society to the proceedings
of the Meeting of the Society held on the 6th September, 1837. Mr. James
Prinsep had appropriated the sum of 1500 francs (equivalent to Co’s, Rs. 625) re-
mitted by the Minister of Public Instruction in France, in procuring from Benares
532 Asiatic Society. — [June,
copies of the Vedas which were sent to France, as prepared, through Capt. A. Troyer,
agent of the Society in Paris. Since Mr. James PrinseEp’s departure for England
several further Pothis have been sent down, and are now ready for transmission.
The sum advanced has been exceeded by the charges for copying, and the balance
has been paid from Mr. James PrinseEp’s private funds, not from those of the So-
ciety. The copies in sheets were ready to be sent to Europe, and the account pre-
pared from Mr. James PRINSEpP’s private books of sums remitted by him to Juppoo-
NATH PunpIT at Benares, shews an amount of Rs. 233: 7: 9, as the balance due
by the Government of France; part of this amount however, viz. Rs. 196: 3:6, was
advanced at Benares from funds realised there by sale of the Society’s Oriental publica-
tions, as shewn in the account of Messrs. TutTLE and Cuak.es, Mr. JAMES PRINSEP’S
Agents. It remains for the Society now to declare whether the copying for the
French Government shall be considered as a private transaction between Mr. JAMES
PRrINSEP and the French Government, or as executed by him as Secretary to the Society.
In the formercase, the balance 196: 3: 6, will be paid into the Society’s Treasurer’s hand,
and the copies of the Vedas now ready, will be sent on Mr. JAMES PRINSEP’S pri-
vate account, with a claim for the balance from that Government; but if the Meeting
consider the transaction as their own, then the Society will have to pay the difference
between Rs. 196: 3:6and 233: 7 :9, viz., 37: 4:3, to Mr. JamMEs PRINSEP’S agents, and
to forward copies of Vedas officially through their Secretary to the Agent in Paris.
Resolved unanimously—That the transaction is one which appertains to the Society;
that the copies of the Vedas be taken over, and the account closed.
The Honble. Mr. Birp exhibited to the Meeting a sketch of the Camel carriage
in which Mr, Birp, of Allahabad, had recently made an official tour of 2000 miles
in Upper India.
This sketch, with some papers on the subject, will appear in our next number.
Read extracts from a letter from Baron HuGeEL to the address of Mr. JAMES
PRINSEP.
‘ Kritzing, near Vienna, Dec. 25, 1838.
‘I have received a few days ago, the four numbers of your Journal, Nos, 72 to
75, and I cannot find words to express the interest I took in following from the
beginning to the end, your extraordinary discoveries. It is really worthy of your
spirit, of your genius, to come to a fact of such immense consequences for history, but
I think it proves ‘more than any thing else, of no direct intercourse between what is —
called the Peninsula of India and Egypt—I mean of no trading vessels from Berenice
to any port of the Malabar coast. I don’t believe in long voyages without sails in
those days, and the knowledge the Greeks and Egyptians possessed of India is much
better explained in the tablets of Girnar, than by the idea of savants travelling for
information without the vanity of telling it in their works. But when really Mission-
>
1839. | Asiatic Society. 533
aries went to Egypt and Greece it is astonishing that nothing of this truly interest-
ing fact should have been mentioned in any work of a Greek author. But this may be
as it is, I am sure that you are only at the beginning of your work, and that we may
look for real Indian history, from the time of Alexander the Great, at least, to the inva-
sion of the Mohamedans.
‘It is a considerable time [ did not write to you, my dear Sir, but I was afraid to take
away from your valuable time, which you employed even beyond my expectations :
but if I did hesitate any longer to send you a few lines, I am afraid I could be entirely
escape your memory. I take the liberty at the same time to send you for the Society
(if you think it worthy) ‘‘the Fishes of Kashmuir,’’ found by myself in the valley, and
brought home with me. I am sorry that it is im German, but as it is my native tongue,
I think it my duty to publish in it. There is another work now printing, which I hope
will prove a good one: it is ‘‘ Kashmir and the Sihks’’ in four volumes.
‘I beg your being good enough to send for the subscription money for the Journal to
Gillanders and Arbuthnot : it happened once (just one year ago) that I was obliged
to pay 9/. 17s, for four numbers of your Journal, postage from Calcutta to London :
it was sent me from thence to Vienna by an Austrian Courier : I made all kind of re-
monstrances, but without success. ‘* Pamphlets only’’ not having been written on the
address, the Post Master General would not hear of a reclamation. ’
‘CH. AUGHics?
{Some desultory conversation took place before the Meeting separated, as to the
interruption of the Meteorological Register so long published in the Society’s Journal.
It has been kept chiefly by Mr. GREENWAY, an assistant in the Calcutta Assay Office,
who was trained by Mr. Prinsep to the use of his unrivalled instruments, and to the
correction of their indications by special tables now in Mr. GREENWay’s possession,
Mr. Prinsep had, moreover, as a parting request, urged Mr. GREENWAY not to dis-
continue observations which had acquired standard value in the estimation of all
Meteorologists. Mr. Curwin, the acting Assay-Master, has however deemed it neces-
sary to prohibit Mr. GreENway’s devoting any portion of his time to this employ-
ment, and Mr. Curnin is further unwilling to allow Mr. Prinsep’s instruments to
be removed from the Mint to any other establishment. Under these circumstances,
Mr. Regs, of the Surveyor-General’s Office, has most liberally permitted his Regis-
ters to be made use of by the Society. We have already published that for July.
The Barometrical observations are made with a first rate Troughton.
We have taken measures for having the instrument accurately compared with
others which have been adjusted by the Royal Society’s standard, and the reductions
to 32° will be duly calculated for quarterly periods. We propose too to add to the
Register a daily double observation of the boiling point of water, taken with an excel-
lent Thermometer, recently sent out to Mr. James Prinsep’s order. This seems to
us a desideratum of much importance.
32
534 Asiatic Society. [Junsg, 1889.
It is but justice, nevertheless, to Mr. Curntn to add, that that gentleman considers
the continuance of the observations to interfere with the duties of the Assay Office, and
that he has offered to permit any competent person to attend at the Mint for the pur-
pose. This arrangement, however, would be attended with so much expense and in-
convenience, that it becomes absolutely impracticable.—Ebs. ]
JOURNAL
OF
THE ASTFATIC SOCIETY.
OS
No. 91.—JULY, 1839.
Arr. I.—Specimen of the Burmese Drama, transiated by J. Smuru,
Esq, communicated by C. A. BLUNDELL, Esq. Commissioner, &c.,
Moulmetin.
My Dear S1r,—I have the pleasure to send you a translation of a
play, which notwithstanding its trifling vein, may attract the notice
of the curious, as exemplifying the popular tone of the Burman
drama. The Ramadzat, (Ramahyana) and other ancient fabulous
histories, form the groundwork of nearly all the favourite plays, the
outline of the story being merely preserved, while the language of the
play depends as much upon the fancy of the performer as the taste
of the audience. Each company is presided over by a teacher or
Manager, who drills the actors in their tasks from rough notes which
contain only the songs and the substance of the parts assigned to each
performer. In every play, without perhaps a single exception, the
following characters are represented—a King, a Queen, a Princess, a
Minister of State, 2 Huntsman, and some kind of Monster. The
female characters are usually personated by men, it being considered
indecorous in'a woman to appear as an actress. I have to plead as an
apology for the unpolished style of this translation, the acknowledged
difficulty of turning the dialogue of a play into a foreign dress ; more-
over the original, which was written from the mouth of an actor, was
imperfect and ill-written. I believe there are books in the palace
at Umerapooree, containing the proper reading of all the approved
plays and the costumes of the characters, which are placed near the
. 4a
536 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. [June
members of the royal family whenever they call their companies
before them, but I have not been able to discover any work of this
description here. Yours sincerely,
J. SMITH.
To C. A. BLUNDELL, Esq.
The Argument. —
The nine princesses of the city of the silver mountain, which is
separated from the abode of mortals by a triple barrier (the first being |
a belt of prickly cane, the second a stream of liquid copper, and the -
third a Beloo, or devil) gird on their enchanted zones, which give —
them the power of traversing the air with the speed of a bird, and—
visit a pleasant forest within the limits of the south island (earth.) —
While bathing in the lake, they are surprised by a huntsman, who »
snares the youngest with his magic noose, and carries her to the
young prince of Pyentsa, who is so much struck by her surprising.
beauty, that he makes her his chief queen, though he has but lately |
been united to the daughter of the head astrologer of the palace.
Being obliged soon after to take the field against some rebels, the
astrologer seizes advantage of the prince’s absence to misinterpret
a dream, which the king calls upon him to explain ; and declares |
that the evil spirit, whose influence is exerting itself against the
king’s power, is only to be appeased by the sacrifice of the beautiful |
Mananhurree, who has supplanted his daughter in the young prince's
affections. The prince’s mother hearing of the offering about to be
made, visits the lovely Mananhurree and restores to her the enchanted
zone which had been picked up on the shore-edge of the lake by the |
huntsman, and presented by him to the old queen. The princess imme-
diately returns to the silver mountain; but on her way thither, she
stops at the hermitage of a recluse, who lives on the borders of the
delightful forest before mentioned, and gives to the old man a ring
and some drugs, which confer the power upon the possessor of them
of entering the barrier and passing unharmed through its dangers.
The young prince having put an end to the war, returns to the city
of Pyentsa, and finding his favourite queen gone, he instantly sets forth
in quest of her. Having come to the forest, the appearance of which
astonishes and delights him, he dismisses his followers and visits the
hermit, who delivers to him the ring and the drugs; he then enters
the frightful barrier, and after meeting with many adventures, arrives
at the city of the silver mountain, and makes known his presence to
his beautiful bride by dropping the ring into a vessel of water, which
one of the palace damsels is conveying into the bath of the princess.
1839. ] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 537
PERSONS.
The King of Pyenisa.
The King of the city of the silver mountain.
Thoodanoo, the Prince of ACE
A skilful Huntsman.
An Astrologer.
A Hermit.
The Queen of Pyentsa.
Mananhurree, the daughter of the King of the silver. mountain,
and nife to Thoodanoo.
Noblemen, Generals, Guards, Ladies of the Palace, &c., &e.
PYENTSA.
ACT.
ScENE Ist.—Fousr Noblemen sitting in the Palace of Audience.
Ist Noble. My lords, let us not be false or neglectful to our
royal master, to whom we have so many times sworn allegiance; we
bear the weight of government on our shoulders, and constitute the
strength of the country,—How shall we conduct affairs, so as to extend
his authority, and benefit the state?
2nd Noble. True, my lords; let me explain to you whence our
noble monarch sprung. In the distant beginning, after the earth had
been destroyed successively by fire, by wind, and by water, the lily
which sprung from its bosom blossomed, and produced fine embryo
deities, on which account the celestial beings bestowed upon this
system the title of Battakat. The various incidents that have occur-
‘red from first to last, among the four divisions of the human race, are
voluminously recited in the 49000 volumes of the History of Kings,
but I will merely give youa sketch. The nine beings who descend-
ed from the visible heavens, having eaten of the fragrant earth, peo-
pled it after the manner of mortals ;—in process of time, the inhabi-
tants began to use deceit towards each other, to pillage, to steal, and to
“Strive amongst themselves continually ; and in order to put an end to
‘these calamities by instruction and discipline, the embryo deity
~Mahathamata came, and was hailed by the voice of the whole people.
This was the first.
_ 8rd Noble. When the millions of worlds had sunk under the in-
fluence of fire, air, and water—when the four grand divisions of the
‘creation had been rent asunder—when the system had been again
‘restored, and set in motion—the emerald-leaved lily sprung up, and
gave forth from each of its fine blossoms the eight articles of clerical
538 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. [Juny,
use ; then the beings of the celestial regions understanding the sign
regarding the five embryo deities, called this world on which we live
Batta (kat).—Is it not so, my lords?
4th Noble. My friends; in the palace of audience, the thirty-
three images of superior beings and the images of lions are keep-
ing watch over the throne—the gold, the silver, the emeralds, the
flowers, the sapphires, the topazes, and the rubies, are glittering
among the other emblems of royalty—the umbrella of state is being
spread—the noblemen are in attendance in their robes and helmets—
the sovereign of the golden palace is arraying himself in his royal
habiliments—the procession will soon be formed to the music of the
silver gong, the golden bell, and the celestial harp and lute, and issue
forth headed by the four grand divisions of the royal army, marching 4
to the sound of the martial drums ;—Let us therefore listen in silence
for the warning of the five silver gongs. |
|The royal procession enters.
King. From the period when the system was destroyed by fire,
air, and water, and again renewed, the dynasty which has produced
five valorous monarchs has descended unbroken to me, the sovereign
of the south island: Are the people happy in the remotest hamlet of ©
my possessions ?
Noble. Oh, wearer of the jewelled crown, who unfurleth the
royal umbrella, and sitteth on the throne, guarded by rows of lions!
the hundred subject kings are in attendance with their daughters.
King. Represent to the sun of the world, truly and quickly, what
you have to say.
Noble. Oh, king of the universe, whose merit is matured
whose glory is increasing ; whose august coronation has been celebra-
‘
7
if
ted ; whose merchants and rich men go hither and thither under ‘
the royal protection ; whose markets, rivers, rivulets, and lesser —
streams are crowded with people, canoes, and boats passing to and —
:
fro ; whose royal staff being set up is surrounded by thousands of —
people going and coming; whose officers of customs, guards, and ferry-
men keep watch at the fabiline places—the Governor of the sea-ward
provinces sends a dispatch to the golden city, the contents of which —
shall be truly conveyed into the royal ear.
ACT.
ScenE Ist.—City of the silver mountain. The nine princesses im the”
palace with their attendants.
Princesses. Shory Tsa! Shory Phee !—ye wise waiting women, —
who live. under the shadow of the single pillared abode of repel
come with us to the country of Pyentsa.
1839. | Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 539
Scene 2nd.— The grove on the borders of the country of Pyentsa.
SONG.
Oh, bright are the flowers that carpet this vale,
And yield their sweet breath to the murmuring gale ;
Bright flowers !—fragrant zephyrs !—how sweet, ’tis to rove,
In this Eden of pleasure—this garden of love.
The Princesses having taken off their enchanted zones, bathe them-
selves tn the lake.
. [Enter Huntsman.
Hunts. Now, skilful ranger, enter thou the dense forest, and try
to discover where the beasts of the chase are most numerous. Let me
go quickly, but cautiously.—Ah! what abundance of hares, elks,
elephants, leopards, tigers, wild cows, bisons, and bears ; there are
harpies too, and unicorns, swans, hwowngs, peacocks, and monkeys
frisking about from place to place. Well; this is indeed a wonderful
place.—[_ He discovers the Princesses bathing.| Ah! what creatures
are these? Mortals, or celestials?—I must instantly entrap one of
them with my magic noose, and ascertain what they really are.—[He
casts the noose, and snares Mananhurree, the youngest. |
Manan. Oh, my royal sisters ! save me, save me.
Hunts. Tell me, maiden, art thou a mortal, or a being of a supe-
rior order? Speak quickly, I pray you, and relieve me from my doubts.
Manan. Iam the daughter of the king whose palace is in the
city of the silver mountain, and came hither with my companions to
play. Release me, for I am afraid.
Hunts. If so, I shall have my fortune made, for I will carry you
this moment to the court of Pyentsa, sweet maiden, and present you
to the young prince.
| [ Music.
Scene 3rd.—Pyenisa. The palace.
_ Enter Huntsman leading in the young Mananhurree to the Prince.
_ Hunts. Oh, prince, the lord of life and wealth ; having but just
now snared a palace-fostered maiden of a delicate and gentle form,
I have brought her without delay to the golden. foot.
_ Prince. [To Manan.] Be not concerned, sweet palace-born child,
~ I could exist with you for ever. Wait ; I will hasten to my royal sire
and petition him to let me make you my chief queen.
Manan. Do with me, my lord, as you say.
540 | Specimen of the Burmese Drama. LJuny,
ACT.
Scene Ist.— The Hall of the Palace. King, nobles.
King. Nobles of the palace!
Joble. Lord!
King. Why fails the prince Thoodanoo to come into the presence?
Noble. Oh, ruler of a hundred subject kings,—whose light is like
the sun of the universe; he has but even now wedded the daughter
of the philosopher Naythoda. The governor of Setang, and the
chiefs of Siam and Cochin-China, who have heretofore annually
brought tribute, and presents of ingots of gold and silver, white and
red cloths, velvets, bales of cloths, gold and silver lace, and gold and
silver flowers, have now failed in their duty. Nor is this the limit of
their folly ; they are making encroachments upon the frontier, and in
the pride of their hearts are destroying the villages, and oppressing
the people. The confusion which they have created is so great that the
inhabitants are afraid to remain on the frontier ; an ambassador has
only now reached from the Tsaubwas.
King. If this is true, call the lord of the east house (eldest son),
and let him appear forthwith !
[ Music.
ScenE 2nd.—
Noble. Oh my lord, &e. &c. &c. &e.
Prince. Say, what thou hast to say.
Noble. The royal sire has sent to command your presence.
Prince. If Iam called, I will but take a glance into the mirrors
and adjust my turban, and come with you at once into the audience
chamber.
ScenE 3rd.—The Hall of Audience. Prince, nobles.
Prince. My lords, tell me, who am the royal son, whose glory is
like the sun of day, who enlightens the four islands ; whose renown
is universally spread ; whether the imperial father—the embryo deity
whose white umbrella is unfurled—has yet entered the palace of
audience ;—tell me, too, if the royal mother, who reclineth upon the
throne of lilies, has yet displayed her golden countenance, and is well?
1839.] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 541
SONG.
Wrought o’er with gems, and regal gold,
And glitt’ring flow’rs in ev’ry fold,
There stately canopies reveal,
To kings, who hither come to kneel,
The boundless riches of our land,
Whose rocks are rubies,—gold its sand.
In all the southern world beside,
There is not such a land of bliss ;
Where’er the ocean rolls its tide,
It comes not to a shore like this ;
Delicious odours fill the air,
And mirth and love reign everyawhere.
[ The King enters.
Prince. Oh, mighty father, this lion-hearted son, when he re-
ceived the imperial order, placed it upon his head, and hastened to
obey it.
King. My second self, my son Thoodanoo !
Prince. My lord.
King. The people of the whole country, the rebellious wretches,
are up like flames of fire—go, and exterminate them.
Prince. (1 have heard that) Setang, Siam, and Cochin-China,
not fearing the golden sword, are in open rebellion.. It is nothing.
They seek a quarrel, and the golden son will root up the whole race,
without making use of the weapons of war ;—he will but publish
forth the king’s glorious title, and they are gone.
King. Good, my son; go forth and repay to me the favours I
have bestowed upon you. Let Cochin-China be your first point of
assault, and return not till you come as a conqueror.
Prince. I will reverently obey the royal command, and make the
golden cause conspicuous.
Scene 4th.— The Prince’s palace.
Prince to Mananhurree. Delicate creature; silver palace-born
beauty ; whose charms are so surpassingly wonderful; I must go
with the army which marches with to-morrow’s dawn.
Manan. Oh, my lord, why will you thus desert me? You are
my only protector here, at once my father, and my husband. If
indeed you have resolved to abandon me, I must bear the fate that
awaits me,
542 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. — [Juny,
Prince. It must not be so, pride of my soul. I must not neglect
the duty which a child owes its parent: moreover, consider, I beseech
you, that I am nearest the throne, and must yield to the custom of my
country, and lead the army against the rebels.
Manan. Alas! If you possess so little affection for me, as to leave
me here alone, I must submit to my evil destiny.
Prince. (To his Noble.] Hear younot my lord? She does not say,
stay ; nor does she desire me to go!—she weeps!—her tears and
smiles are so fascinating, that I shall be vanquished ; her tears are
like sparkling drops of dew upon the leaf of the lily ; whenever I
look upon them, I have not resolution enough to go.
Noble. Let me explain to your highness. The princess is here
without friends; if you desert her, she will be as much alone as the
kynneya without its mate; she will be confounded with her lot, and will
be no more than a waxen image. There is indeed no necessity for your
departure, and leaving her here in tears. :
Prince. Alas! If I avoid this campaign, I shall have my name
held up to the scorn and contempt of posterity. The king, my father,
will be enraged against me if I donot accompany the army. Oh, I must
indeed depart. Then this friendless one! when left alone, will break
her heart, and I shall be left destitute. Iam in a painful dilemma,
(like a bamboo between two boards)! I may as well swallow poison, or
throw myself into a furnace. If I petition the king to allow me to
remain at home, he will order me to do so; but after what I have al-
ready promised it will be improper to ask !—then she will not die !—
she will only waste away. I well join the army ;—caparison my ele-
phant Mengala, and bring him to the palace, and the lord of the gol-
den universe will depart. |
Scene 5th.—The Prince's Palace. Princess, attendants.
Manan. Mala, Maensa! my faithful maidens come hither; for the
time of my pregnancy is completed.
Maensa. (To the Treasurer.] Here is our royal mistress at the
time.
% % * * * * * * ed * *
[ The child is born.
Treas. I must hasten to the camp, and communicate the tidings
to the royal ear. |
ACT.
Camp. |
Treas. Oh, my lord! the empress sovereign of the state !
Prince. Speak, my lord.
1839. ] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 543
Trea. I am come to communicate to the golden ear, that the
Princess Manan has been delivered of a son.
Prince. Then I will forthwith return, and look upon my little
son.
ACT.
Scene Ist.—TZhe Prince’s palace.
Prince. Gem of my heart, tell me! tell me, if you are well !
Manan. Iam well, my lord.
Prince. {To his lord in waiting.| Make known to all the army,
that the little prince has received the name of Moung Shory Gyew,
[To the princess.| Pure leaf of silver, captivating creature, picture of
softness and beauty, mother of our babe—stay but for a brief space
with your companions, my concubines, in the palace, and I will again
be with you in three months.
Manan. Pray do not be concerned about me, my lord, I will
stay here; commence your journey, and be true to me.
Prince. You say well, my rose tree, but it is not my own wish
to depart ; I must obediently perform my sire’s command ; of course
I must not avoid my duty.
Scene 2nd.—The Prince’s palace. Princess, attendants.
Manan. Oh, my maids; the little prince is now seven days old,
let us place him in the emerald cradle and rock him (to sleep.)
SONG.
Gently let us rock the swing,
And hush to sleep the baby king:
Palace maidens—softly sing,
(Chorus) And lull to sleep the baby king.
2
Coolly let the palace rose
In his jewell’d couch repose :—
Persuasive voices, hither bring,
(Chorus) And lull to sleep the baby king.
Scene 3rd.— Palace of Audience.
King. Oh, wise ministers, who continually wait in my presence
like the seven mountains which surround the lake Nandat !—I have
dreamt that the country of Pyentsa was surrounded by my intestines,
and that the sun and moon descended from the firmament and fell
‘intomy lap. Explain quickly what this means.
Noble. Oh, king of the golden palace, whose glory is great, the
Brahmin Naythoda, whose place is near the throne, will be able to un-
derstand the dream.
AB
544° Specimen of the Burmese Drama. [Juxy,
King. Call hither the Brahmin Naythoda. | Naythoda and his dis-
ciple enter] Oh, learned teacher, I have dreamed that my bowels
surrounded the country of Pyentsa, and that the sun and the moon
fell at my feet. Show me the interpretation of this thing.
Naythoda. It is well, Oh benefactor !—let me but consult my
astrological tables ; Le consults his scheme, one from one—nothing ;
nine from one—nothing; two and five.—I have made the calculation—
[the Pawn tumbles in the water, | Oh! are there nine,orone? [To his
scholar, | The benefactor dreams propitiously, but I will divine unfa-
vourably. [To the King,| The benefactor, the lord of life and pro-
perty, must sacrifice to the Yeet spirit one hundred fowls, and one
hundred hogs, and it will be appeased.
King. Is this all, Oh teacher ?
Nay. Lord of the earth, I am afraid to—
King. Say on, learned teacher, without regard to any one; only let
myself and the chief queen be exempt.
Nay. Oh! benefactor, cut the throat of that celestial spirit who is
like the Aynneya, and offer up her blood before the Yeet Nat. [To his
disciple, | Close the doors of the prince’s palace on all sides, for so is
the king’s command.
Scene 4th.— The Prince’s palace. Princess, attendants.
Manan. Oh, my faithful women, Mala! Maensa! go and take
your rest. My doors are closed, and my blood is to be poured out be-
fore the Yeet spirit must it indeed be so? Oh, my absent lord,
our son Moung Shory Gyew is yet an infant.
SONG.
[ Enter the Prince’s Mother.
Queen. Oh, daughter of the pleasing countenance ! here is your en-
chanted zone ;—take it, and escape to the city of the silver mountain.
Manan. Thanks, royal madam; thrice I salute you reverently.
SONG.
ACT.
Scene Ist.—At the hermitage of a recluse who lives on the bound-
ary which divides the earth from the country of the silver mountain.
Princess. Recluse.
Manan. Holy hermit, should the Prince of Pyentsa come hither,
deliver, I pray you, this ring and these drugs into his hand.
— ae af
. —~. ————————— Ss eee
¢
1839.) | Specimen of the Burmese Drama. | 545
ACT.
Scene Ist.—The Prince's camp.
Prince. By the strength of this arm have I made my father’s glory
great. Cause my elephant Yauoung to be caparisoned, for the princess
Dwaynow’s lord will return to the city of Pyentsa.
Noble. My lord !
Prince. Let the golden spearsmen, swordsmen, and the golden
shield-bearers and armour-bearers be set in order, and the four
grand divisions of the imperial army.
_ Noble. They are so, my lord.
Prince. Good general, the princess Manan, who keeps her court
in the north palace, will bend her head in watching for my return like
the golden lily shaken by the wind—she will droop with fatigue, let
us therefore make long marches.
Scene 2nd.—Camp near Pyentsa. The army returning.
Prince. Oh, my lord, I cannot sleep;—when the army reaches
the garden near the city, let the artillery discharge a salute.
Scene 38rd.— The Prince’s palace. Matrons, waiting women.
Ist. Lady. Our royal mistress upon hearing of the plot against
her life, fled to the city of the silver mountain—we shall all without
exception undergo the royal punishment.—Hear you not the voice of
the great guns? Let us go forth and meet the returning army.
Camp.
Prince. Oh, sweet ladies Mala, Maensa! the princess Manan, where
isshe? The charming mother of our infant son—where is she gone ?
Matron. I will explain, my lord, about the princess, to whom I
gave the same care, as to this hair I daily dress—she who was the
celestial spirit of the palace, oh king of the city of the sun.
The royal father having had a dream sent for the astrologer, who
cherishing resentment and malice towards your highness, purposed to
offer up the mother of Shory Gyew as a sacrifice to the Yeet Nat,
upon hearing of which she forsook the palace and returned to her
Own couniry.
Prince. Ah! The love that is felt for the father should be ex-
tended to the child. I was absent; would that I had been present !
My little son Moung Shory Gyew has not even quitted his mother’s
breast !—I have had no regard paid to me in my absence—Manan and
myself are one. I am the head of this royal line, my son Shory Gyew
546 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. [Juny,
ig the king’s grandson, and my queen was his daughter-in-law.
Let me brood over all this! I swear, by the sacred books, that
I will remain here no longer. Oh, attendants! every one of ye! let
none be absent !——————the lord of. the mundane circle will jour-
ney towards the silver mountain,—let the huntsman be called into
the presence.
Noble. Thy servant, the huntsman, has been called, and is now
here. a
Prince. Oh! quickly show the golden prince, who rules this
universe, the land they call the silver mount, whence came the mother
of my son; and quickly show the rural lake, in which thou did’st
thy captive take.
Hunts. The country of the silver mount! I know not where it is,
my lord.
Prince. Then quickly bring me to the delicious pool in which
thou foundest the mother of Shory Gyew—the prince has never yet
been there. Oh huntsman rise, without delay, and bring the prince
upon the way.
Hunts. My lord, I will begone.
ACT.
They enter the Haywonta Forest.
SONG.
These plashing colours surely come,
Reflected from the upper sky,
Where Tawadyn’s celestial dome,
Is hidden from the mortal eye.
Prince. Look, my lords, at the delightful bath of the mother of
Moung Gyew! how beautiful the flower trees that grow upon its —
banks, and what a delicious perfume they diffuse through the forest ;
the woods are dense with leaves, which form a dusky shade in which
are sporting butterflies, beetles, and bees. Water-quail, kingfishers,
and pheasants nestle beneath the shadow of those golden lilies. How
pleasant and exhilarating, my good huntsman.
Hunts. True, my lord, indeed most pleasant ; I dare not venture
to number all the beautiful flowers that grow in the lake.
Prince. I see by your countenance, that if I demand their names
you will be wearied in telling them.—You may now make your way
back to the city.
1839. ] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 547
Prince. [Alone] Oh, my dear lost wife! take me with you, for I
am in grief, or in a little time I shall be like one that is dead. I
must subdue my longing! Oh, divine beauty, dear to meas this life !
Twice has her voice reached my ear, crying, husband, husband !—Oh
let my fate like Ramias be, who lost and found his lovely bride ; let
Manan be restored to me!
SONG.
This spot must surely be like the region through which flow the
seven celestial rivers;—dragons, galongs, and spirits must here
abound, as well as devotees and hermits. Spices of all descriptions
grow here—the trees are wedged together—and the crowds of aerial
spirits who frequent the thickets, pass each other with the uniformity
of machinery, without confusion, like the traditions which have been
handed down to us, from remote times, upon tables of stone.
[ Arrives at the hermitage.
Prince. Oh, meek recluse, who findeth pleasure in practising the
duties of religion—master of this holy dwelling—pray tell me if you
are happy and in health.
Hermit. Whence does my lord come, who fearlessly enters this
enclosure armed with a flying spear ?
Prince. I will tell you, holy man. The golden ear listened to
the misrepresentations of a foolish astrologer concerning the queen of
the royal heir, the mother of Moung Gyew, who is a lesser spirit ; and
as she was near losing her life, she abandoned her little son, and
quitted the city of Pyentsa, which is the cause of my coming here
armed with bow, spear, and sword.
Hermit. Hist, Hist! Do not follow her; do you think the road
is easily traversed? the way is most frightful. Oh what a savage
road it is, rocks, hills, and precipices ; the air is stagnant; thorns and
briers lie scattered in the path, and vast creepers entwine themselves
(among the trees) ; and beasts of prey abound every where. Oh! do
not go, my lord, for this is not all ; what numbers of enemies you will
meet with !—beyond the (dense jungle) about twelve miles, there are
speckled monsters which lie (in wait) across the road to devour you ;
oh, do not go. Besides these there are other obstacles, there is a
stream of copper, which burns to atoms; beyond this about twelve
miles there is a frightful devil which will instantly devour you, for
there will be no one to help you; if my habitation were near, the
548 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. _ [Juxy,
monster would respect my presence—Oh, my lord, each step of the
road is a great grandfather to the last passed over ; do not go.
Prince. If I do not meet with Maydow of the silver mourtain,
though nine or ten worlds may have passed by, yet I shall not think
of returning.
=
Hermit. My lord, as sure as that the castanets direct the measure
of the song, so surely is your highness leaping into the mouth of the
tiger.
Prince. If I do not meet with Maydow of the silver mountain,
I would not think of returning, though hell itself were before me.
Hermit. There are other Dwaynanhas in the south island besides
the one of the silver mountain, cannot you search for one here? Give
me the magic bow which your highness carries, that good may come
of the gift, and then depart on your journey back.
Prince. If your holiness requires the bow, take it.
Hermit. Astonishing! surprising! wonderful! To look at it,
it is but an insignificant thing; but how heavy it is, and what
strength it has !~-I detained him because I thought he was one of
the common order, but I now find he possesses many powers; so
many indeed, that he may travel in safety wheresoever he chooses,
either on the air or under the earth. Let me see if I can find the ring
and the drugs which the benefactress Manan entrusted to me—I will
go and look for them ! Ah! here they are—I bestow them upon
your highness.
Prince. If your reverence’s hair was more than three cubits in
length, my obeisance would be still longer.
SONG.
[The Prince arrives at the haunt of the devil.
Prince. I will just sit down here, and take some betel leaf to
refresh me.
Devil. My tribe have reigned in this Haywonta forest from the
beginning—here have we held uninterrupted dominion, killed what-
ever we found, and eat it without cooking—our power, I fear, is about
to be overturned. [Sees the Prince,] Oh, what is this ? a mortal or a
spirit? Didst thou arrive here by the road? You are my victim.
Prince. Listen ! and I will tell you. Iam neither a dragon nor
a spirit, Pyentsa is my country ; Thoodanoo my name; will you in-
deed eat me !—look at my sword, foolish devil !
1839. ] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 549
Devil. Tush! Tush! Your sword is only a hand’s breadth—-you
are unarmed—you are like the flimsy paper which is tough in the sun-
shine, but which falls to pieces in the rain.
Prince. Listen, devil! Your pride is excessive ; if youdo not re-
treat, you will be slain.
Devil. Attend, prince! Whoever enters this forest of Haywonta,
must acknowledge my power, and become my prey. [ Music.
Devil. Oh, prince, make me your slave.
Prince. Forest king, are we not near the cane barrier and the
copper stream ? conduct me past them.
SONG.
[ The devil conducts the prince.
Devil. Oh, good prince, if anything happens to you, remember to
eall upon me for aid, I will now return to my post.
SONG.
Prince. The silver mountain towards which my face is now turn-
ed, is still distant ; my good genius is forsaking me, and my bad fate is
leaving me a prisoner in this wilderness of dangers.
SONG.
The Prince arrives at a gigantic thorn tree, upon which are sitting
two monstrous birds, with faces like mortals.
Female bird (to her mate.| We have satisfied our hunger to-day
upon the flesh of lions, elephants, and deer ; what I wonder shall we
find to-morrow ?
Male bird. Beautiful is thy speckled plumage ; to-morrow the
princess of the silver mount will bathe and anoint her head. I smell
the food preparing for the feast ; there will be more than I can devour—
I will keep some in my pouch for you.
Prince. Ch, powerful birds which roost upon this immense thora
tree !—
Male Bird. Since I first alighted upon this tree, I have never
heard the human voice. What art thou?
_ Prince. Oh, mighty bird, listen, and I will tell—assist me to reach
the silver mountain, and I will repay your favour.
Bird. Be not concerned, for 1 will give you the help you ask,
young prince ;—neithér horse nor elephant assisted you to make the
550 Specimen of the Burmese Drama. [ Juy,
journey thus far—only your own perseverance ; my mate is sick, but I
will take you upon my back.
[ The Bird carries the Prince.
Prince. Oh Bounmadee! thou mighty bird, alight under the
shadow of these banyan trees, and leave me alone.
ACT.
Scene Ist.—City of the Silver Mountain.
King. Millions of nobles, wearers of the golden chains of nobility,
who follow behind me—my daughter Devay Manan having returned
from the country of mortals, will bathe and anoint herself; appoint
therefore 500 beautiful maids with budding breasts, to take each nine
golden goblets, and go in procession to the east side of the city, todraw
water for the ceremony.
Noble: My lord, we attend. Let Maensa be appointed directress of
the procession. [To Maensa]. Go forth to the lake without the walls —
to the east of the city, and draw water for the approaching ceremony.
Scene 2nd.—Procession of Women.
SONG.
Maensa. ladies, under the shade of those banyan trees before us
I see a young (Nat) spirit sitting, if he calls answer him not; she
that transgresses shall pay a fine of five tecals.
Prince. Lovely palace damsels, if you have with you a little
betel leaf, I entreat you to give me some. |
One of the ladies. Do not be concerned, my lord, for betel leaf ; if
you desire it, I will give myself to you.
Prince. Oh deities, angels, and spirits! let this ring which I
drop into the water reach the hand of my beautiful Manan !
LHe assists a maid to place the vessel of water upon her head and
drops the ring into it.
ScENE 3rd.—The Palace.
Manan (while washing finds the ring.) Ladies, tell me if any
thing happened at the lake, when the procession went out to draw
water.
Maensa. qiador the shade of the banyan trees which grow there
we found a young spirit resting himself, and he assisted one of the
maids to place the water vessel upon her head.
Manan. Oh my husband, come and take me!
1839. ] Specimen of the Burmese Drama. 551
The news of the young prince’s arrival being communicated to the
king, he is very angry that a mortal should presume to enter his coun-
try and lay claim to his daughter ; he therefore orders that he be made to
ride upon some wild horses and elephants, and the young prince ac-
quitting himself surprisingly well in training them, the king promises
to give him his daughter, if he can shoot an arrow from one of the
bows of the palace. ‘The prince shoots an arrow with ease and dex-
terity ; but the king insists upon another trial—he obliges the prince to
select the little finger of Manan from amongst those of her sisters,
which are thrust to him through a screen ; this also the prince does, by
the assistance of the King of Nats.
Art. IIl.—On the Bora Chung, or Ground Fish of Bootan.
To the Secretaries to the Astatic Society.
GENTLEMEN,—The following account of the Bora Chung or as
it may be called, the Ground-Fish of Bootan, is so extraordinary, as to be
worthy I think of the attention of the Asiatic Society, for so far as
I know it is new. Iam indebted for it to Mr. Russell, of Rungpore.
The Bora Chung is a thick cylindrical fish, with a body somewhat
like a pike but thicker, with a snub nose, and grows from three pounds
weight, to a length of two feet. The colour is olive green, with orange
stripes ; and the head speckled with crimson spots. It is eaten by the
natives of Bootan, and said to be delicious.
The Bora Chung is found in Bootan, on the borders of the Chail
Nuddee, which falls into the river Dhallah, a branch of which runs
into the Teestah at Paharpore. It is not immediately on the brink of
the water, however, that the fish is caught, but in perfectly dry places,
in the middle of a grass jungle, sometimes as far as two miles from
the river. The natives search this jungle till they find a hole, about
four or five inches in diameter, and into it they insert a stick to
guide their digging a well, which they do till they come to the water ;
a little cow-dung is then thrown into the water, when the fish rises to
the surface. Mr. Russell has known them to be from six to nine-
teen feet deep in the earth.
Mr. Russell describes their other habits as not less curious. They
are invariably found in pairs, two in each hole; never more nor less.
He has not met with any less than three to four pounds ; butas before
said, they grow to the length of two feet. He has seen them go
along the ground, with a serpentine motion, very fast, though the
natives say they never voluntarily rise above the surface. In some
4c
552 On the Bora Chung, or Ground-Fish of Bootan. [ Juy,
places they are very common, and live a long time when taken out of
the water, by being sprinkled over occasionally with that fluid. One
which Mr. Russell thinks to be the female, is always smaller, and
not so bright in colour as the other.
‘I regret this account is so imperfect, especially as I have seen the
fish, for when I was at Titalya, in March last, Mr. Russell very
kindly sent me two of them. Unfortunately I was on the eve of
starting with my family for the hills, and in the bustle of packing up,
I had not time to examine them, intending on my arrival here to
describe, and preserve the specimens for the Society. And still more
unfortunately, I was unable to convey them up here, having been for
want of carriage obliged to leave even many of the necessaries of life
behind. Mr. Russell undertook to bring them with him; but one
of them died and was thrown away in the plains, and the other made
its escape from the vessel in which it was confined at Punkahbarry.
He has promised to procure other specimens, so I hope soon to have
the pleasure of sending some to the Society’s Museum.
J.T. PEARSON.
DarJEELING, 10th July, 1839.
Art. Il].—Exzitracts from official records, with descriptive details
regarding the new Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad—erected by
Colonel D. M‘Leon, Chief Engineer of Bengal.
A superb model of the Moorshedabad Palace is now displayed in the
apartments of the Asiatic Society, erected on a scale of half an inch to
the foot ; it forms an object of perhaps greater interest to the spectator,
than would the noble edifice it represents. In the model we have all
the details of the structure at once exposed and intelligible. To the
amateur architect, as indeed to the general visitor, the documents we
now publish, will doubtless prove an instructive and valuable lesson
in classical architecture. We should not omit to mention, that every
part of the model is of native workmanship, and of the most perfectly
beautiful execution.—Eps.
To the Military Board.
Political Dept.
GENTLEMEN,—I am directed by the Honorable the Deputy Go-
vernor of Bengal, to transmit for your information and guidance, the
accompanying copy of a correspondence with the Committee appointed
to report on the Nizamut buildings at Moorshedabad.
1839.] Descriptive details of the New Nizamut Palace, §ce. 553
2. In making this communication, the Deputy Governor has de-
sired me to observe, with respect to the further works contemplated,
the most important are, a new Imambarra, in substitution for the old
one, stated to be in a ruinous condition ; the removal of Meer Munglee’s
house, and the building of a new one; and, lastly, a Mudrisso or
College. ‘The cost of the whole of these, and of furniture for the
Palace, is estimated for 3,60,000, of which 1,50,000 has already been
sanctioned for the Imambarra and for the Nawaub’s house.
4. His Honor the Deputy Governor, further desires me to take this
opportunity of observing, that much praise is due to Colonel D.
M‘Leod, who has designed and executed this noble edifice, which
will long remain a monument of the ability of its architect.
I have, &e.
Fort WILLIAM, ( Signed ) H. T. PRINSEP,
9th January, 1839. Sec. to the Govt. of Bengal.
OP LP IPFP OL IL OP
Extracts from the Report of the Special Committee of Inspection ;
dated 10th November, 1838.
We have the honor to submit, for the information of His Honor the
Deputy Governor of Bengal, the result of our proceedings consequent
upon the receipt of your letters of the 12th, 19th, ultimo, and without
date, received at Moorshedabad, from the Governor General’s Agent,
in regard to the Nizamut buildings at Moorshedabad.
v. The new Palace is in length 425 feet, by 200 feet in breadth ;
and of one Order of architecture throughout the whole of its exterior,
without any intermixture of the same on a reduced scale, or of any
other Order. It stands on a slight elevation, produced by raising the
foundation walls three feet above the general level of the ground, and
filling up with earth to that height, in a gradual slope, to the extent
permitted by the surrounding buildings, and the termination of the
premises towards the river, on the banks of which the Palace stands—a
conspicuous and imposing feature in the landscape from a great dis-
tance. The effect anticipated by raising the structure, as just descri-
bed, has been fully accomplished.
4. The Order employed is the Grecian Doric. It is forty-six feet nine
inches in height, having fluted columns thirty-six feet high; five feet
six inches in diameter at the base, and four feet one and a half inches
_ at the neck, with corresponding ante, and an entablature of ten feet nine
inches ; the whole surmounting a basement of eighteen feet six inches,
of which three feet six inches forms the plinth of the building. Over the
entablature are parapet walls, varying in height according to circum-
stances, and ornamented with panels, plinths, and cornices. The pro-
554 Descriptive details of the [Juuy,
jections of the cornice of the Order are of stone, having the gutte and
lilies in the angles cut out of the solid. Nothing could be more satis-
factory than the execution of the whole detail of what this involves.
The Doric Order is notoriously of difficult management, when applied
to edifices of complicated design, from the necessity of observing the
rules prescribed for the introduction of the triglyphs in the frieze of the
entablature. In the present instance, with many projections and re-
cesses, tending to create difficulties, there was not discoverable the
slightest deviation from what these rules demand ; the cornices and
mouldings were noticed as being cleanly and sharply cut and defined,
and all lines and surfaces, whether of stone or plaster, exhibited the
most successful result of much labour and minute attention.
5. On the south front is a portico of eight columns, ninety-seven
feet nine inches in length, surmounted by a pediment twelve feet high,
and having a strong trussed roof of timber secured transversely by
iron tie-rods. ‘To the north, is the entrance portico of six columns,
measuring seventy feet nine inches in length, with a corresponding
trussed roof to the pediment, which rises ten feet ; in the tympanum of
either pediment are the arms of the Nuwaib Nazim, perfectly exe-
cuted in relievo, and forming a very appropriate and effective finish
to the whole. :
6. Leading to the northern portico, is a noble flight of stone steps,
commencing in its breadth above from the centre of the end columns,
and having a platform stretching out in the same parallel to a width
of twenty-four feet nine inches, from which, descending, it curves out.
wards on either side till it ends at its base, in a line extending to the
length of 129 feet. There are two intermediate platforms, one of ten, ©
and one of five feet in width ; in a line with which last, at the extre-
mities, are well proportioned pedestals with stone slabs, bearing inscrip-
tions (the letters cleanly cut in relief) in English and Persian, exhi-
biting particulars connected with the erection of the edifice, (see en-
closure No. 1,) and in front of these pedestals, on blocks carried out
from their bases, corresponding in height and breadth with the last
flight of steps, and ten feet six inches in length, are placed two
sphinxes, admirably executed, both as regards the design and work-
manship. They are of solid teak, but painted and sanded so as exact-
ly to resemble stone, and form highly ornamental appendages to the
entrance in the position they occupy. Iron railing, of a graceful pat-
tern, corresponding with that of the colonnades (rising from which are
five lamp-posts on either side, with three on either pedestal below)
surmounts the flight at either extremity. Underneath, is a capacious
carriage way ; and there are three vaulted ranges, two of them open,
1839.] New Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad. 555
and one (the lowest) closed in, and forming dbdarkhdanesh and other
useful offices..
7. To the north front are two smaller porticoes (to the wings) of
four columns each, and intermediately between the centre and wings
on either front, receding colonnades; which also form leading features
of the end fronts of the building.
8. To all the above colonnades, including the porticoes, are con-
tinuous balconies to the third floor, four and a half feet wide, of light
appearance but of great strength, being constructed of iron beams or
cantilevers from nineteen to twenty-one inches apart, inserted in the
walls between stones to a depth of one and a half foot, and supported
on brackets at intervals, the rest of the material of the floor being of
flat bar iron. The floor is composed of tiles, terras, and marble,
confined by a plate or band of iron. The railing is partly of iron and
partly of teak ; the main supports and some of the rails being of the
former, upheld by brackets branching from the cantilevers.
9. The spaces over the doors and windows within the colonnades,
as well as those of the treble windows in the exterior walls, are reliev-
ed by panels, in which are inserted ornaments of various descriptions,
in relief of good design, and extremely well executed.
10. There are two open courts in the interior of the building,
seventy-two by fifty-two feet, finished in every respect in the same
style as the exterior, having substantial drains all round, communi-
cating with large covered ones externally, which are carried to a con-
siderable distance, and empty themselves into the river.
11. Round the exterior of the building there is a platform of the
finest masonry, bricken-edge, seven feet wide, from which spring
small flights of stone steps to the height of the plinth, leading to the
entrances in the several compartments of the edifice ; outside of which
is a roadway or walk, of corresponding breadth, composed of koah
nine inches in depth. The plinth of the building has oval flue open-
ings of twenty-two by eighteen inches, furnished with strong iron
gratings ;—where flights of steps interfere, three of the step-facings
in each have gratings, of eighteen inches in length, fixed into
them.
12. The interior comprises a basement floor, from thirteen feet to
thirteen feet three inches in height to the beams; a principal floor,
from twenty-one feet nine inches to twenty-two feet in height, to the
ceilings ; and a third floor of the same height as the latter.
13. The principal entrance is from the north portico into a vestibule
thirty-six feet by twenty-seven feet, having a geometrical stone stair-
case at either side, seven feet six in width, with iron railing and
556 Descriptive details of the [Juny,
mahogany hand-rail, each staircase receiving light from four painted
glazed windows.
14. Within this range is a corridor or passage, twelve feet wide ;
leading to the wings of the edifice, divided into compartments, and so
contrived, that by shutting two doors the communication with the
wings is cut off, without any interruption to that between the other
portions of the building.
15. From the centre of the corridor a large door opens into a cir-
cular room fifty feet in diameter ; to the right and left of which (on
entering) is a room fifty-two feet by twenty-five feet ; the three com-
prising one suite of apartments, separated from the wings by the open
courts, (noticed in paragraph 10.) ‘The circular room is of the Corin-
thian Order, taken from the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. The
Order is in height thirty feet six inches, with pedestals of four feet
six inches. From the entablature, on a line with the frieze, springs a
cupola of masonry, with sunk panels, ending in a painted glazed sky-
light twenty feet in diameter, the height from the floor to the opening
of the skylight being fifty-six feet, and to its apex sixty-two feet. The
room is decorated in its circumference by four large covered recesses,
over which are long panels, eight pilasters, and four large doors ; over
which last are oval openings occupied with pierced screens of arabesque,
cut in single slabs of stone. All the mouldings and compartments are
richly carved and ornamented, in conformity with the rules of the Order
of which the apartment is composed ; and, whether as regards the effect
of the whole, or the exquisite finish of the details throughout, it is
impossible to speak too highly of what has been accomplished. There
is nothing to add and nothing to alter: the architect and builder have
done their work perfectly.
16. To the south of the above suite, is a grand colonnaded saloon,
measuring one hundred and eighty-seven feet six inches in length,
susceptible of division at pleasure into three apartments, by means of
sliding doors, eighteen feet two inches wide, the leaves sliding into
cases, faced on both sides, from the bottom to the top, with mirrors.
The general width of this saloon is fifty-five feet, the centre space
within the bases of the columns being twenty-five feet. Beyond either
extremity of the saloon is a geometrical stone staircase, five feet three
inches wide, with railing, as before described, communicating with the
apartments of the wings. .
17. The wings do not correspond internally with each other: both
are divided into apartments of various suitable dimensions, each hav- —
ing a spiral stone staircase at either corner, with baths, dressing
rooms, &c.
:
j
1839. ] New Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad. 557
18. With exception to the circular room (of paragraph 15) the interior
of the whole of the principal floor is of the Roman Doric Order.
19. On the third floor the dimensions of the several apartments
necessarily correspond with those immediately below, just described,
excluding the circular room, which comprehends both floors. In this
third floor also is the same arrangement of the saloon as that described
for the principal floor, but the Order throughout is the Antique Ionic,
nineteen feet high with fluted columns, pilasters, &c. surmounted by a
coved ceiling rising two feet nine inches.
20. The whole of the apartments in both these floors are ceiled
with canvas, or teak wood frames, through which are fitted into the
beams strong brass hinge-hooks for punkahs, and brass for lamps or
lustres, to an extent ample for every purpose of use or ornament.
21. In both floors the doors are painted in imitation of different
woods (Satin wood, Mahogany, Oak, Maple, &c.) and highly varnished ;
and, with a few exceptions (in the minor apartments of the wings)
they are fitted with plated locks, bolts, and hinges, and hand-guards ;
also on the principal floor.
22. All the apartments in the wings of both floors are coloured
in distemper, in light tints of various colours ; and the walls, as high
as the surbase of the vestibule, and four staircases are painted in
imitation of marble ; all with very good effect. There are twelve fire-
places, with carved mantel pieces of teak, also painted and varnished
in successful imitation of rare marbles.
23. The floors of the whole of the public apartments of the princi-
pal story, including the vestibule and landing places of the great stair-
eases, are paved with polished marble ; and those of the corresponding
apartments in the third story, with the landing places of all the four
staircases, are laid with teak boarding.
24. The whole of the public rooms in both floors, and the columns
in the wings, are finished with polished stucco, in imitation of the
Madras chunam ; and it may here be observed, that the flutings and
finishings of all the columns, exterior and interior, are remarkably
well defined, and evenly and sharply wrought ; a completion very rare,
where brick and plaster are the materials, in houses even of the high-
est pretensions in this country.
25. The basement floor is finished in a plain style, having a simple
Moulded band under the beams and no ceilings. The doors and
windows are of appropriate substantial construction, fitted with brass
locks, bolts, and hinges, and painted plainly. Under the circular
room (of paragraph 15) are four strong lock-up closets for treasure, plate,
jewels, or other articles of value, with a large open space for a guard.
558 Descriptive details of the - LJuxy, ©
In the arches of the treble windows of this floor, fifteen in number, are
coloured fan-lights.
26. In the west wing is a steam-bath, complete in all respects, exe-
cuted subsequently to the erection of the building, as we were in-
formed by Colonel M‘Leod, at the particular desire of the Nuwaib
Nazim.
27. All the exterior colonnades and porticoes in the basement and
principal floor, as well as the vestibule and staircases of the basement,
are paved with stone.
28. Koah roads, twenty feet wide, have been constructed, and well
rolled, in all that portion of the ground about the Palace which has
yet been cleared of old buildings: the banks of the river have been
sloped off and sodded throughout the whole extent (with the exception
to a very small portion, for which it seems earth was not procurable)
and stone posts have been inserted along the top, as fastenings for
boats. The whole of the ground (cleared) has been smoothed and
grassed, and completely drained.
29. Ata short distance, in front of the Palace, is a handsome sun-
dial, five feet in diameter, a surplus stone so converted by Lieut.
Cunningham ; it rests on a pillar based on stone steps, and forms a
useful and appropriate appendage to the premises.
30. A substantial stone ghat, fifteen feet wide, has been constructed
near the Palace for the convenience of the Nuwaib, and at about 800 -
yards to the south of the Palace a large Noubulkahneh gateway has
been erected, as an entrance to the grounds in that direction. Asit —
was not immediately in view, there did not appear to be any ob-
jection to its being built in a style of architecture adapted to its pur-
pose, and the Asiatic or Turkish has been adopted.
32. In concluding this head of our report, it seems proper to advert
to the fact of this edifice, in all its departments, having been con-_
structed and completed by natives of the country ; the only excep-
tions to which remark are in regard to the painting and glazing, which
portions of the work were executed by professional Europeans. The —
expressions of approval which will have been found interspersed with —
the preceding details, were elicited by particular features of the build-_
ing under review, inviting a more peculiar attention from their impor-
tance, or the effect produced by them on the eye of the observer ; but
they are equally applicable to every part of the structure, which whe-
ther considered as a work of art to be admired for its exceeding beauty,
or asan example of skilful labor applied to the practical combination of
excellent materials, reflects the highest credit on the architect and all
1839. ] New Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad. 559
subordinate to him, concerned in its erection. The late rainy season
was one of uncommon violence, and had just closed when our survey
was made, and the soil far and wide was either inundated or
saturated with moisture. Nothing could have more searchingly tested
the strength and solidity of a newly erected edifice ; but not a crack
or symptom of yielding was to be seen, externally or within, through-
out the whole extent of this fabric; and we conclude our remarks
upon it with the expression of a grateful anticipation, that a lengthen-
ed durability awaits what we have represented as so pre-eminently
worthy of a lasting preservation.
In conclusion, we would here recapitulate, in a few words, the
Opinion to which our inquiries have led regarding the three points to
which reference is made in the second paragraph of our report.
As to the execution of the works, our verdict after a careful exa-
mination of all that presented itself to our view, is one of unqualified
approval and commendation.
A plan of the premises with which the architect has kindly fur-
nished the Committee, is appended ; and will render intelligible at
a glance the relative sites of the different buildings forming the subject
of this report. We have, &e.
(Signed) R. H. RATTRAY,
3 W. CRACROFT,
CaLcutra, Mh HENRY DEBUDE,
10th Nov., 1838. if W. R. FITZGERALD.
Art. 1V.—Researches on the Gale and Hurricane in the Bay of
Bengal on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839; being a first
Memoir with reference to the Theory of the Law of Storms in
India. By Henry Pippineron.
4 PART I.
_ The notices of Colonel Reid’s Book on the Law of Storms, which
appeared in the Calcutta papers and Edinburgh Review, had much
excited my attention ; for the subject was, to me, one connected with
Many associations of early life, and more especially with one instance
in which to the veering of a hurricane alone I owed my safety from
shipwreck, after cutting away the mainmast of a vessel which I com-
manded.
Hence, having some leisure when the tempest of the 2nd to the 6th
of June, 1839, occurred off the Sand Heads, I was induced to under-
take the investigation of its different phenomena, with a view to see
_ how far they would accord with the theory of the Law of Storms.
. 4D
560 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane | Jun
The sources from which I had to obtain my information were the
logs of fourteen vessels which arrived at Calcutta, having felt the
effects of the gale or of the hurricane; the reports of the Pilot and
Light vessels, kindly furnished to me, with the permission of Captain
Harrington, by my worthy friend Captain Clapperton of the Bank-
shall ; and accounts obtained from Balasore, Poree (Juggernaut), Masu-
lipatam, and other places, in all about thirty different authorities.
These sources form the amount of what was available here; but, that
the inquiry might be as complete as possible, I addressed the follow-—
ing letter to the President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commerce.
To R. H. CockERE.uL, Esq.
President of the Calcutta Chamber of Commeree.
‘Sir,—I beg to state that Ihave undertaken the investigation of the -
course and effects of the gale of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th instant, with
reference to the theory of Colonel Reid on the Law of Storms. .
“I have applied, personally or by letter, to most of the captains or
consignees of the inward-bound vessels which were exposed to it ; and
with the permission of Captain Harrington, and kind assistance of
Captain Clapperton, shall obtain from the Bankshall reports from the
H. C. Pilot and Light vessels. My chart is already drawn, and I am
only waiting for the logs and reports.
‘So far, I trust, we shall be able to embody all the information which —
ean be obtained here, and perhaps furnish a valuable supplement to ,
Col. Reid’s book ; but it is evident that our work will not be complete
without the statements to be obtained from the logs of the homeward. —
bound ships from hence; which, having stood to the south-eastward
on leaving their pilots, were more towards the middle of the Bay than
the inward-bound ones, whose track is toward Point Palmiras.
‘Tt is therefore my intention to print the information obtained here, —
with a lithographed chart, and to forward it to the President of the East
India and China Association, by whom it will be forwarded to Col. Reid
if in London, or if absent to Mr. Babbage; to whom I am, by the kind
assistance of Sir Edward Ryan, allowed to refer ; and who will take —
up the completion of the investigation, or refer it to competent hands.
‘But it has occurred to me that less attention might be paid to the
application of an individual than to that of a public body; and I
therefore take the liberty of addressing you, Sir, as President of the
Chamber of Commerce, to request that it will be pleased to direct
its Secretary to write to the Chambers of Bristol and Liverpool, the
East India and China Association, and the owners and commanders
of the vessels in the accompanying list, praying from them their
1839.] on the 8d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 561
exertions in collecting and transmitting the required information to
the President of the East India and China Association. I add a draft
of a letter which states what are the points on which it is desired.
‘It is unnecessary for me to add that, toa naval and a commercial
nation, the value and importance of a correct knowledge of the laws
by which storms are governed is such, that, in the words of Sir John
Herschell ‘it cannot be overrated ;’ and this I doubt not will excuse
my intruding upon you and the Chamber for your kind assistance.
‘I am Sir,
‘Your obedient servant,
: ‘H. PIDDINGTON,’
CaLcuTTA,
June 25th, 1839.
List of Homeward-bound vessels from Calcutta, the logs of which it
as desirable to obtain for the investigation at home.
Vessels’ Names. Commanding. Left the Pilot.
Siipeilarian, .\..).. «+3; L.Henry, -. 22nd May, 1839.
Barque Cape Bader g C. Lamb. aay COR IG
F. Ship Emma, .. .. J. A. Bonamour,
Barque Bengal, .. ..._ J. Marjoram, .. 23rd
SumeMtebile;.... .. D. Ogilvy,... .. 28rd #
Barque Lloyds, .. .. E. Garrett, ... 24th s
Barque Renown,.. -. D.M‘Lean, .. 24th s
Ship Gloucester, oe, soe Greok. i: 24th is
Barque Gentoo, .. .. H. Dodds, Ode, 2Oth 3
Ship William Nicol, .. J. Potter,.. -.. 26th es
Barque Augustus, .. A.J.Gordon,.. 27th 5
Barque Elizabeth, .. J. Deivar, Ha 2Oth 9
Barque Clydesdale, .. CC. Davis,.. .. 29th sf
F. Barque Appollon, .. Langlois, Bae ST st -
Brig Cityof Aberdeen, J. Monro, vi mveast A
elip Frances, .. .. J.J. Johnson,.. 2nd June, 1839.
DRAFT OF A LETTER TO COMMANDERS AND OWNERS.
Sir,—I am directed by the Chamber of Calcutta to state that Mr.
Piddington, of this city, has undertaken the investigation of the course
and effects of the gale experienced in the Bay of Bengal between the
2nd and 6th June, 1839, with reference to Colonel Reid’s theory of
the Law of Storms. The immense importance of this subject to
commerce and navigation it is not necessary to point out. All the
information collected here will be printed and sent home with a litho-
562 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Jury,
graphed chart, but it is evident that the inquiry can only be com-
pleted by having the tracks and weather experienced by the ships
homeward-bound from hence also laid down upon the chart; and I
have therefore to request that as of the ship you will be
pleased to forward, free of expense, the information requested below to
A. H. De Larpent, Esq., President of the East India and China Asso-
ciation, by whom it will be placed in the hands of Colonel Reid, or, in
his absence of Mr. Babbage, to complete the investigation begun here.
The information desired, is— i
1. Copy of the ship’s log from the Pilot to 15° north latitude, with
any information obtainable from the journals of the captain, officers,
or passengers.
2. Notes of the heights of Barometer, Thermometer, and Simpie- _
someter ; these are very desirable. ;
3. Peculiar appearance and states of the weather as to clearness,
heavy dark clouds, &c., as noted at the time, or from recollection.
4. Electrical or other phenomena, as remarkable lightning, water-
spouts, &c. and generally the most detailed information which can be
afforded, particularly from the 2nd to the 6th June, 1839. The more
details the better.
Your’s, &e.,
Secy. Calcutta Chamber of Commerce.
To H. Pippineron, Esa.
Sir,—I am directed by the Chamber of Commerce to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of 27th ultimo, explaining how you are en-
gaged in tracing the course and effects of the late gale in the Bay of
Bengal, to ascertain how far the phenomena observed will support the
theory recently promulgated as to the Law of Storms. AndIhave to |
inform you, that the Chamber will be happy to address the East India
and China Association of London, and the Chambers of Commerce of
Liverpool and Bristol, to obtain the particulars required from the |
homeward ships to complete the interesting investigation which you |
have undertaken.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
W. LIMOND, Secretary.
Brencau CHAMBER OF COMMERCE,
July ist, 1839.
OLDE LOR ODE AEE
1839. | on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 063
There was no other nautical source from which information could
be obtained. I made a public request, in the newspapers, for the
heights of barometers at noon from the captains who had obliged me
with their logs, so as to compare these with the register kept at the
Surveyor General’s Office, and obtain thereby, as nearly as possible,
the correct barometrical state of the atmosphere during the gale; for it
was evident that, if one barometer had an error above, and another
below the truth, their difference would appear much greater than it
really was. In only one or two instances was this request attended to.
As stated above, I found on the part of every public officer, as well
as on that of the merchants and agents whom I addressed, the greatest
readiness to assist me, and this was also the case with the majority
of the captains of ships ; some of whom seemed to take a pleasure in
affording all the information they could furnish, accompanying their
logs with detailed notes ; but a few were sadly churlish, and had to be
written to or called upon three or four times, before they could be
persuaded to take the trouble of furnishing me with the extract of the
four or five days’ logs, which was all that was required ;* and others,
still more provokingly, having given me a valuable extract, paid no
attention to my repeated applications for further information on points
which would evidently have been of the greatest interest. I abstain
from mentioning names. But in one instance I called and wrote seven
different times, to obtain further notes, or a sight of the ship’s log book,
and without success! The subject was new to some, and they were
not aware of its importance. ‘‘I don’t think they will make much of
it” was the remark of more than one; until what had been “ made”
of it was explained to them. Unfortunately indisposition prevented
me latterly from going on board of the few vessels which have
thus escaped me. There is, it is true, some excuse for men so
hurried and vexed as commanders of ships, having to discharge and
re-load in Calcutta, often are; but I trust on a future occasion that, as I
shall elsewhere suggest, authority will be given to the Master Atten-
dant to compel the fulfilment of this public duty ; so exceedingly
trifling in itself from each individual, and yet so deeply important to
the community at large, and indeed to the very individuals from
whom it is required, did they rightly understand their own interests.
It will be necessary first to place upon record the materials, before
_ proceeding to the deductions they afford ; but to do this within a more
* The answer to my second or third chit in one instance is worth inserting.
“Mr. Pippineron, Calcutta.
“‘Sir,—I received your note, but I have not time to attend to such trifles. But if
you call on board the ship, in all probability the Mate will allow you to see it.”” ——-
564 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [Juxy,
convenient compass, and to the landsman in a more readable shape,
I have, when the captains of vessels themselves have not given me a
summary, made one from the logs, comprising all that is essentiai to
our purpose. The seaman will, I hope, be satisfied when I say that
I have commanded a vessel, and have therefore I trust omitted
nothing of consequence. The logs themselves will be sent to Europe
for the use of Mr. Babbage or Col. Reid.
POLE POLO LLL LE
No. 1.—In Calcutta.
The Meteorological registers from the Surveyor General’s Office—
the notes on the weather I have added as it appeared within the town.
1839. Bar. at Noon. | Ther. - Winds.
Squalls from
June Ist 29,536 92°7 |NE. Cumuli,< the NE. with
rain.
6 Strong squalls
2 5 475 90°38 |EbS. Cum. bar
¢ Fresh gales
3 ,, 428 5S 3 Mo eR with squalis.
| A gale with
4 ., 400 867°! EN, aes very severe
squalls & rain.
5 No Registers. ESE. Sone ee
aeons 30, ae veering toSkd.
No. 2.—Diamond Harbour. Latitude 22° 11’.
On the Ist June, Light variable airs. 2nd, Variable, cloudy, and
frequent rain. 3rd, NE. breezes and rain. 4th, Strong NNE. breezes
and frequent rain. 5th, Strong gales and squally East to SSE. and
heavy rain. 6th, Wind at SSE. and cloudy. Thermometer from Ist
to 6th 83° to 85°.
ORM SELO SL ELIDO
No. 3.—Kedgeree. Latitude 21° 52’ north.
June \st.—Light variable Easterly winds, cloudy, and rain, thunder,
and lightning. 2nd, Cloudy, N. Easterly squalls and rain with calms,
heavy rain, thunder and lightning. 3rd, Heavy squalls from North to
Kast and rain, very unsettled appearance. 4th, Heavy Easterly squalls
and rain, unsettled weather. 5th, Smart gale from SE. to E. and
rain. 6th, Strong breezes, SE. to S. and cloudy.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 565
No. 4.—How ble Company's Upper Light Vessel ‘‘ Hope,” A. C. Hud-
son, in Latitude 21° 26’ north.
Ist June, Civil Time.—Winds light and variable all round, with
some rain. 2nd, Light winds during the first part; at noon heavy
squalls from the East, with rain and thunder; latter squally, with
wind from the Northward at times. 3rd, First part variable and
squally from E. to N.; in the morning, wind increasing from NE.
with heavy squalls ; noon wind ESE. inclining toa gale; at sunset
gale from E., and during the night from ENE. with heavy sea ; vessel
riding with 160 fathoms cable. 4th, Gale continuing in heavy gusts
from Eastward and shipping seas fore and aft. Till noon the same
weather, but wind at ESE. ; at 8 p. m. gale veering to SE. with dull
gloomy weather, and at midnight gale at SSE. 5th, To day-light gale
blowing very hard at SSE. veering latterly to S. in heavy squalls,
with dismal weather and a heavy sea on; vessel shipping water fore
and aft; at noon gale decreasing, with rain at sunset. ‘Toward mid-
night strong breezes at S. with very heavy sea.
I shall in another part of this paper refer to the very instructive
barometrical observations annexed to this log, which are highly cre-
ditable to Mr. Hudson’s attention.
POPOLPPOLELD IG
No. 5.—Hon'ble Company's Lower Light Vessel ‘‘ Beacon,” Latt-
tude 21° Longitude 88° 27’—J. Davenport, Commander.
Ist June, Civil Time.—a. m. light winds E. to NE. with heavy
clouds to the SW., middle and latter parts moderate breezes,
NE. to ENE. cloudy, unsettled weather and a heavy swell.
2nd.—Mostly moderate ENE. breezes, with cloudy unsettled wea-
ther, and a heavy sea rising ; at midnight blowing strong; heavy squalls
from ENE, with rain, thunder and lightning.
37d.—Wind mostly from ENE. veering latterly to E.in the squalls.
A.M. blowing hard, and increasing latterly toa gale, with a heavy sea ;
vessel shipping water fore and aft. 4¢h, Gale veering from ENE. to E.
and ESE. with severe squalls and a heavy sea; every appearance of
a heavy gale; middle and latter parts blowing a gale SSE. to ESE.
with heavy squalls of wind and rain; a heavy sea, and dark,
_ dismal, threatening appearance all round. Kept the whole of the
erew on deck during the night; riding with 200 fathoms of cable.
5th, Gale moderating, but still blowing heavy and in hard squalls from
SSE. to SE. with a heavy sea; latterly wind from SSE. to S.
blowing hard and in squalls, with dark passing clouds and heavy sea ;
566 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Juy,
vessel rolling and pitching very much, riding with 200 fathoms of —
cable. 6th, Strong southerly breezes and squally.
PEIILO LE IO DOLE
No. 6.—H. C. Pilot Vessel “‘Jane.”*
Ist June, 1839. Civil Time.—On the cruising station off Point
Palmiras, winds light and variable, cloudy to the North and East-
ward. 2d June, Throughout fresh breezes and squalls with rain
from the Northward, and threatening appearance to the Eastward,
anchored near the Floating Light Beacon. A strong current. to
the Westward. 3rd June, Throughout strong gales with rain and
very threatening appearance to the NE. 4 a.m. Fresh gales from
NE. Noon, gale increasing ; riding with 170 fathoms cable. 4th June,
Throughout hard gales E. to ESHK. with heavy rain and threatening
wea
appearance all round; noon, blowing hard from E. to ESE. wind |
SE. in squalls with heavy rain and threatening appearance. Vessel
driving, let go a second anchor. 5th, Strong gales from SE. to S.
heavy rain and threatening weather, latterly squally from SSH. to S.
6th, Moderate breezes from South.
No. 7.—H. C. Cruizer “Amherst,” J. Paterson, Esq. Commander.
Memorandum of the state of the winds and weather from the 29th
May to the 6th of June at the head of the Bay of Bengal, as ex-
perienced on board the H. C. Ship “ Amherst” on her voyage from |
Arracan to Calcutta, 1839.
29th. Started from Akyab at day-light with freshening breezes —
from E. to NE. and rain at intervals ; the mountains covered half —
way down with thick white clouds ; at sunset weather much clearer,
the sea smooth, the wind decreasing, throughout the night very fine.
30th. The weather become perfectly clear, without rain; the same —
appearance in every direction; horizon interspersed with very light
still clouds, light Easterly airs and calms, sea smooth, the ship going
from one to three knots per hour; at 8 p. m. sharp flashes of lightning
to the ENE.; the night continued fine and very clear, little vari-
ation in the wind. Long. 90° E. lat. 20° 39’.
3ls¢. Day-light sharp lightning to the Eastward, wind increasing
from that quarter ; the weather began to settle down for rain at noon,
variable sharp squalls from SE. to NE. with a good deal of rain,
* The European reader, into whose hands this may fall, requires perhaps to be told
that the Honorable Company’s Pilot vessels, at the mouth of the Hooghly, are not
Pilot-boats, but fine stout Bombay-built Brigs of 250 tons, perfectly well manned and
provided in all respects, and officered by able seamen duly educated to their profession.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 567
thunder and lightning to the Eastward ; sunset, the wind steady from
the Eastward, with smooth sea, occasional showers during the night,
lightning very vivid to the Eastward, sometimes sharp flashes of light-
ning to the South.
Ist June. The weather very similar to searer day, more sea, very
sharp lightning during the night to the NE.; 8 pv. m. Outer Light
Vessel bearing NNE. about nine miles distant.
2nd. Heavy squalls from NE. to NNE. during the early part of
the morning; 10 a.m. wind steady from ENE. weather more hazy
and sea rising; 4 p. m. wind NE. by E., sharp lightning to the ENE.;
sunset, Outer Light Vessel SE. by E. six miles; 8 vp. m. Light Vessel
E. by N.; heavy squalls from the NE. with sharp rain, ship under
double reefed topsails, the weather threatening throughout the night.
3rd. Day-light heavy squalls from the ENE. ship under double
reefed topsails, sea rising fast with rain ; noon, off the tail of the Eastern
Sea Reef; gale increasing from ENE., ship standing out under three
reefs in the topsails, top gallant yards on deck; at 8 p.m. split the
topsails, reefed the courses, the wind steady from ENE., heavy sea
and the gale still increasing with rain, no lightning up to midnight.
4th. 2 a.m. ship reduced to main courses, wind ENE. heavy
gusts of winds and rain; 4 a. m. a hard gale at ENE. ship la-
bouring much; 6 a.m. gale still increasing; at 1] a. m. ship under
bare poles, wind ENE.; 3 p. m. wind E.; 3°30’ p. m. wind ESE. ;
4 p.m. wind SSE.; blowing a perfect hurricane; 6 Pp. m. wind
South, a tremendous cross sea; ship at this time off ‘“‘ Codgone Point,”
up to midnight blowing a perfect hurricane from South to SSW. no
lightning nor thunder.
5th June. 2 a.m. gale began to moderate from SSW. with heavy
cross sea; noon, longitude 87° E. latitude 20° 3’ N.; ship throughout
the remainder of the day under foresail and close reefed main topsail
with dry weather but very hazy, the sea very high.
6th. The wind steady from SSW. and hazy.
Remarks.—The 30th May led me to be very watchful of the wea-
ther, it became so extremely clear and such a sameness in the ap-
pearance all round ; the stars very bright, the clouds stationary and of
a very light appearance, the lightning very very sharp, the noise of every
thing on board seemed to be more than ordinary. What was most re-
markable, the wind continued so steady from the Eastward at one time
on the 4th that I had most serious apprehensions of the ship drifting on
shore upon the western shores of the Bay; the wind shifted suddenly ,
otherwise nothing but her anchors could have saved her.
J. PATERSON, H. C. Ship ‘‘ Amherst.”
4k
Me,
y
568 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Juny,#
No. 8.—H. C. Pilot Vessel “« Krishna,” Mr. J. Crook, Branch Pilot,
Commander,—at the Cruising Station.
2nd June, 1839. Civil time.—NE. to E. squall and hikes to the
Eastward. 3rd June a. m. freshening fast NNE. to NNW. with dirty —
weather ; noon fresh gale NNW. to NNE. at. 20° 10’; weather threat-
ening stood off the land. 4th Wind N. by E. at noon hard squalls
and rain; gale increasing to 8 p.m. Midnight wind N. and gale
apparently breaking. 5th a. m. Threatening again, and an increasing ©
gale NNE. to NNW. till noon. p.m. hard gale, hove too under
main topsail and fore topmast staysail, at 8 under bare poles; a man
washed overboard but. saved. Wind from N. to W. and SW. | p. m.
a dead calm! with a high cross sea rising perpendicular, caused by a
heavy roll coming up from the SW. against the northerly one; vessel
Jabouring very much; at 1° 30' p.m. wind suddenly veered round to-
the SW. and blew a furious gale with severe squalls and heavy rain
till night. 6th a. m. gale moderating. At noon clearing up. Wind
WbsS.
PP LPP PE PIII OF
No. 9.—2nd June, 1839.
Brig “ Sarah” from Rangoon stood in on the evening and took a
pilot on board, but the weather being suspicious stood out to seaward.
3rd June. Throughout the night hard squalls ENE. and rain. At
day-light every appearance of an approaching gale, high sea, and hard
squalls; noon, lat. 20° 30’ N. in 46 fathoms (about long. 88° 02’ E.)
Strong gales ENE. and high sea; at midnight hard gale about E. ;
vessel struck by a sea abaft, and jolly boat carried away.
4th June a. m. constant hard squalls and gale about ESE. till
noon ; Pp. M. More moderate; at 2 p. m. wind veered to the Southward
with rain; at 4 p. m. increasing gale, furled all sail, hove too under
bare poles ; at 9 p. m. Bar. 28° 88’; and to midnight hard gales veering
round. Barometer 28° 56’.
5th June. Day-light moderating ; towards noon fresh gales SSW.
and clear with high sea.” Lat. 19° 42’ N.
No. 10.—Honorable Company's Pilot Vessel “ Saugor,’” Mr. J. Cearns,
Branch Pilot, Commander.
2nd June, Civil time.—At anchor in nineteen fathoms, off Point
Palmiras bearing about NWbW. 1 p.m. a squall from the East-
ward ; till midnight pleasant. |
1839.] of the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 569
3rd June.—a.m. squalls from NE. and ENE.; at noon strong
breezes and a heavy swell from SE., but wind N.; gale freshening,
and at midnight from NE.
Ath June.—Increasing fast from NE.; at noon NE.; 8 p.m. ENE.
a hard gale at E. and heavy sea at midnight. _
5th June. 4—a. m. wind E.; noon ESE.; hard gale veering to SE.
| and SSE. ; moderating at midnight. On 6¢h June a. m. wind South.
GPPIP LODE LODO DR
No. 11.—Pooree, or Juggernaut Pagoda, 19° 48' N., 85° 45’ E.
Letter from Dr. Cumberland, Surgeon of the Station, who after
“regretting that he can give but imperfeet information, says,—
_ * The 2nd of June was very cloudy ; about 11 a.m. we had a heavy
squall from the E. afterwards a succession of others, from almost
every point of the compass. At night it was blowing hard from the
NE. ; and on the 37d, we had a hard gale from the N. with heavy
clouds and rain. On che 4th, still blowing a hard gale from the N.
with heavy clouds and incessant rain; at 5 p.m. the wind shifted
suddenly to the W. and gradually veered round to the SW. after
which it moderated, still however blowing a gale. On the 5th, the
gale continued from the SW. very cloudy but no rain. On the
6th and 7th, fresh breezes from SW. with very cloudy weather.
On the 8th, light winds. The quantity of rain which fell on the 2nd
of June was | inch; on the 3rd, 2 inches and 1-l0th; on the 4th,
4 inches and 9-10ths.
PooreEE, 6th July, 1839.
No. 12—Letter from Captain Hookey of the ship ‘“ Mary Somerville,’
15th June, 1839, accompanying his log.
I have much pleasure in communicating any information in my
power respecting the gales in the Bay of Bengal on the 3rd, 4th, and
oth June, in which the ‘“‘ Mary Somerville,” and several other vessels
happened to be. Although the gale with us appears to have been of
short duration, it was very severe. We experienced ever since cross-
ing the equator, (which we did on the 20th May) hot sultry weather,
with variable winds from N. to W. chiefly. On the 8rd June, at
noon, latitude 19° N. longitude 85° 29’, wind very unsteady, both in
strength and duration, with heavy squalls chiefly from NW. ; occa-
sional heavy rain. Ther. 86°, Bar. 29° 25’, Simp. 29° 40’.
4th June.—Fresh gales from W. with heavy rain; at noon Ganjam
NWbW. twelve miles. Ther. 86°, Bar. 29° 15’, Simp. 29° 30’. It
continued to blow a fresh gale but not a severe one, wind from W. to
WSW. ; at this time a heavy sea from SE., ship lurching very much.
570 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Jury,
5th June.—Strong breezes; ship under double reefed topsails, |
wind SW.; at noon Juggernaut Pagoda NEE. eighteen miles; at
5° 30’ p.m. the Black Pagoda bore NWbW2W. fifteen or sixteen
miles; wind now increasing to a severe gale at S.; hove the ship —
too under easy sail; head from ESE. to EbN. but the wind drew ~
gradually round to the SW.; the sea continued at SE. and the ship —
laboured most tremendously ; at midnight it began to moderate, and
blew a fresh breeze from SW. which carried us to Point Palmiras by
andes ap
5 o'clock vp. m. on 6th June. When the severe part of the gale com- —
menced at 5°30’ p. m. 5th June, the Black Pagoda bore NWbW3W.
sixteen miles; the Ther. was 86°, Bar. 29910’, Simp. 29° 25’ ; the |
lowest we had it; and it began to rise at 10 a. m., Simp. first, then —
Bar. about an hour after. We-must have escaped a great part of the ©
gale as the SE. sea was very high, but we never had the wind from —
that quarter; the severe part with us was from SSW.
Captain Hookey says in another letter to me—the reason of our
“i
laying too so much was not caused by stress of weather, but from our —
having carried away our fore topmast, and fore and main topgallant —
masts in a severe squall from the NE. on the 2nd in the afternoon ; I _
therefore laid too till the ship was again prepared to run for the
Sand Heads
LO POOL LOLI LOLS
No. 13.—Ship “Justina,” Extract from her log ten warded by Capt. —
T’. H. Bentley.
+
bs
3rd June, 1839.— Nautical time.—Monday night at 2 a. m. squally ; —
in royals and flying jib (ship’s head NEbE. wind NNW.) in fore
and mizen topgallant sails. At 5 a.m. heavy appearance to the N.
reefed the driver, sent down royal yards.
At 8 a. m., ship’s head NE. wind NNW., gale increasing; in 2nd —
reef of the topsails; at 9 a.m. heavy squalls with heavy rain; up —
mainsail ; at 10 gale increasing, up foresail, in mizen topsail; heavy
squalls with rain; at noon ship’s head ENE. wind N., furled main-
sail, wore ship. Lat. Obs. 199 14’ N.
Tuesday, 4th June. Wore ship to the westward ; at 1 p. m. ship’s
head WSW. wind NW. strong breezes and squally, close reefed the
fore topsail, furled the fore sail; at 3 p.m. gale increasing, in 3rd
reef of the main topsail, in driver; at 5 p. m. ship’s head SWbW.
wind NW. heavy cross sea running, ship pitching heavy; at 6 gale
increasing fast with heavy squalls and constant rain.
At 7 ship’s head SW3W. wind NW.; at 9 ship’s head SWbW.
pitched bowsprit under, carried away the jib boom, fore topgallant
1839. ] of the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 571
mast and main royal mast; cut away the jib and flying jibboom ;
made the fore topgallant mast fast to the topmast rigging; at 11
hard squalls with a high sea running. At midnight ship’s head
SWbs. wind NW. At 2 a.m. severe gale, with a tremendous sea
running ; at 3 ship’s head SW. wind WDN. the fore topmast stay-
sail blew to atoms, ship lying with the lee bulwarks under water ;
at 4 heavy gales with severe squalls and constant heavy rain; at
_ 8 bent another fore topmast staysail ; at 9 A. m. ship’s head SbE. wind
~WSW.) at noon hard and severe gales, the fore yard arm at times in
the water.
Wednesday, 5th June. At 1 P.M. ship’s head south; wind WSW.
at 3 a heavy sea filled the quarter boat, the fore davit gave way, let
the boat in the water, cut away the after fall the boat being stove; a
heavy sea with severe squalls; at 5 p. m. ship's head SbE. wind _
SWbW. more moderate; at 6 wore ship to the NW.; at 7 set
fore trysail; at 8 ship’s head WNW.; wind SWbS.; at 11 more
moderate, set the foresail; at 1 a.m. ship’s head NW., wind SW.
brisk gales with passing squalls and rain; at daylight got the fore
topgallant mast and royal mast on deck; at 8 set fore topsail; at 9
- out 3rd reef of the main topsail ; at 11 got all clear, at noon moderate
and cloudy. Lat. by Obs. 18° 15’ N. long. by Chron. 85° ll’ E
No. 14.—Ship “ Ann Lockerby,” caw, Burt. tic sent.
Tuesday, June the 4th. In lat. 18° 55' N. and long. 86° 30° it com-
menced to blow heavy; the wind from N. to NNW. the height
of the barometer was 28° 75’ and raining heavy ; the gale still kept
increasing till the morning of the 5th at 8 a. m. when it blew a com-
plete hurricane, the wind at NNW. and it shifted round to WSW. ;
about noon the barometer was standing at 28° 15’; the ship at that
time was in lat. 19° 5’ N. and long. 87° 6’ E. J. BURT.
No. 15.—Ship “ Eden,’ Capt. W. D. Cook.
3rd June, Civil Time—Lat. 18° 22’ N. long, 86° 1’ E. p. m. strong
winds variable WSW. to WNW. with rain. Barom. 29° 40’. 4 p.m. the
Bame ; with a heavy sea running ; wind west ; 8 p. mM. increasing winds,
in i, mainsail, and mizen. Barom. 29° 30’ ditto weather, wind N. ;
4 a. m. strong winds and squally ; wind NWDbN.; 8 a.m. hard gales,
Wore ship to the southward, Barometer 29° 10’; noon ditto weather,
sun obscured ; wind West, under bare poles; 4 p.m. hard gales with
heavy squalls and a tremendous sea running; wind SWbW. Baro-
meter 29° 00’. 4th June. Midnight blowing a perfect hurricane at
WSW. without intermission. Barom. 28° 80/ 4. A. M. ditto weather
572 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [Juxy,
Barom. 28° 70’; 6 a. m. struck by a heavy sea which hove the
ship on her beam ends, shifted a great part of the ballast, washed
the man from the helm, and part of the bulwarks away. 8. a. m.
ditto weather, ship labouring heavily; set a storm mizen staysail.
Wind WSW. Barom. 28° 60’. Noon ditto winds, with continued
heavy rain, Barom. 28° 60’; 4 p. m. gale a little abated, set the main
topsail close reefed. Barom. 28° 70’; 8 Pp. m. heavy squalls with
lulls at times. Midnight, more moderate ; set the foresail. Barom.
28° 80' 4 a.m. Out two reefs main topsail, and set the fore
out double reefed; 8 a. m. set the reefed mainsail; wind SW.
Barom. 29°. Noon, strong breezes and hazy with less sea. Lat. obser-
vation 18° ]’ N. long. Chro. 86° 52’ E. Barom. 29° 25’. June 6th. —
Moderate weather ; got soundings under the Black Pagodaat 2 a.m. ©
POLO LO LEGO LI DD
No. 16.—Masulipatam, 15th July, 1839.
Dear Sr1r,—I have the pleasure to send you an extract from my
Journal, we had neither thunder nor lightning, but there was a very
heavy sea rolling in from the Eastward.
I have not a Simpiesometer.
RICHD. ALEXANDER.
Thermometer. | Barometer. |June, 1839.—Masulipatam.
Date Max Winds, &c
June 1 87 29 700 |From WNW. fresh, drizzling rain.
— 2 88 — — {WNW. to SSW. do., very cloudy.
— 3 87 _— 695 |Ditto ditto ditto, drizzling rain.
— 4 83 — 633 |Ditto blowing very fresh.
— o 90 — 600 | Ditto ditto ditto ditto.
— 6 91 — 625 | Ditto to W. and SSW. very cloudy.
No. 17.—Extract from the log of the Brig “ Nine,” Captain Denny,
in the Bay of Bengal, June-1839.
Saturday, st June, Nautical time.—Strong gale throughout, with
heavy squalls and showers of rain, wind WbS. No observation. Lat.
by account 14° 7' N. long. 85° 28’ E., Bar. 28° 7’, Ther. 82°.
Sunday, 2nd June.—Heavy gale throughout, with constant rain
and heavy squalls, wind WbS. No observation. Lat. by account
16° 7’ N., long. account 85° 52’ E. Bar. 28° 6’. Ther. 83°
Monday, 3rd June.—Strong gale throughout, with heavy squalls
and rain. Wind WbS. No observation. Lat. by account 17° N., long.
86° 16' E. Bar. 28° 6’. Ther. 84°
1839. } of the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 5473
Tuesday, 4th June.—First and middle parts strong gale, latter
more moderate, wind WbS. Lat. by account 17° 36’, long. 86° 43’ E.
Wednesday, 5th June.—Fresh gale throughout, with heavy squalls
and showers of rain. Lat. by observation 18° 39’ N., long. Chro. 88° 18’
E.: On getting an observation, found we hada set of 60’ to the south-
ward during the gale; wind S. W.
No. 18.—The ship “ Elizabeth,” of Glasgow, Captain Dewar ; home-
ward bound, left the Pilot, according to her protest, on the 29th May.
On the 2d June, in lat. about 16° N. and long. 88° E. she ex-
perienced a very severe gale from the SW. with a heavy cross sea;
hove too ; but the sea was washing over her continually. About mid-
night she was struck by a heavy sea on the quarter, which started the
whole of her stern frame ; she bore up with seven feet water in her hold
to the NE. and on the 3rd again hove too with her head to the NW.
The wind hauling to the SW. she bore up about NNW. for the
Sand Heads but could only reach Laccam’s channel, where the vessel
was driven on shore and lost ; the captain and crew reaching Calcutta in
a State of great distress and exhaustion through the Sunderbunds.
PALE PAIL IP IODA
No. 19.—Ship “ Jumna,” Captain Robinson.
Ist June, Nautical time.—Lat. 12° 25’ N. long. 85° E. dark gloomy
weather, with much lightning to the NWDN. and NE. quarters, the
wind freshening to a gale from W. or WSW. The barometer had been
falling for several days before.
2nd June.—Lat. 15° 20’ N., long. 85° 30’ E. The gale continuing
from W. with much rain.
3rd June.—Heavy gale from W. to WSW. generally ; with lght-
ning and ceaseless rain, and looking awfully dark to the NW. and N.
The wind at times offering to shift in that direction, but never got
further than WNW. and only remained there for a short time.
Lat. 16° 40’ N. long. 85° 30’ E. at noon.
4th June.—The gale continuing, but blowing more in heavy squalls,
with torrents of rain. The barometer 29° 19’ inches, lat. 17° 10’ N.
long. 85° 35’ E.; p. m. more moderate ; wind SW. fair, with hazy
weather.
Peres secore
No. 20.— The Brig “ Laurel Amelia’ from Coringa towards Chitta-
gong left Coringa roads, 37d June, Nautical time, at 5 p.m. with light
southerly breezes and clear weather; during the night the wind veered
to West ; at noon it was West, with drizzling rain and strong gales. Lat.
and long. omitted in this log.
574 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [Juuy,
‘4th June.—Westerly winds, strong gales, vessel under courses, steer-
ing Eastward. During the night increasing gale, ship labouring very
much ; daylight the same, and weather very threatening, with a heavy
sea on; prepared every thing for bad weather; noon, hard gales. No
observation. Lat. by acct. 16° 56’ N. long. 82° 58’ E
5th June.—p. m. hard gales with drizzling rain, increasing at mid-
night to a hurricane from the Westward. Daylight, and till noon, scud-
ding under bare poles and laboring very much. No observation ; lat. 17°
22' N. long. 83° 44’ E. by account.
6th June.—Towards sunset hurricane abating a little; at midnight
moderating ; daylight under the foresail ; noon more moderate, set the
_ topsails. No observation. Lat. by acct. 18° 19’. N. long. 84° 29’ E.
On the 7¢h the weather fine.
It is clear that this vessel, being on the south side of the vortex made
a fair wind of the hurricane ; but the latitudes and longitudes must be
wholly erroneous, since, though scudding before a hurricane from the
Westward they give a NE. course made good along theshore! Captain
Elson, of Chittagong, to whose politeness I am indebted for this log
and that of the “ Louisa” and “John William Dare,” informs me
that the last only is to be depended upon, as the Chittagong vessels are
rarely provided with good instruments or able navigators. I have how-
ever felt myself bound to mark the track as here given, though I think
it probable that on the 5th she was at least two degrees further to the
Eastward, and I have therefore marked also her probable position.
The following very interesting remarks I received on the arrival of
the “ Modzle’ from the Mauritius. It will be recollected that this ship
was one of the outward-bound ; having left her pilot on the 23rd May.
I regret much that no latitudes and longitudes accompanied the first
letter, so that I could only mark this vessel’s drift approximatively on
the chart as it was going to press ; for this cause too this vessel is
omitted upon the diagrams of the gale.
No. 21.—Extract from the log of the ship “Mobile,” on a voyage from
Calcutta io Mauritius, forwarded by Captain Ogilvy.
For several days prior to the 2nd June the weather was for the sea-
son of the year remarkably fine, and the wind instead of SW. was
veering round the compass. We had reached the latitude of 15° N.
long. 84° E. in seven days from the Pilot. On the morning of the
2nd the swell increased considerably from the South, and at noon the
mercury in the barometer, which had remained for some days steady at
29° 90’, was affected, and commenced falling fast. At this time (noon)
we had a moderate breeze from the NNW. and the appearance of the
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and Sth of June, 1839, 579
weather indicated not the slightest change. The breeze in the after-
noon gradually increased, and at 4 p. m. took in one reef of topsails ;
Barometer 29° 55’. At 6p.m.a very heavy black cloud rose in the
Eastward ; and apprehensive that a gale would come from that quarter,
I altered my previous course of SSW. to SSE. in order to get
more sea room. At 8 p. m. the barometer had fallen to 29° 40’, and the
wind a fresh steady breeze from the NW. with slight showers of rain :
took in 2nd reefs. ll Pp. m. The breeze completely died away, and
for the next seven hours it was nearly calm, the barometer station-
ary, and the black cloud still hanging in the Eastward, with very
vivid lightning issuing from it.
At 7 a.m. 3rd June the wind sprung up again from the NW. and
commenced blowing so strong that all sail was taken in, excepting the
close reefed main topsail; and the ship hove too. Noon, strong gale,
with very hea¥y gusts of wind from the West. Bar. 29° 40’. Took the
main topsail in, and spread a tarpaulin in the mizen rigging. 4th June
do. winds and weather, with a very high sea; by account lat. 15° 50’
N. longitude 84° 40’ E. 5th June, wind veering to SW. and produ-
cing a tremendous cross sea, the ship rolling and labouring much. Bar.
29° 5’. latitude by account 16° 20’ N. 85° 20’ E. vp. w. The Bar. rising,
and the wind veering to SSW. with more moderate weather. The sea
at this time, from the altering of the wind, was running in three or four
directions, with immense crested tops which threatened instant de-
struction ; but fortunately at this time it commenced raining heavily,
which had a great effect in reducing the topping of the waves. On the
6th June, by observations latitude 17° 10’ N. longitude 86° 15’ E.
Found that we had drifted to the NE. 200 miles.
i D, W. OGILVY.
No. 22. Barque “ Susan,” Captain Neatby,—Nautical Time.
3ist May.—Wind WbN. to WbS. Bar. pv. mu. 29° 60'; midnight,
29° 55’ ; noon 29°50’, Ther. 79°. Strong gale increasing from yester-
day, with violent squalls and rain every hour. Lat. noon 12°47’, long.
90° 43’ E.
Ist June.—Wind WDN. to WSW. Bar. p. m. 29° 50’ ; noon 29° 40.
Ther. 79° to 76° hard gale with constant heavy squalls and rain, with
heavy sea, ship laboring much. At noon hard gale and heavy squalls.
geet 14° O' N. 91° 14' E.
2nd June.—Wind. WiS. to WSW. Bar. 29° 40' to 29° 36’. Ther.
79° to 78’; hard gale and violent squalls, with rain, and a tremendous
heavy sea; ship laboring much, sent guns, provisions, &c. into the
~ hold; ship lurching dreadfully. Lat. 14° 47’ N. long. 91° 47’ E.
; 4p
576 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Juy,
3rd June.—Wind W2S. to WbS. Bar. 29° 40’, 29° 33’, and 29° 40’.
Ther. 60°; hard gale with violent squalls and rain, and heavy sea
throughout. Lat. 15° and long. 92° 14’ E.
4th June.—Wind WbS. to WSW. Bar. 29° 40’ ; hard gale, violent
squalls, rain and lightning ; latterly the squalls more moderate. Lat.
16° 19’ N. long. 69° 53’ E. By observation find a current to the SW.
at the rate of twenty miles per day for the last four days. .
5th June.—Wind WSW. to SW. strong gale and squally, but mode-
rating latterly, and the sea going down. Bar. 29° 40’ to 29° 56’,
lat. 17° 59’ N., long. 88° 34’ E.
No. 23.—The ship “ Indian Oak,” Capt. Rayne, left Madras roads at
10 a.m. 4th June 1839, Nautical time, having a passenger on board
for Vizagapatam. She ran up along the coast with moderate breezes,
but on the night of the 5th to 6th June it was so very hazy that Capt.
Rayne could not obtain an observation; the heavenly bodies being
obscured. His barometer fell from 29° 7’ at 8 p. m. on the 5th to 29° 6’
at 4 a. m. on the 6th, the weather having assumed so very threatening ©
an appearance, with a heavy jerking sea rising, that he prepared
for bad weather, and kept under weigh whilst communicating with
the shore, and landing his passenger at Vizagapatam ; he had however
no stormy weather. This vessel’s log is important as marking, together —
with the memorandum from Masulipatam, that the gale was only
seen, but not felt along the coast below Juggernath.
PRPPLE IA LP DI DD
No. 24.—-The Barque “ Lady Macnaghten,” Captain George Hard-
wick, experienced a severe gale beginning with strong squalls from the
West and heavy rain at noon 30th May 1839, lat. 10° 40’ N. long.
38° E. By noon the next day, 3lst May, in 12° 45’ N. 87° 14’ she
was hove too under close reefed main topsail, and continued so under
storm sails on the Ist, 2nd, 3nd, and 4th June; wind from WbDS. to —
SWbS. blowing a very severe gale with very heavy sea, causing the
vessel to labour excessively and ship water over all. At noon on 4th,
after which the gale moderated, she was in lat. 14° 51’, long. 88° 16 __
E. and found that during the gale she had experienced a current of |
about thirty-two miles per day to the SW. from the 3lst May to the
4th June; on which last day the Barometer being then at the lowest,
stood at 29° 17’.
DIPOLE DECI LO DD
No. 25.—Brig “Petrel,” Capt. Turcan, lst June 1839. Nautical
time.—At noon in lat. 5° 13’ N. long. 85° 20’ E. Bar. 29° 30’. Ther.
92’, strong breezes from WSW. and hazy weather.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 577
2nd June.—Till midnight blowing strong. a. m. blowing hard with
hazy weather and a heavy sea; large white clouds driving very quickly,
but clearing at intervals ; wind from WSW. to SW. at noon, when the
lat. was 8° 31’ N., long. 85°50’ E. Bar. 29°, Ther. 86°.
3rd June.—Hazy in the afternoon, and first part of the night strong
breezes, W. to WSW. till midnight warm weather. a. m. Hard gale,
WDS. and a heavy sea till noon. Lat. 11° 26’ N., long. 85° 24’ E.
Bar. 29° 48’ Ther. 95°.
4th June.—Hazy throughout and exceedingly warm. Sea high and
confused, and coming at times from the northward ! Hard gales WbS.
WSW. ship taking much water on deck. At noon, lat. 13° 44’ N.
84° 50’ E. Bar. 29° 43’. Ther. 86°. )
5th June.—Wind WSW. to SW. p.m. Hard gales, but moderating
latterly. a. mw. confused sea from the northward, hazy ; barometer
falling at 4 p. m. to 29° 30’ but rising towards morning to 29° 50".
Ship and rigging covered to day with a fine red dust.* At noon, lat.
16° 22’ N. long. 84° 34' E. Bar. 29° 38’, Ther. 86°.
6th June.—Strong and hard gales WSW. with hazy weather. At
1lh. 30’ made the land. Noon, lat. 18° 30’ N. long. 84° 34’ E. Bar.
29°40’ Ther. 86° Sky clearing up, and sea going down with appear-
ances of settled weather. Note. We had nota drop of rain from leaving
the lat. of 2° 30’ N. on 29th May until in Saugor roads on the 9th June.
No. 26.—Barque “John William Dare,” Captain Gibson, at anchor
off the Island of Cheduba in 33 fathoms water ; on \st June, 1839.
Civil time.—Lat. observed 18° 44’ N.; long. by three Chrons-93° 50’
K. Bar. 29° 80’, Ther. 85°. Latter part fine and clear. Bar. 29° 75,
Ther. 84°- :
2nd June.—First part light breeze and clear, with lightning to the
Southward; daylight freshening breezes, with flying showers of rain
and light squalls, barometer falling. At noon strong breezes with squalls,
and dark threatening appearance. Bar. 29° 40’, Ther. 89°. 2 p. m.
Breeze increasing ; preparing for bad weather. Bar. 29°30’. Heavy sea
rolling in from the Southward, ship rolling frightfully. 8 p.m. Breeze
icreased to a gale with tremendous sea. The ship, though drawing
only eleven feet six inches water, struck by the heel and unshipped the
rudder, secured the rudder, slipt the chain, cast to seaward, and an-
_ * This is a singular phenomenon. The nearest point of the coast directly to wind-
ward of the ship is about Coringa, distant 400 miles. It would seem to indicate that
the gale had blown over the table land of the Deccan, where it would probably find
plenty of red dust. The Laurel Amelia and Indian Oak seem thus to have been shelter-
ed by the Coromandel range of hills, as we see in the land breezes in an offing in
fine weather.
578 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ JuLy,
chored again in four fathoms water. Latter part weather as before.
Bar. 29° 30’.
ord June.—First part heavy gale from SSE. with a tremendous sea ;
vessel labouring heavily, and making thirty inches of water per hour.
Daylight, barometer rising ; strong gale, with heavy thunder and rain,
and dark heavy appearance all round ; noon, gale abating, with heavy —
squalls, thunder, lightning, and rain. Bar. 29° 50’, Ther. 84°. Lat-
ter, gale abating, with heavy rain and a high sea. Bar. 29° 60’.
4th June.—First part strong breezes with squalls, thunder, and hea- —
vy rain; daylight, breeze abating ; Bar. 29° 75’ Ther. 85°. Shipped
the rudder, and sent up topgallant yards and masts. Latter part |
smart breezes. Bar. 29° 80’.
5th June.—Smart breezes from SE. and a high sea rolling in from
SW. ; made sail for Chittagong. The direction of the wind has been
omitted in this log on the Ist, 2nd, and 4th, but it seems evident that —
it was from the S. or between S. and SSH. throughout. The log |
is very valuable, as shewing that the gale here, on the extreme East-
ern side of the Bay, was at its height in the night between the 2nd and _
ord June. |
Oe en DFO OF
No. 27.—Barque “ Louisa,” in the Harbour of Akyab.
Saturday \st June, 1839.—Moderate breezes and cloudy weather. |
Direction of the wind not stated, and nothing further in the log.
2nd June, 1839.—Commences with fresh breezes and cloudy wea- |
ther ; middle and latter parts, hard gales with ‘small rain; winds |
Easterly.
ord June, 1839.—During these twenty-four hours brisk gales and
showers of rain ; winds Easterly. 4]
4th June.— During these twenty-four hours the same as yesterday. |
Sth June.—During these twenty-four hours East winds with gales, |
and falls of rain. >|
6th June.—For these twenty-four hours, SW. winds and moderate.
DODO PPLOIOL®F
To exhibit the foregoing Logs in a collected view, for ready refer- |
ence, I have arranged all the principal facts in the following series of |
Tables from the Ist to the 5th June, exhibiting thus at one view the
weather experienced by the different ships, and their positions at noon |
on the same day. No account has been taken of the small difference |
of apparent noon occasioned by the difference of longitude, as there is |
nothing which requires this degree of exactness. It will be remarked
winds occurs about lat. 19° 30’. The log of the “Indian Oak” is |
omitted, as not being of importance. |
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WL Diagron of the Hurricane on the 5'# June 1859 reduced ty halt-scale from the General Chart,
outer circle $50 miles in dicseter.
Time, Noon_
Trintat by T.Dlack, Anatie Lethe Presa. Cxleuste:
South Wind
ONE
Pua yp
South Wind
&
¥
/
Byers
\
—
/
fh of th
Long: 48
.
NII Diagram of the Hurricane on the 4% June 1839. reduced to half-scale from the General Chart.
Outer circle 375 rules 1 dtarmeter. ?
Time, Noon.
T Black. Astatic Tith: Press Calcutta
boy:
ei A F
eS Eee + ne eee
een cae
A
fi
she HP. deb
West Wind»
N" iii Diagram of the Hurricane on the % June 1039, reduced. to half-seale from the Generad Chart
Outer ¢irde 360 mules im diarneter.
Time, Noon
T Black, Avsaiie Lith Prive Calaatta
eet
ym oy
. ral > Tek t : i nied ~ =
os a. eertna ite Say —_
aes Pee) ea)
ee Sona od ent
5 2 rvlgte
PhS renga om 2
7
a ast ee
)
hitta gong
GENERAL CHART
Io the frrst Memotr
Shiveutig the tracks ¥ stations of Vessels,
in the Gale and Thurricane
in the Bay of Bengal,
on. the gr, ith Yo sth: Jaume 1839.
ly ‘
Jou SMoeonry Htddington
References
CALCUTTA
Hedge ree
Hidgelee 9
False Point f
7
ewan
Track of the he
\e
\
\
| \. Shy Se
AU Wasson And a oy
A e yon sie
-
dat. ae ay vary
a
4
290qe ete.
“
-
oh
* * d ; ma he a
PAD BATISTA eS AMIN cee
SVT AP ISRA
— en te BN et etn a
ooo
1839. | on the 3d, 4th, and sth of June, 1839. 585
I have next delineated the whole of the tracks with the winds at
noon upon the general Chart, and from these are deduced the centres,
which last I have marked by a single circle or two for each day, and
from the centres I estimate the course of the hurricane. To render the
whole more distinct, three diagrams are also given, to half scale, upon
which I have a few remarks to make.
In considering these diagrams and tables, the reader will be struck
with some few anomalies ; that is, he will observe that the arrows do
‘not always show the ane as blowing in exact circles, and that in
one or two instances, they are altogether different from the others,
though not absolutely contradictory.
I take these few discrepancies mostly to arise from some one of the
following causes :—
I. The carelessness of many in noting the direction of the wind, or
the not noting it at the time.
II. Their erroneous estimation of its direction when looking at a
weather-cock or dog-vane, and, if a ship is going fast, the not allowing
for the effect of her motion upon it.*
III. On shore, local circumstances, such as houses, hills, rivers, and
the like, which may often produce differences.
IV. At sea the vicinity of the land, ranges of mountains, &c. which
when the gale or hurricane strikes them, occasion a re-action altering
the direction of the wind.
V. As it has been necessary to fix upon one instant of time at
which to compare the wind and weather experienced by different ves-
sels, noon has of course been chosen ; but when the winds are varying, it
may occur that the one marked about noon is a little more unfavour-
able to the appearance of the diagram than that which perhaps was the
_ predominant one throughout the day; as, however, it would have
appeared like accommodating the facts to the hypothesis, I have pre-
ferred allowing them to stand as marked, taking a mean point where
the limits of the variation of the wind are expressed, such as SE.
when the words ‘‘ between South and East,” are used.
VI. The positions of the vessels are rarely accurately ascertained in
a severe gale.
Let us consider these causes separately. The careless habits of
seamen are well known, and that these should extend to what is
_ apparently the unimportant matter of noting the exact direction of the
wind is not surprising, and is well known to every intelligent man,
who has commanded a vessel. In severe weather too when a vessel
* The eddy wind from the mizen staysail will sometimes in a small ship affect the
dog-vane,
586 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Jury,
is lying with her yard arms in the water, boats and booms washing
away, and sails blowing from the yards, those on whom the respon- —
sibility rests have far other matters to engage their attention than the
exact direction of the wind; and in many vessels, where perhaps the
captain and chief mate are the only persons who can take charge of the
deck in such weather, the log is rarely marked till the gale ceases, and
it is written up perhaps at a still later period. ‘‘ You must not look
for very great exactness in my log, Sir, for to tell the truth, every word
of it was written from memory after the gale was over ; myself and the
mate had something else besides writing to do while the gale lasted,”
was literally said to me by one commander ; and no doubt this is ne-
cessarily true of many, as those who know the severe fatigue of body,
and excessive anxiety of mind which the masters of small vessels
must undergo in bad weather will readily allow.*
2nd. That when the vessel is going fast through the water the dog-
vane shews the wind to be further a head than it really is, is well
known to all; when close hauled on a wind, as the vessel lies about six
points from it, there is no mistake of any consequence to be made, but
with the wind abeam or a point or two abaft it, many officers do not,
if they know it, make due allowance for the ship’s motion. If the wind
appears to be abeam it is put down so, though it is perhaps half a
point or more abaft it. The experienced and attentive do not of course
fall into these errors ; but how many are there who unite both experi-
4
ence and attention? Looking at a weather-cock on shore, or merely ©
estimating the direction of the wind, is more liable to be inaccurate ;
even to the extent of a point or two.
3rd. Local circumstances, such as I have alluded to, require no re-
mark, particularly when an observer is living in a large town, or
has not a very exact idea of his meridian ; which but few have.
Ath. This cause will be more particularly alluded to in Part II of
this memoir ; at present with reference to one diagram the anomalies
about Juggernaut, or as the ships approach the shore, seem quite pro-
bably referable to the repulsion of part of the vortex from the high
land behind Cuttack ; or to the great current of the regular monsoon
gale, blowing up along the Coromandel hills. See Part IT.
5th. The fifth cause explains itself, as stated.
* Note.—While this is going to the press I meet in the Nautical Magazine for |
March 1839, in a valuable paper on a hurricane, ‘‘ Yesterday I did not put down thle
latitude and longitude. I calculated it roughly in my own mind, and satisfied myself
the Barque was driving clear of the shoals. I was too much occupied, both mentally
and corporeally, to enter into minute calculations.” —Ewtract from a letter signed
‘ Mexicano,’ giving an account of a gale off the coast of Mexico.— Nautical Magazine,
March, 1839.
1839. | on the 3d, 4th, and bth of June, 1839. 587
6th. The sixth requires none to seamen, but the unprofessional rea-
der should be told, that, not only from the motions of the vessel and
the haziness of the horizon, observations during stormy weather are
entitled to but little confidence, but moreover they are but very
seldom obtained, the celestial bodies being rarely visible ; thus the
latitude and longitude of the vessel is in truth but little better
than guessed at if she is lying to, because neither the direction nor
the rate of her drift can be well measured by the log, or accurately
known by the compass ; asit may be when scudding. Hence it must be
borne in mind that, though the wind may be rightly noted, the ship’s
position may be toa certain extent erroneously laid down, and in some
instances upon the diagram, if the vessel be supposed to have been
little further to the East or West, or to the North or South, the appa-
rent difference will disappear.
The Sarah in the diagram of the 4th is an instance. By the direc-
tion of the wind she should be further to the Eastward ; but I estimated
her to be where I have placed her. At 2 p. m. also, as will be seen by
her log, the wind veered to the Southward with her ; the centre of the
vortex having passed her at no great distance ; the weather moderating
till 4 p. m. when it again came on to blow a hard gale.
It may be observed to, and this is important, that while probably,
and frequently no doubt from the causes just enumerated, there are dis-
crepancies in the winds as laid down, these rarely, or never, amount to
contradictions of the theory ; which defines a hurricane to be a severe
gale blowing and veering round in a circular direction, while it is also
moving onwards. I should note also that in more than one instance I
have found no wind marked exactly at noon, but one at 10 a. m.
or 2 p.m. With this explanation of the diagrams and charts the
unprofessional reader will be better able to make allowance for the
differences he may meet with; and all will observe how well the
blank which occurs on the eastern side of them will be filled up by the
logs of the homeward bound vessels. The description of the Map No.
II. belongs to Part IJ. to which it has reference.
The slow rate of progress of our hurricane will not fail to be re-
marked. I think it probable this is owing to the vortices being pent up
as it were between the course of the gale and the Coromandel Hills. I
have further adverted to this also in Part II.
__ A few more remarks on the Logs and Charts may not be without in-
terest, both to the unprofessional reader, and to the seaman who may
not at once perceive how they bear upon the theory of the circular mo-
tion of storms; and that this is from East to West by the North, or
contrary to the hands of a watch, on the North side of the equator.
588 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [Juxy,
Let us begin with the H. C. 8S. Amherst, which we find very pro-
perly stood out to sea from the tail of the Eastern sea reefs. Had her
Commander not been acquainted with the Sand Heads, she might
have been placed in great danger by standing in, as she then must
have anchored in a most perilous position. This was probably the fate
of the unfortunate Protector, in which 135 soldiers were lost beside
the crew and the passengers, in the gale of October, 1838.*
The Pilot vessels, whose business moreover it was to keep as near to
their station as they could with safety, were well managed of course ; as
were also the Sarah and I believe the John Hepburne, a Schooner from
Rangoon ; though I have not been able to procure this last vessel’s log.
On the South-side of the hurricane, however, many of the vessels
seem running into it, and this some of them certainly did. The Mary
Somerville was fortunately prevented from*doing so, by the accident
to her foretop-mast, obliging her to lie too, but the Ann Lockerby,
Justina, and Eden seem to have run right towards it.
The Susan’s track shows a course made much too far to the West-
ward for the winds laid down; this is only to be accounted for by the
erroneous estimate of her position, and the Westerly current which is
adverted to in the logs of the Nine and Jane.
The barometrical observations are for the most part so few and scat-
tered that I have been unable to trace any connected series of them
worth adverting to. As usual the barometer has clearly enough an-
nounced the approach or vicinity of bad weather, and the Simpiesome-
ter still earlier. I have before stated that I was unable to obtain more
than one single notice of the heights of the vessels’ barometers in the
port of Calcutta ! and thus we are left to doubt as to the correctness
of even those instruments of which we have the registered observations.
Thus the ‘ Nine’s’ barometer indicated a very remarkable depression
on the Ist, 2nd, and 8rd June, but was it acorrect one? The low rate
of pay on board our merchant ships makes it a heavy tax upon a com-
mander to provide himself with instruments from the best makers. I
cannot quit this part of the subject, however, without citing the highly
creditable barometrical observations of Mr. Hudson, commanding the
Honorable Company’s Floating Light Vessel ‘‘ Hope,” marked in the
tables as the Upper Light Vessel. I have only there quoted his baro-
meter for noon ; the following is the register annexed to his log, and.
brief notes of the weather from it —
* The remarks on the appearance of the Arracan mountains on the 29th, and the
clear sky and peculiar sensibility to noise on board at the approach of the gale, are
very interesting: the two last may have been electrical phenomena, and the first will
remind the seaman of ‘‘the Devil’s table cloth,” at the approach of a South-easter in
Table Bay.
1839. | on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 589
lst June, 45 Bar.
‘hing “se 29°06 ) East to NEbE. winds and cloudy to the WN.
Noon, e 29:54 E ‘loud
f * 29-539 NE to ENE. and cloudy.
2nd June, as Bar.
# eg ch abe ENE. cloudy unsettled, midnight heavy squalls from
8 p. os . 99-47 ENE. with rain.
3rd June, zie Bar.
7 A.M. es 29°43 Strong NE. winds and threatening weather.
Noon, < 29-41 Strong ESE, winds inclining to a gale.
aH a ca i ca : Increasing to a gale; prepared for bad weather.
6 P.M. ee 29°33 Gale increasing at ENE.
4th June, Bs Bar.
4a.M. oP 29°33 Gale continuing in hard gusts from Kast.
Sa.M. ar 29°33 Weather as before.
Noon, os 29°33 Gale blowing in heavy squalls from ESE.
8 p. M. oe 29°33 Gale continuing, veering to SE.
Midnight, Gale veering to SSE.
oth June, 8 A.M. .. 29:46 Gale still continuing at SSE. veering to S.
Noon, ate 29:46 Gale decreasing a little, wind at S.
Sp. M. oe 29-46 Strong breezes at S.
From the height of this Barometer on the Ist as compared with
that at the Surveyor General’s Office in Calcutta, we may assume it to
be a nearly correct one; and if these dates are compared with the as-
sumed track of the hurricane—at least at 120 miles distant from Captain
Hudson’s vessel—it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that this instru-
ment was marking the passage of it over his meridian with the regu-
larity of a clock! A stronger instance of the vast utility of the
Barometer and the use of having them on board all stationary vessels
could scarcely be adduced. A good Simpiesometer would have given
us still more curious data. It is, I hope, becoming daily more and more
evident that the owners of all vessels should be obliged to furnish
them with good instruments of all kinds; and indeed if they knew
their own interests they would always do so. The cost of a very
small portion of the delay and mischief arising from damage occasi-
oned by the want of one,—and these are frequently not losses falling
upon underwriters,—would far more than repay the cost.* The
seaman who is watching his Barometer is watching his ship; and
watching it too in the most intelligent manner.
_.* Col. Reid’s observation on this subject deserves to be quoted. ‘‘ Every policy of
insurance should bind the owners or masters of a ship insured to provide a Barometer,
and the protest should be required to shew that it was registered at least once in every
Watch. But it ought to be registered oftener ; and within the tropics, during the hurricane
season, every time the log isheaved.’? I shouldadd that a Simpiesometer ought always
to be insisted upon also.
4@e
550 Trochilus and Crocodile of Herodotus. [ Jury,
Art. V.—Note on the “ Trochilus and Crocodile’ of Herodotus.
To the Editor of the Asiatic Journal.
Dear Sir,—As the recent very curious and instructive work of
Mr. Wilkinson on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egypti-
ans is likely to attain a deserved celebrity, it may be as well to
correct a mistake into which he has fallen, as to a fact in natural his-
tory, particularly as it affects the credit of the Father of History,
whose work, notwithstanding its imperfections in many other res-
pects, will generally be found correct in all matters that came under
the author’s personal observation.
Mr. Wilkinson says, vol. iii. p. 79,
** Herodotus enters into a detail of the habits of the Crocodile, and
“relates the frequently repeated story of the T'’rochilus entering the
‘“‘animal’s mouth during its sleep on the sand banks of the Nile, and
‘relieving it of the leeches which adhere to its throat. The truth of
“this assertion is seriously impugned, when we recollect that leeches
“do not abound in the Nile; and the polite understanding supposed
‘to exist between the Crocodile and the bird, becomes more impro- -
‘““bable, when we examine the manner in which the throat of the
“animal is formed; for having no tongue, nature has given it the ©
“‘means of closing it entirely, except when in the act of swallowing,
“and during sleep the throat is constantly shut though the mouth
“is open.” 4
Now on this passage I have to observe, first, that I have seen many
Crocodiles caught, but very few that had not many leeches adhering
to the inside of their mouths, and that these insects also infest the
Argeelah, and other animals which feed in the Ganges. Secondly,
these leeches are not the Hirudo medicinalis, which Mr. Wilkinson
is probably correct in asserting not to be common in the Nile, as that
species is not usually found in running streams. The leech in ques- —
tion seems to me (I speak with diffidence, being no entomologist) to
belong to the genus Ponfobdella, one species of which infests Cod, —
Skate, and other fish on the coasts of England. I have no doubt these
insects will be found as abundant in the Nile as they are in the
waters of Bengal. Thirdly, Herodotus says nothing about the throat
of the Crocodile, though his translator Mr. Beloe does. Herodotus says,
“the Trochilus entering the Crocodile’s mouth devours the leeches,”
; 4) ns € ix ’ , ’ , ~
for his words are, evVaura 0 ro0yiXoc eadvyvwy ec TO GTOMA aUTOU
catamiver tac (eeAAac'*
* Herod, Euterpe. clxviii,
1839. | Trochilus and Crocodile of Herodotus. O91
The Crocodile is not said by Herodotus to be sleeping during the
operation, as Mr. Wilkinson asserts, otherwise the observation, ‘‘ that
pleased with the service, he never injures the Trochilus,” would be
absurd—woeAcvpevoc NOET at Kal ovosy GlvEeTat TOY TooX thoy" *
Fourthly, as to the polite understanding which Mr. Wilkinson
presumes, this may appear strange to a person only acquainted
with wild animals as seen in showmen’s caravans and menageries,
but not to those who have studied their habits in their native haunts.
The facts relating to this subject are worthy of more consideration —
than I can give them, without deviating from my present purpose ; I
will therefore only add, that I believe the common Paddy bird of
Bengal to be the Trochilus of Herodotus, or a bird of the same genus.
Now both Europeans and Bengallees agree in asserting, that this
bird is constantly seen standing on the head of the Crocodile, and
though I never heard any one assert that he saw it in the act of
picking his teeth for him; I think it will be admitted that the visit 1s
not without an object.
I am, dear Sir,
CossIPoRE, | Yours very truly,
September, 1839. W. C. Hurry.
Art, VI.—Documents relative to the application of Camel Draught
to Carriages ; communicated by C. B. GREENLAW, Es@., Secretary to
the Bengal Steam Committee.
At a period when the applications of steam to locomotive purposes
| ‘absorb the attention of the civilized communities of the world, it may
seem almost too late to propose new directions of animal power to this
Object. The copious extracts we now publish from the documents of
| the “ Steam Committee” and of other authorities, will place the subject
in a different light. We willingly devote our pages to its consideration,
| im the conviction of its great value to all classes of Indian Society.
The discovery of the applicability of the Camel to the draught of
| ¢arriages of every kind, we regard as one of surpassing value to coun-
tries of the peculiar climate, and in the still more peculiar social
| state in which India and Egypt exist, and through which for more than
| one generation they must slowly and almost insensibly advance.
* Herod, Euterpe. clxyiil.
592 Documents relative to the application of [Jury,
To Major Davidson, of the Bengal Engineers, we believe must be
J t
assigned the signal credit of having first demonstrated the practicability
of using the Camel for carriage draught. Some years have elapsed, since
Major Davidson exhibited a Camel harnessed to a light car, on which he
travelled at the rate of eleven to fourteen miles an hour, and executed
daily stages of thirty-six miles for several days in succession. Encouraged
by this example, Mr. Bird, of Allahabad, constructed the carriage of
which we publish a striking sketch and plan, and in which he has ac-
complished the tours described by Mr. Taylor, in his note published in
the present series of documents ; for the illustrations we are indebted to
the kindness of the Hon. Mr. William Wilberforce Bird, of Calcutta.
In a subsequent number we hope to be enabled to publish interesting
details regarding the Camel Artillery organized by Major Pew, and
which, throughout the whole of the trying march on Cabul, has given
such perfect satisfaction to the projectors of this important addi-
tion to our military resources. Meanwhile, the papers we subjoin,
afford copious information on the practical points to be considered in
attempting to introduce this system on the great line of communication
through Egypt and in India. Under the auspices of the British Consu-
late, and the direction of Mr. Walne, we are sanguine as to the early
success of the attempt to establish across the isthmus of Suez a train of
vehicles in celerity only inferior to the steam vans, of which the Camel
is the certain precursor.—EKEps.
Extracts prem a letter to CAPTAIN BARBER from ALFRED WALNE, EsqQ.,
Vice- Consul in Cairo.
Her Majesty's Vice- Consulate, Cairo, 17th March, 1839.
[ Comparative expenses of Horse and Camel draught in Egypt. |
I question altogether the feasibility of finding persons in Egypt
willing and able to contract for a supply of one hundred and twenty —
horses, to drag the ten vans, which are for the carriage of coals
to Suez, and of goods from that place. But supposing even that per- —
sons were ready to come forward with the capital, it would be impossi- —
ble for them to find here horses suitable for such an undertaking.
The horses of Egypt, as experience has proved, are not in the least
calculated for draught, and not at all accustomed to it ; and even if they
were, the wear and tear in this climate, more particularly in the deserts,
:
: 1839. | Camel Draught to Carriages. 593
_ would lead to a constant and serious loss. Supposing however that
| the horses are provided, and it 1s only England that can supply them,
we must calculate the annual cost, compared with the work they can
perform, and again with that of Camels, which, whatever may be the
_ opinion in Europe, are the best, because the natural means of convey-
ance for a desert road. Premising that the following calculations are
only approximative, inasmuch as the price of provisions varies consi-
derably from year to year, I proceed to offer you the following details
of expense.
120 horses, being constantly employed for three hundred days of
_ the year, will consume 14 roobs of barley per diem; in all 54,000 roobs,
or 2,250 ardebs, of which the price has varied in the last two years
from p. 30 to 65, and even more. Taking it at the calculation of
p. 40 we have this result, 2,250X40 p. 90,000. Four-fifths of this
being for the stables in the desert, or for those in Suez, will require
carriage, which, taking the long and short distances into full considera-
tion, cannot be computed as averaging less than p. 15 the ardeb, or
1,800X15=— p. 27,000.
It is calculated that with the above supply of corn, each horse will
require per diem 4 okes of cut straw (tibne), which, purchased with
the greatest advantage, will, at the Government price, cost 4 paras the
oke. Thus120X4—480X4— 1,920, or paras 48 per diem—48 X300—
paras. 14,400.—
Of the 120 horses, 96 would naturally be either in the desert or at
Suez, and it would be necessary to carry their supplies to those places ;
now, though heavy Belladee Camels may carry 200 okes of tibne, it is
fair to calculate that three of the Bedouin Camels will not take more
than 384 okes, or the day’s supply. Thus 3X380— p. 90X300= p.
27,000, as expense of carriage.
Forty-eight, or = of the horses being at Suez, or near the Nile,
may be supplied with water at an expense which need not enter
into calculation; but seventy-two, or = being in the desert, will
require (unless boring or other means should supply new sources)
that water should be conveyed to them. Allowing for a little
wastage, but on the other hand using the most serviceable (cow)
skins, each horse will require a quarter of a Camel-load a day.
‘Thus 18X30= 540X300= p. 1,62,000.
It is indispensable that horses in this climate should be turned out,
say for sixty-five days, to Berseem or clover. Each horse is allowed
half a feddan, and taking it at about the cost of the present year,
p. 400 (which happens to, be unusually low) we have 60X400—
594 Documents relative to the application of [ JuLy, |
p. 24,000, to which we must add the expense of rafeeahs or guards, six |
of which, in addition to the ordinary attendants, will suffice to protect
the animals from robbery. Estimating each at p. 100—100X6—=
p. 600.
For the management of the five stables there would be Seeiite one
Nazir, or a general Superintendent, at p. 300 a month, five chief
Saises, resident at the several stations, at p. 100; and ten stable
assistants, at p. 60 each. In addition to these, I calculate that each set
of four horses would require one good groom, to be always with them;
and as much of his time must be passed in the desert, the monthly
wages of each cannot be estimated at less than p. 80. The total
annual expense for these men will be p. 38,400.
The horses will require shoeing at least once in 30 working days,
and supposing that this is done by contract, each set of shoes (Arab)
will cost p. 6. Thus 120X6= p. 720 a month, or in the year, p. 7,200.
To meet veterinary, and minor charges, I add p. 2,200.
Summary.
paras.
Cost of 2,250 ardebs of Barley at p. 40, vee Steet ea?” 2962008
Carriage of 4 of do to Suez and other stations, ... .... 27,000 ©
Cost ‘of cut straw (tione, ec ee Oe. eae aes |
Carriage of of do. to Suez and other stations, .... .... 27,000
Carriage of water for 72 horses todo. ... 0... ase 1,62,000
OONMeddans Dberseemes tras ciecs, tes, was aes. vag 1) pamper eee ame
6 Rafeeahs or guards, 65 ae Lee a 600
1 Nazir, or general ee aeaee of havens at p. 300 a :
month, ai oN ade tied a 36008
5 Superintendent Saises at p. 100 ae MCCA: ha 6,000
30 Grooms, or Saises, p80. don Nor A ae eee eee ee
10 Stable Assistants, p. 860" “dol ase. 0 ee
Shoeing’ 120horses; at’p. 6 each, “<2.° 7,200
Veterinary and minor expenses, say, ... s.. « «- 2,200
4,00,000
In the above calculation, nothing is put down for the wages of Eng-
lish carters—the wear and tear in harness and stable gear—the expense —
of water skins, which must be very great—the interest on outlay—or the —
loss in cattle.
But we may now calculate what work can be done with 120 horses,
kept at an annual expense of p. 4,00,000. It has been already ob-
served, that the animals are available for only about ten months of the
1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 595
year; and I consider, that, with due allowance for rest, each set of
twelve horses can make only one journey to Suez and back in ten days;
in other words, thirty vans might proceed to that place and return every
month, for ten months of the year. In the estimate it is stated, that each
van will convey 15 tons admeasurement, the heaviest horses, however,
would have great difficulty in dragging forty sacks of coal, or five tons,
weight ;—thus 5X30—150X10=1,500 tons in the year; supposing
even that there were 1,500 tons of goods to return from Suez, the ex-
pense per ton, merely reckoning the keep of and attendance on the
horses, would be each way p. 133 7 more in fact than that of Bedouin
Camel-hire for the same amount; coals being now sent to Suez for
p. 132, and goods returning from there, at from p. 80 to 100.
Much misunderstanding appears to exist as to the nature of the
Suez road, which will be found on examination to be by no means
adapted to heavy waggons, although there is nothing to interfere mate-
rially with the transit of light carriages ; always excepting the expense
of horses, in a climate in which they cannot do half the work that they
would in Europe. ‘The first part of the road, for about ten miles, is in
reality a deep sand, which would require very broad wheels to pass
over; the rest is, with a few exceptions of sandy intervals, a tolera-
bly compact gravel. I should suppose much of the road would be cut up
by only a few months passage of heavy vehicles, and that with little or
no chance of repair, so faras the Egyptian authorities are concerned.
The want of water on the road adds enormously to the expense of transit
where any other animals than Camels are used, and though it is possible,
but from the geological formation not very probable, that boring may
succeed on some points; it must not be forgotten that experiments
have already been made, (see Transactions of Geographical Society)
and without any permanently useful result. In Mr. Holme’s Report, pp.
121-122, this matter is however treated very lightly. Mr. H. says,
“another objection has been made, that there is no water between Cairo
and Suez ; if this had to be carried, as it now is, for the supply of the
cattle, &c. it would amount to a small addition in the cost of transit,
that is all ; but it can be shown from analogy that good water could be
found by boring at any point on ¢his line, and at about depth ;
and were this not the case, or did it present a greater difficulty, 25,000/.
or 26,000/. would lay down a pipe, the whole distance ; and consequently
provide a self-acting supply from the Nile at any point where a plug
might be fixed.” Mr. H. writing at a distance from this country, seems
not to have been aware that the principal level of the desert is more
than sixty feet above the surface of the Nile, during the period of
596 Documents relative to the application of [Juny,
inundation, and that several parts of the road are sti// higher. However
convenient therefore this self-acting supply may appear on paper,
we who are on the spot know very well, that the expense would not by
any means be confined to so many miles of iron pipe, but that to raise
the water to the requisite height, there would be a considerable outlay :
for a steam engine, raised tank, &c., &c. in addition to which there
is nothing to prevent the pipe being injured or destroyed in any part of
the road, whenever the Bedouins should wish to impede the carriage
transit, on which they cannot look wzth very favourable eyes, depriving
them, as it would do in great measure, of the means of existence. Re-
flecting upon the subject of transit across the isthmus, I cannot too
strongly urge on you the necessity of abandoning the van scheme, so far
at least as the carriage of coal and heavy goods is concerned. ‘Tillsuch
time as enterprise may have re-opened the ancient canal, or laid down ©
a rail road, I would advise you to use the means which this country
- places at your disposal. Should the demands of the Egyptian Govern-
ment, as I think is very probable, so far engross the Bedouin Camels as —
to prevent your hiring a sufficient supply, it will I believe be in your
power to find persons in Egypt ready to purchase, keep, and furnish by
contract, a sufficient number of heavy Camels, to carry across any quan-
tity of coal you may require, at about the present cost, as estimated in —
my report. The following sketch will however shew, approximatively,
what would be the expense to a Company, keeping its own animals,
in order to have a regular and certain supply entirely at its own
disposal.
Three hundred heavy camels, to be kept in good condition, will re-
quire, at the rate of a roob each, 300 roobs of beans daily, or say 300
days of the year, or 3,750 ardebs. The variation of prices has been
so great in the last few years, that itis difficult to estimate the average,
but I put it down as double the cost of barley, which I reckoned at
p. 40 the ardeb, 3,750X80 p. 300,000.
Taking into calculation, that when crossing the desert Camels
brouse by preference on the prickly plants and shrubs which abound
along the whole line of road, I estimate the quantity that will be
required of cut straw (tibne) at 600,000 okes, which, at 4 paras the oke,
will cost p. 60,000. Each animal carries his own provisions, so that
there is no extra expense upon this head, as in the case of horses.
For the above number of Camels at the rate of 2 a fedden each, —
200 feddens of Berseem will be required, which at p. 400 will cost
p. 80,000. During sixty-five days, 10 rafeeahs or guards must be em-
ployed, at p. 100 each, 10X100 p, 1,000.
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 597
To take charge of the Camels I allow one Nazir, or general super-
intendent, at p. 300 a month; 3 mukuddems at p. 100 each; and 60
Camel men at p. 60—making an annual outlay in wages, of p. 50,400,
to which must be added two men to mend the saddles, &c., at p. 70, or
for the year, p. 1,680.
Summary.
paras,
Cost of 3,750 ardebs of beans, at p. 80, SPAT apncnteee” bEQO;000
Do. Tibne, Lies tip Teo igre as PATI ee otis othe hee OOOO
Do. 200 feddens of Berseem, at p. 400, Bate, aes 80,000
10 Rafeeahs, (guards) at p. 100, ... 66. see eevee 1,000
Pevezic. aip. 300 a-month, ... © sss) csc. ee te es 3,600
3 Makuddems, at p. 100 do. Sis ities gieriitia'c.e en < sete as 3,600
60 Camel men, at p. GO do. ... 4. ss. nen eee eee = 48,200
Veterinary and incidental expenses, say, Nene dyads eee 4,600
496,000
Not to overwork the Camels, I should allow ten days for the journey
to Suez and back again, the animals being loaded each way, and carry-
ing a quarter of a ton each. In the three trips per month, they would
convey 250 tons of coal to Suez, and working only 300 days of the
year, would place at the depét there 2,500 tons, being available to
bring back a similar weight of goods from Suez. Calculating the car-
riage of the former at p. 132 the ton, the latter would be about
18
p- (355,
The great advantage in an establishment of this kind would be the
regularity with which the coals might be transmitted to Suez; and
as the departure and arrival of the caravans would be entirely subject
to the Company’s arrangements, all the packages landed from the
steamer at Suez, might be immediately brought across the desert, and
proceed without loss of time to their destination.
Any one who has long resided in this country, and has had opportu-
nities of comparing the relative cost and utility of Horses and Camels ;
will have no hesitation in deciding in favor of the latter. The Camel is
a most hardy animal, carries its supply of water in its stomach and its
beans upon its back, browses on prickly shrubs no other animal can
touch, and does not ever require a shade or covering to its resting place.
These are qualities which even the English horse most certainly does
not possess, and if ever the communication between Cairo and Suez is
to be made by vans, it is the Camel and not the horse, or even the mule,
that must be harnessed to them.
An
598 Documents relative to the application of [ Juy,
In the event of a Company requiring a Camel establishment of their
own, the agents must not be allowed to purchase the village Camels
that are to be found in the neighbourhood of Cairo. Such animals, al-
though very heavy, appear to have lost somewhat of their natural habi-
tudes, and to be less fitted for the desert than those of the Bedouin
breed. It would be necessary to send persons of competent knowledge
to the Bisharee desert or the Sennaar, where Camels are good, plentiful,
and cheap. Some losses in bringing them down would be unavoidable,
and it is but safe to calculate a good stud of well chosen, strong, heavy
Camels as averaging not less than 15/. a head.
(Signed) ALFRED S. WALNE.
Memorandum on Camel Draught and Harness. By Captain Taytor,
late Agent for Post Office Inquiries.
The recent discovery of the efficiency of the Camel in draught, is a
point of singular moment in respect to overland communication. Mr.
Bird, the able and intelligent senior member of the Board of Revenue at
Allahabad, has recently made the tour of Upper India in a carriage
drawn by two, three, or four Camels, as circumstances rendered their pow-
er necessary. The more usual number in harness, was three. The car-
riage was a light britska on four wheels, each of five feet diameter, with —
a dickey fore and aft, and a well for baggage. The carriage conveyed —
Mr. Bird and his lady, and four servants, and baggage consisting of beds,
tables, portable chairs, crockery, cooking utensils, wines, &c., and clothes,
writing apparatus, and official documents. They travelled at from |
thirty-six to forty miles per day, going half the above distance in the —
morning, and half in the afternoon. Either half was usually perform-
ed in from three to four hours; the pace averaging about six miles per
hour, when the road was good ; and about four and a half, or five miles |
per hour, when the road was indifferent. In deep sand, the pace would
of course be less ; but in sand, such as the desert is represented between
Suez and Cairo, I should think five miles per hour might be easily
obtained. I made some experiments myself while in Upper India, in
respect to the Camel in draught, which I here take the opportunity to |
mention.
First, in respect to conveyance of baggage. Secondly, in respect |
to conveyance of men.
A small frame composed of strong bamboos was placed on a pair of
wheels, and balanced much in the same manner as the ekkas in the
North-West Provinces. On this was placed a large stout tin box,
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Built and driven by Kobert M. Bird Esq Two Thousand Miles inhis Official Journey through the North Western Provinces during the cold Season of 1838-9.
Diameter of the Wheels Six feet.
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1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 599 |
in a wooden frame, four feet
square by two and a half high.
A Camel was then brought,
equipped just as a common
Huckaree Camel, but having
a small loop on either side
of the saddle, into which the
hook of the shafts was passed.
_ The Camel was mounted, and
in lieu of putting baggage into the van, we put four men and started
it. The Camel moved away with it at the rate of full six and a half
miles an hour, and trotted gaily all round the stony and uneven surface
of a large compound. We then proceeded some distance along the road,
and the Camel van was found to answer admirably.
The next day we tried a four wheel conveyance fer passengers. It
was a light carriage, something between a palanquin carriage and a
double bodied coach, with rattan-work blinds, which let up and down,
and excluded the glare, while they let in the breeze. It had a
small dickey in front, and afforded excellent accommodation for two
persons and their servants, and a couple of carpet bags, and minor &cs.
To this we harnessed two Camels, the pole beimg attached to one side
of each saddle, and a bamboo trace being fastened to the other side.
The Camels were mounted, and Dr. Ranken—the ingenious inventor, and
prime mover of the whole—and myself being seated inside, and a servant
on the dickey, we started, and drove half round the city walls of
Delhi, then entered the gate and drove through the Chandrichouk, to
the no small surprise of the natives: our pace being somewhat more
than seven miles an hour. We returned home after a drive of some six
or seven miles. The next evening a second experiment was made.
Three miles were measured from the Cashmere gate. The road was
mostly good and smooth, but by no means level, the load about thirty
stone ; the carriage started, and completed the entire three miles out,
and three miles back, total six miles, in thirty-eight minutes ;—nine and
a half miles per hour.
Again I left Delhi en route to Allyghur, and after crossing the river,
started in the above mentioned carriage with two Camels for Dadree, dis-
tant twenty-two miles. The first eighteen miles were certainly as
rough a road as I ever remember to have passed in a wheel conveyance,
and in places indeed was so bad, that I was compelled to quit the road,
and drive through the fields. The last four miles were good. The
whole distance was performed in four hours and twenty minutes,
600 - Documents relative to the application of (Jur,
including a detention of about ten minutes in crossing the Hindon
river.
When the Camel’s temper, docility, strength, and capacity to endure
thirst, are considered, it must be obvious that no mode of crossing the
desert could be discovered, equal to that of a Camel carriage.
The best description of carriage for the purpose, would probably be |
something between a britska and a cab phaeton, made as light as pos-
sible, with hood that will let down or close up entirely, and with dickies
for servants before and behind, and room in the body, or under the
dickies, for clothes and other baggage. On a good road such carriage
should of course be made with steel springs, but for crossing rough
roads, I should think, that long springs of buffalo leather, like those used
for the Caracollas in the Havannah, described in Alexander’s travels,
would answer well. The wheels should be all of the same size, and
five feet in diameter. I should think that carriages of the sort required,
might be built both cheaper and better in India than in Europe. Cal-
cutta built carriages are usually lighter than those imported, and the
wheels are especially much lighter, and certainly stand the climate better.
I have reason to believe that for 1,500 or 1,600 rupees, a carriage
of the above description, every way efficient, may be built in Calcutta.
Three Camels per stage would be ample for such carriage, to take two |
passengers, their servants, and light baggage; and the distance from
Suez to Cairo being under eighty miles, four stages would suffice. Three
relays would be necessary, and the journey might then be performed
with safety and ease in twelve hours. These relays might be sent for- |
ward from Suez, when the steamer was first signalized, and would then ©
be ready to take forward the carriage, when the traveller reached the
relay station.
The Camel draws with perfect ease, and requires but little training.
His pace is a long walk, or a long trot, and there is no unpleasant
motion of any sort imparted to the carriage by his movement. It is
not generally advisable to take a Camel in draught a longer stage than
twenty miles, as when over-worked they are apt to lie down, and will ©
not move; an unpleasant proceeding in mid-stage. But for eighteen
miles they will trot readily and well. Camels for draught should be
highly fed, and it is a good plan, at the expiration of a stage, to give
them half a seer of ghee ; this if laid out in skins, they will lap up at
once, and will then readily eat their grain or fodder; but otherwise, |
they will sometimes be off their food ; and it cannot be too strongly im-
pressed on all who employ the Camel in draught, that good feeding is a
sine qué non to ensure its efficiency.
1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 601
The Camel men generally have a prejudice against employing Ca-
_mels in draught. They say that the Camel was never intended to draw,
but to carry, and look upon it as little less than a sin to put the animal
into harness. They have further a prejudice, that it will kill the
Camel : this is altogether fallacious. On a plain, the Camel draws with
extraordinary ease, and a single Camel is fully equal to two and a half
horses. It is not however so easy to combine Camel labour, as it is that
of horses, i. e., it is less easy to make them pull quite steadily together ;
and four Camels are not equivalent to ten horses; I should estimate
their power rather that of seven or eight horses. They do not draw very
well up hill.
In India, the Rewarree Camels draw with the least training, because
they are accustomed, in their own country, to draw the plough; and I
should think the Egyptian Dromedary would draw equally well, for I
_ think I remember to have read in some book of travels, that in Upper
Egypt they are occasionally harnessed to the ferry boats,
The carriage should be built as light as is consistent with the union
of strength and comfort, for it is far preferable to have a light carriage
drawn by two Camels, than to have a heavy carriage with four Camels.
The Camel will draw a buggy well, but the buggy should be so ba-
lanced, like the ekkas, that but little weight may rest on the animal;
and it must be borne in mind, that in consequence of the Camel’s height,
the shafts must necessarily have a considerable inclination upwards.
The bridle and saddle required for the Camel in draught, are pre-
cisely the same as those used for the common Sandees or Hurkaruh
Camels of Upper India. On each side of the saddle however, and a little
behind the legs of the rider, is an iron ring into which the hooks of the
traces are looped. Around the neck of a Camel is a sort of breast-plate
of broad tape or rope, which serves to keep the saddle steady in its
position.
The traces are of male bamboo, with a hook at one end to hook into
the ring on the saddle, and on the other a loop, like those of a leathern
trace, to loop on to the carriage.
The Camels are harnessed in pairs. There is a pole like that used
for horses, but its position is more upright, and which is buckled to the
saddle, as it would be to the harness of a horse.
_~> When four Camels, or three Camels are used, splinter bars are put on
the top of the pole, and the front Camels are harnessed to them by
traces in the same manner as the wheel Camels. Each Camel has a
separate rider. , T. J. TAYLOR.
CaucuTta, April 15th, 1839.
inti
602 Documents relative to the application of [Juny,
Extracts from Mr. Waunr’s letter of 15th June, 1839.—Dromedary
Carriages.
I now proceed to the question of Dromedary carriages. My attention
has for sometime been seriously turned to this subject, and though
observation has quite convinced me that the Camel is a most useful —
animal for draught, and may be turned to great account in taking across
the desert trucks loaded with coals, and other heavy articles, I have
hitherto felt rather less sanguine as to adapting Dromedaries (i. e. light
Camels) to vehicles calculated to combine comfort with expedition.
The difficulty attaches principally to the carriage, and the peculiar road —
over which it has to pass, and is one, after all, which will doubtless be
overcome by the ingenuity of the coach maker. Though a considerable
portion of the Suez desert is a hard gravelly plain, there are here and
there broad bands of deep sand, over which an ordinary carriage
cannot readily pass, whilst in other spots the road is so strong and
rough as to defy the best springs, and put ease out of the question. It
is, in short, as nature has made it; and though art may do something to
improve its condition, this line can never acquire the properties of a
good carriage road. To overcome these obstacles it is necessary that
the wheels should have a much greater diameter than those usually —
employed, and in my proposals forwarded by the last steamer to the ©
Honorable Court of Directors, I suggested, for the conveyance of coals
a truck, or cart, with two wheels of nine feet diameter, the weight
being suspended from the axle, and the pole resting by a bar on the
necks of two Camels. A carriage however for the conveyance of
passengers, obviously requires four wheels, and as their diameter must
be not less than six feet, and should if possible be more, the whole
vehicle will be apt to acquire rather an unwieldy form. The height
however of the body from the ground may be diminished (though a
little at the expense of strength) by giving a dip or bend a to the axles
1 which, as well as the wheels, must be of wrought
iron, and by placing the suspension (not curricle)
springs at the sides, 6 6. The pole must be
adapted not only to the height of Dromedaries
as they stand, but also to their habit of occasion-
ally lying down, and the draught be on the hump and ribs of the animals,
the harness being similar to that of Major Pew’s Artillery. The body
should of course be as light as is consistent with the requisite strength, —
have good arrangements for ventilation, and might contain comfortable
sitting room for eight persons, four inside, and two in a cabriolet divi-
sion at either end. For a carriage of this kind, four Dromedaries will be
necessary, and the journey being divided into four stages, each ve-
|
dae mall
|
: 1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 6038
hicle will require 16 animals. Taking the calculation at 13 carriages
and 208 Dromedaries, the following will be the annual expense of the
latter, reckoning beans at p. 60 the ardeb.
2,600 ardebs of beans, at 60, ... «.. «. p. 156,000
374,400 Okes cut straw, sk ash ae Laan 1 S40)
104 Feddans Berseem,... .. ... 41,600
Rafeeahs, SUM Mate aan sap 1,000
Se A GOO
52 Boys, at 35 p. month, ... ahs Ne OO
20 Men, at 60 ditto, ... ee Vaio 15,120
t Nazir, at 300,... A, a) 3,600
Mecidental expenses, say, © 0320... eee see 55 2,680
280,000 £ 2,800
To render the Dromedaries serviceable for bringing passengers from
Suez, as well as conveying them to that place, it is requisite to add 52
Dromedaries (increasing the annual expense one fourth,) to be placed
at the Suez station, at the same time doubling the number of carriages.
The latter would, at each end of the journey, await the arrival of the
following steamer, but for the intermediate time the animals should be
withdrawn from the stations to the neighbourhood of Cairo, where alone
they could be fed with economy, and be properly looked after.
For both mules and dromedaries there must be some expense atten-
ding the carriage of beans to Suez, and there may also be an occasional
outlay for water at the stations in the desert. In the event of the former
being employed, each mule would, on ordinary occasions, carry a bag of
beans and a small girbeh of water, sufficient for the 30 hours passed in
the desert ; and if carriages be adopted, the dromedaries sent forward
for relays will take with them a quantity of beans and straw sufficient
for the journey. In either case the detention of the animals at Suez
should be as short as possible, not only on account of the great additi-
onal expense of feeding them there, but the bad condition which is apt
to result from the continued use of brackish water.
In the above estimates I have only calculated the number of animals,
whether mules or dromedaries, required for the transit of 100 passen-
gers, but I need not observe that to provide for casualties a larger esta-
blishment would be-required. The clover season too, in which the whole
stud must be turned out, will give rise to some inconvenience, that
must be anticipated and provided for.
It will have been seen, by a comparison of the two estimates, that in
the annual expense of keeping mules for sedans, and dromedaries for
604 Documents relative to the application of [Juy,
carriages, there is no very material difference. The speed will, I consi-
der be nearly equal, and I question if in either mode the actual journey
be in general performed in less than eighteen hours. Even in carriages
I presume the travellers, particularly ladies, would gladly avail them-
selves of ten or twelve hours rest at the stations, and as the departure
of the steamer must be regulated by the arrival of the cargo and bag-
gage, no advantage would be gained by compelling passengers to hurry
through a journey, that must, under the most favourable circumstances,
be sufficiently fatiguing. As however the advantages and disadvanta-
ges of either scheme can only be judged of by experience, the best
advice I can give the Committee is to direct comparative experiments
on the actual road, to be made and reported on a rough carriage, that
might afterwards serve as a break; and a sedan frame, four dromeda-
ries and two mules, are all that would be required, and a series of trials
made for a few weeks, and at a trifling outlay, would set the question at
rest, and enable the Committee to adopt a plan that need not —_ the
expense of subsequent alterations.
The freight of coal from Alexandria to Cairo is, in native boats, 6 a
ton, and the landing, stowing, and subsequent transfer to the steamer,
will cost about one more. The latter charge is the mere cost of Arab
labour, and is distinct from the annual expense of a clerk, weigher,
gate-keepers, &c., which, with proper management, might be serviceable
in the baggage and cargo department, as well as in the coal depét, provid-
ed the latter be limited to the supply of the Nile steamers. In the event
however of there being a depét, on a large scale, connected with the |
transfer of coals to Suez, the establishment should be entirely separate.
If by employing large steamers coaled at Aden, the depét at Suez
can be dispensed with, doubtless there will be a great advantage to the
Company in such an arrangement. \ The business of the Egyptian
Agency, already sufficiently comprehensive, will be proportionately
lighter, and probably a great annual expense will be avoided.
In my letter to Mr. Greenlaw, dated 17th December, I offered an
estimate of the expense of delivering coal; which was at that time from
Alexandria to Suez about 2/. a ton. A recent rise in Camel hire has
added nearly 10 per cent. to the cost as then calculated ; so that the car-
riage of coals by hired Camels, particularly where so large a quantity as
10,000 tons is required, has less to recommend it than formerly. An
immense saving may however be effected by the adoption of the Camel
suspension truck, to which I have already alluded, and I calculate that
coal may be put on board at Suez for about 1/. 13s., exclusive of the
cost of delivery by contract (at present 2/.,) at Alexandria. The
1839. | Camel draught to Carriages. 605
plans and estimates connected with this subject are now before the
Honorable Court of Directors, and I leave it to the Committee to use
their influence, in obtaining from that source, the information I have
communicated, and which is I believe of sufficient interest to merit
their attention.
( Signed ) ALFRED 8S. WALNE.
PRIGLOPIPLE LIL
Her Majesty's Vice- Consulate, Cairo, 5th July, 1839.
Sir,—I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letter of the
29th April, containing copy of a paper on Camel carriages, communi-
cated by Mr. T. J. Taylor to the Committee of the New Bengal Steam
Fund.
In my letter to Capt. Barber, of which the above is a copy, I have
entered somewhat at length into the question of Dromedary carriages,
and before the departure of the next English Steamer, I shall, in com-
pliance with your request, send him a few observations on Mr. Taylor’s
excellent paper, the perusal of which has interested me much, and
afforded me some hints that may prove extremely useful.
I am sorry that I cannot forward you a copy of my proposals for the
carriage of coals, in high wheeled carts, drawn by Camels; but having
caused them to be laid before the Court of Directors, I thought it best
to limit myself to advising Capt. Barber as to the source from which he
could obtain the information I had furnished.
I was enabled to obtain from Capt. Graham, who accompanied the
elephants to Cairo, a general idea of Major Pew’s Camel Artillery,
but if the Committee would do me the favor to furnish me with a sketch
of the harness in detail, I should feel particularly obliged.
( Signed ) ALFRED 8S. WALNE.
C. B. Greenuaw, Esa.
Sec. N. B.S. Fund.
4A’y
606 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [ JuLy, |
Arr. VII.—Account of a Journey from Sumbulpiir to Mednipir,
through the Forests of Orissa. By Lizut. M. Kitroe.
(Continued from page 480.)
May 28th. I resumed my march at half-past 2 a. m.; the morn-
ing was very clear, and sufficiently light for me to see as much as
was necessary after my observations the previous evening.
I had almost forgotten to mention, that yesterday evening a very
intelligent person from Lehra had given me a good deal of information,
which, if quite correct, would be very valuable. Having learnt from
me the ghat I was proceeding to in the Keunjur hills, he told me that
I had come much too far south, that I ought to have continued due
east from Sonamoonda, where I had turned southward, and have
crossed the river at Barakot, a place at the foot of the hills between
which it flows by a very narrow pass, and that from thence to the
mountain chain, the path was direct and tolerably good; he added,
that it led to a pass that had not yet been examined, and which is ina
very good direction.
In consequence of this information I determined to regain the pro-
per line by avoiding Lehra, and proceeding direct to a place called
Goorsunk, distant fourteen and a quarter miles. On first starting I went
through the village and then descended into the bed of the river, which
I crossed in a direction slightly diagonal, passing over several islands ;
the distance across was half a mile. The gravel in the river’s bed
consists chiefly of granite, gneiss, quartz, and much jasper of variegated
colors. I could not discover the slightest trace of coal, so that I feel
the more positive of the correctness of a former conjecture of mine,
that the coal measures are confined to the country below the gneiss
and granite formation, extending along the northern boundary of
Talcher, Ungool, and Rehrakdl.
Having reached the opposite bank I travelled in a north-easterly di-
rection over tracts of very rich soil, with an equal proportion of jungle and
cultivation, till I reached a large village amidst beautiful mango topes,
called Hunnaum, distant one and a quarter miles from Barsing ;
from hence to another respectable place called Bumpura, nine miles
further on. I passed through a thin forest of saul with occasional patches |
of cultivation, the path inclining more to the eastward than before ; the
soil is exceedingly rich, consequently the heavy rain of the previous
evening had rendered the road very muddy and difficult to travel over;
in this there was one advantage, for it shewed the necessity of metal-
ling, should the road pass this way. It is really lamentable to see
such fine lands left uncultivated.
1839.] Ldeut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 607
Three miles and seven. furlongs beyond Bumpura, I reached my
encamping ground at Goorsunk; most of the huts in the village were
falling to ruins, one third of the population having perished from
famine and cholera the previous year; it is situated at the entrance
of a narrow pass between two low ranges of hills, and is surrounded
with fine topes, in one of which I spread my carpets and made myself
snug for the day.
While passing through the forest a peculiar sound attracted my at-
tention, it was like that of a wooden ball dropped on a board and al-
lowed to vibrate; I at: first thought it might be a woodpecker, as it
proceeded from the top of a lofty and withered tree, but upon inquiry
I was told that it was a kind of frog which inhabited the trees
(the tree frog?) and that its call was a sure harbinger of rain ;* it is
considered venomous, indeed that its bite is certain death. I regret
that I could not obtain a specimen ; its color is said to be dark with
white spots. At this place I remarked a number of stones placed in
the same manner as the druidical monuments (such as the Kitscotty
house near Boxley in Kent) viz., three set upright, with one on the top
of them, the dimensions of these are however very small, and have the
appearance of a number of three legged stools. A custom prevails in these
parts, of relatives collecting the ashes and bones of the deceased, and
after burying them, placing stones over the spots in the manner above
- described.
Before my arrival the male part of the small population had fled to
the jungles, leaving their better halves to protect themselves and
property as they best could. It is a common practice throughout these
provinces ; the instant strangers are perceived, off the people run (as if
their lives were at stake) and are hid in the depths of the jungle in a
moment,—it is to facilitate their escape that the jungle is never entire-
ly cleared near the villages ; a narrow belt connected with the forest
is usually to be found. I forbade my followers leaving camp in order
to prevent pilfering; the villagers returned towards the afternoon,
and crowded round me to see what description of being the Sahib was,
never having beheld a white man before.
The view from Goorsunk is very confined, the place being situated in
a hollow ; to the eastward rise the Keunjur mountains over which I was
to pass, they appear to be near 2,000 feet, and are thickly studded with
trees. To the southward the Malagir mountain is distinctly visible above
_* Thave since heard many, and am inclined to think that these reptiles do not call
except on the near approach of and during wet weather, as I have never heard them
_ at any other time.—M. K.
608 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Jury,
the range of low hills; this mountain is reckoned the highest in Orissa ;
the people assert that there is frost (‘‘ pala”) on its summit all the
year round, and that the cold in the winter months is very great ; the
latter assertion I can easily credit, for it cannot be less than 4,000 feet |
above the level of the sea, perhaps more. I hope at some future period
to be able to measure its height, and to learn more concerning it, for if |
all accounts be true, it would be a delightful and salubrious locality
for the residence of any European functionary appointed to preside
over these ill-governed and ill-fated states. There is a “ gurh” or
stockade on ashelf of land two-thirds of the way up the mountain on its _
northern face; there is said to be a fine tank and beautiful groves of
orange* and other fruit trees ; the position is considered very strong, and
has for many years been resorted to as the place of refuge, (in case of
attack) of the Lehrapal Zemindar. The estate of Lehra was formerly one
of the eighteen dependencies of Sumbulpur, as I have before said; but
some years ago, the uncle of the present Zemindar willed his estate to the
Keunjur Raja, or rather gave it to him as a dowry on the marriage of |
his daughter (an only child.) This questionable act has led, as may well
be supposed, to continual feuds between the two powers, the Zemin-
dar refusing to pay the homage required by the Keunjur Raja, and
the latter refusing to accept the tribute (which amounts to 250 Rupees —
per annum) unless the former consents to attend once a year at the ©
Keunjur durbar, and there present a nuzzur together with his
tribute, dressed in woman’s attire, i. e. a Sarf and Chiuris (bangles) —
on his arms, and in this condition prostrate himself at the Raja’s feet.
This the Lehra chief has from the first refused to do.
It is said that the former Rajas of Lehra used to hold their estate on |
this particular tenure from the Rajas of Sumbulptr, but that the
Earn had long since been discontinued. Most of the minor
“ gurhs” were originally held on the like curious tenures, and some —
even still more absurd, for instance the adjacent state of Rehrakdl ; |
the Zemindar used to perform (once a year) what was termed the
“ Muggur loth” or alligator’s roll, when attending with his tribute on
his lord (Sumbulptir). The ceremony is thus described :—the Ze-
mindar besmeared himself with mud, and when arrived within a
stipulated distance he had to lie down and roll along the ground in |
that condition to the Raja’s feet, which he saluted, his nuzzur was then
accepted and he was allowed to rise.
In consequence of the above mentioned difference between the
* The states of Talcher, Rehrak6l, and Lehra are famous for oranges of a small |
size, but very sweet.
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. .609
Lehra and Keunjur Rajas, the former sent two trustworthy persons
to confer with me on the subject; I listened to their story, but as I
had no power to interfere I declined giving any advice, except enjoin-
ing them to keep the peace, which I was informed the latter wished to
disturb.
I learnt the following from the vakeels—the difference between the
two states had existed for many years; at first Colonel Gilbert (the
Governor General’s Agent) visited Lehra to inquire into the case, he
directed the Keunjur Raja to remove his paik thannas out of Lehra
until the dispute between the parties was amicably adjusted ; up to
that period the tribute had been paid to Sumbulpur, but since then
the Lehra man had regularly offered it to him of Keunjur, who has
invariably refused to receive it unless the former consents to perform
the degrading ceremony.
The tribute has been regularly placed in the treasury of Lehra, and
has consequently accumulated to some thousands of rupees, which the
Zemindar said he was willing to pay either to Keunjur or to the British
Government, but will sooner forfeit his life than humble himself as
required ;* the vakeels said that the Commissioner of Cuttack had re-
fused to accept the tribute, and had ordered their master to submit to
Keunjur, they added that they would do any thing I would order
short of the degradation required.
This case shews perhaps the necessity of the political officers occa-
sionally visiting the different mehauls; much good would result from
it in various ways ; but such is the multiplicity of duty which they
are at present saddled with, that they have but barely time to attend to
the more immediate and urgent duties of the country under our own re-
gulations ; added to which the stations of the two (present) authorities,
viz. the Governor General’s Agent, south-west frontier at Kishenpur
near Hazaribaug, and the Commissioner at Cuttack, are both upwards
of one hundred miles removed.
Having dismissed the Lehra people, with promises that I would
try and get the Keunjur Raja to come to amicable terms, (if I met
him) also to speak to the Commissioner, I proceeded to give the
Deogurh Mooktar his ‘“ rooksut” as I was now no longer in his dis-
trict ; he complained loudly of the extortions and oppressive conduct
of some of the people who had attended on Capt. Abbott, and myself,
* In January of the present year when at Jotepur in Keunjur, I was informed that
the Raja was preparing for an attack on Lehra, having erroneously supposed that Mr.
B—. the Commissioner, sanctioned his so doing ; and I was assured that my presence
only had induced them tosuspend hostilities which they intended to re-commence when
I should have left.
610 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [Juty,
I took down his deposition in writing and determined to report their
conduct, which I did subsequently ;* a further complaint was made —
of the oppressive conduct of one of the postmaster’s jemadars, who
had been extorting money, right and left, under false pretences of
having been ordered to take the road first through one place then ano-
ther; this individual had however lately been severely punished and
discharged by Mr. B. who had heard of some of his pranks.
Being informed that the road in advance was very difficult and
rugged, I thought it prudent not to push on in the evening as I had
at first intended, so I passed the night at Goorsunk. :
May 29th. Started this morning at half-past three and reached
Tungoora at the top of the ghat at 10 a.m. after a most fatiguing
march up and down hill for twelve and a half miles (by my peram-
bulator) but by a previous measurement made by one of Mr. B 3
people it was much less,t the whole ascent being only 1,800 feet
in all. This must however be an error, as the least, actual height of
Tungoora above Goorsunk must be from 1,800 to 2,000 feet ; the
difference of atmosphere and of the range of the thermometer clearly
indicates it; the latter was ten degrees below the range at Barsing
and Goorsunk, and it must I should think be at least fifteen degrees
below the usual range in the country below. The Malagir mountain
(which is seen in all its grandeur from hence) appears to be consi-
derably higher, therefore the thermometer at the hottest season ranges
perhaps at six or eight degrees less still, which would make it a
desirable spot for a sanatarium.
The road from Goorsunk as far as the village of Mandarah—six
miles and a quarter—has a direction slightly northerly ; there are many
small watercourses and, much uneven ground, also two large nullas
over which rope bridges would be requisite, but it appeared to me
that a much more favorable line could be laid down and innumerable
windings avoided, also many watercourses. From Mandarah the
bearing of the valley from which the ghats (viz. Tungoora and
Muttighatti) branch off is 60° south; I proceeded up the elevated
ground in the centre of this valley, till a little beyond the village of
Rungaree, at five miles and six furlongs I crossed a deep nulla and
turning due north entered a narrow branch valley with a water.
course down its centre, at this spot the path to the Muttighatti —
* Major W—. I believe attempted to inquire into this matter, but was unable to
gather the witnesses ; these people would sacrifice any thing rather than leave their
homes and venture before our cutcheries, however kind the European officer.
¢ I subsequently found that I had been led by another path the worst of all.
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 611
continued in a south-east direction. At seven miles and one furlong I
reached the first perceptible ascent, and at nine miles and one furlong
reached the top of the first ghat which was tolerably steep, much
more so than necessary, as were the path to have an even ascent
it would be less fatiguing, but at its best it would be difficult for
wheeled carriages ; the path runs along the edges of the watercourse,
crossing occasionally from side to side, beyond this there is much
gentle ascent over good ground ; the second, third, and fourth ascents are
very steep, but of no great duration, there are also several descents. If
this ghat be adopted, the path must be judiciously managed so as
to wind down by the edges of the watercourses ; the greatest obstacle
is the rocky nature of four out of five of the ascents, and of three-
fourths of the whole distance ; the stones could be thrown aside, but
such as could not be removed could also scarcely be blasted, as the
rock is of the hardest quartz and granite; they might perhaps be
broken with sledge hammers and wedges.
Nature offers a capital hint for protecting the inclined surfaces of
roads in the hilly tracts from being washed away and cut into furrows,
and in many instances completely destroyed,—it is the effect produced
by those trees which have fallen athwart the paths, likewise parallel
to them ; at these spots there are regular steps formed (as it were) and
the intermediate spaces are quite level ; whenever I have passed over
undulating lands (which are as ten to one) I have observed that paths
are less cut up and much better when there are fallen trees.
The hills havea superstratum of stiff red marl, and many are culti-
vated to the very peaks ;* it has a lively appearance and bespeaks
industry, for great labour must be bestowed in clearing these lands.
Tungoora is a large village surrounded with plantain gardens, it is
in the Lehra zemindaree, and is supplied with good water from
two strong springs flowing down both to the north and south sides of
the hill, several hundred feet below. The view from hence is very
grand but confined, owing to the trees.
‘siderably north of east. Mr. B
The jungle on this morning’s march was the same as usual, rather
scanty but the trees very lofty, there are many wild mangoes along
the ghat, the fruit is small and extremely acid.
The direction from the entrance of the ghat thus far, has been con-
’s road has never been surveyed,
therefore the real direction is not known ; I should not be surprised at
* From the specimens I have seen of the soils in which the tea plant grows, I should
think these tracts would prove favorable to its cultivation, I have already described
the climate.—M. K.
612 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Jury,
finding it the proper one from Byega to Terentee, I shall be the
better pleased as there will then be no necessity for going near
Keunjurgurh (which is far too much south,) and thereby all cause of
discontent will be removed.
In the evening I ascended the highest spot of ground near the ~
village, from whence I had a noble view of the country to the east,
south, and west. The beautiful mountain described in yesterday’s
journal is seen in all its grandeur, bearing south-east ; I took a rough
sketch of it and the country below it. [See the plate. ]
May 30th. Marched this morning at twenty minutes past ] a. m.
and reached our ground at 7 o’clock, distance nine miles per peram-
bulator. I halted three times on the road, in all about an hour and a
half, to allow the palkee to come up; I was led by a very rough path
but not so much as yesterday, for the descent upon the whole is more
gradual, with less jungle, and with care and ingenuity could be
improved. I passed through three villages on the road ; the first (which
is deserted) at four miles and forty yards is called Keeragurh, the second
at six miles and one furlong, Sura,—this one is a good size, and the boun-
dary of Keunjur and Lehra, it is at the bottom of the ghat at the head
ofalong valley. Ateight miles one furlong and one hundred and eighty
yards I came to a large village in Keunjur called Turmagurh,
three-quarters of a mile beyond which, or nine miles from Tungoora, is
the small village of Ballera, both are in the centre of an extensive
valley (bearing east and west) which is almost entirely cleared of
jungle, likewise several of the hills. During this morning’s march I
searched in vain in the beds of all the nullas to find any traces of
limestone rocks, the pebbles and boulders consisted generally of quartz,
sienite, hornblende, felspar, greenstone, but no ores of any kind.
I saw but few birds, but observed a great variety of moths and
butterflies of beautiful colors, and while resting under a tree I remark-
ed a peculiar kind of stick worm, which formed a coat of fine straws
and small pieces of bamboo leaves, the worm is about an inch and a
half long ; my attention was attracted to it by seeing a dry leaf travel-
ling along, there were many of them; I was too fatigued to occupy my-
self with collecting either any of these or of the moths and butterflies.
There seems to be always something new to learn, and to amuse the
traveller; while resting, some of my people wanted to light their pipes, —
but there was no fire, one of the coolies volunteered to produce some, ~
which he did by the following means:—the man searched for a
piece of dry bamboo which he split in half, and with a piece of
iron made a small hole in the centre of one of the joints on the
inside, he then cut a small switch of a peculiar kind of pithy
A aS
ae Steen one
Vora ee
ase *
<n
40 MAZIA
ey tt SN RANE
ae Se
4.——
yk ay ~
: ae
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se
BEC We)
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a, te i ree: are ‘
rile ria extited toed
+
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 613
shrub to a length of about a cubit, he pointed one end, then two
men squatting down, one held down the joint of bamboo with ‘his toes
and both of them spun the switch rapidly and constantly round be-
t veen their hands, the pointed end being put into the hole in the joint
the friction soon produced a blind heat which charred both pieces of
wood, and eventually they took fire, the operation occupying about two
minutes or less.
In the vallies, the soil is the same as that of the ghat. I was
obliged to halt at this short distance on account of its having com-
‘menced raining. This is certainly a delightful country and climate,
if I may judge from present observation the soil is capable of
any cultivation, and I should think that the tea plant would thrive,
also coffee and cotton.* The thermometer fell to seventy-five degrees
last night and did not range above ninety-two degrees in the day-
time ; it cleared up at noon and there was a fine breeze which I was
told is constant there, the thermometer was only ninety degrees at
noon. I took my abode this day in a cow-shed, on the floor of which
I had some fresh earth thrown and levelled, it was by no means an
uncomfortable place, indeed the cattle sheds are the largest and best
built huts to be found in the villages, and in the hot or in wet weather
they are far more comfortable than a tent in every respect, and twice
as cool.
On my arrival this morning I met Mr. Babington’s jemadar, who
was to have shewn me the road over the ghats, which he had repre-
sented as so superior to all others that had been examined ; after a
little conversation I soon discovered what degree of trust was to be
put in his assertions, he was a very well informed man, and had tra-
_ velled through every nook and corner in the Keunjur country in search
of a better road than the present one, but like most natives he had but
avery poor idea of astraight line, or of the points of the compass ; hence
much of the trouble which Captain Abbott had to complain of.
I resumed my march at four p. m. and proceeded down the Turma
valley towards the great hill under which, on its eastern base, is situa-
ted the gurh and town of Keunjur. I was aware that the direction
was altogether wrong, but I was at the mercy of my guides and of the
jemadar above mentioned ; they confessed that there was a better road
in the direction I wished to proceed by, but that supplies had been
prepared for me along the route they were leading me by, which had
(they said) only one or two slight ghats.
* T should think that no doubt could exist as to the favorable nature of the soil of
these tracts for the cultivation of any kinds of superior cotton, —M. K.
4x
614 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [Juny,
After proceeding several miles down the valley, which inclines con-
siderably to the southward, I entered a narrow glen with large forest
trees, I here came upon the road Capt. Abbott had surveyed, very
near to the village of Tillopussi, situated in another glen branch-
ing off to the westward, and leading to the Muttighat; I pro- —
ceeded along this road towards the Byeturni river and valley, and
reached the former long after dark, distance about six miles. Just.
as the evening was closing I fell in with a huge bear and her two-
half grown cubs, I had no fire arms loaded, therefore we hallooed and
drove her off, the cubs clung to her baek much in the same manner as
young monkeys do, only that they rolled about and did not seem to
hold so well. It was fortunate I had many people with me, other-
wise she would most probably have attacked me ; these brutes are far
more mischievous and dangerous than tigers, for out of pure mischief
they maul people in the most frightful manner, particularly in
the mango season when they frequently take possession of a garden,
and defy all attempts of the villagers to drive them out.
Just before reaching the Byeturni, I passed a rather large village
called Colesaie, inhabited by Coles, a number of whom have lately
located themselves in these hills by the Raja’s invitation, (it is said) —
with a view to employing these savages in ransacking Lehra whenever |
a fair opportunity may offer itself. I had some difficulty in procuring a —
guide from among these, for they refused to come, and seemed |
inclined to resist us,—we succeeded in catching one surly creature, |
whom we with much difficulty compelled to shew us the way. Hav-
ing crossed the Byeturni (the Styx of the Hindus, which is here —
nothing but an insignificant rivulet thirty yards wide, with scarcely any —
water) I resolved on encamping for the night, for I could not trust my
Cole guide, whom I dismissed ;—we lighted fires in all directions and
went to sleep.
I should here remark that the Byeturni takes its rise in the adja- |
cent hills about eight or ten miles further sowth, and winds along un-
der the hills in a northerly direction for many miles, entering Singh-—
boom and then turning to the east for a short distance, when it finally
flows towards the south through Keunjur and Dekkenal into the
plains of Orissa; in Rennel’s map it is erroneously made to take its
rise to the north of Singhboom. The source of the Byeturni, as well as
the river itself is held sacred; it is said to issue from a huge mass of
rock the shape of a cow’s head, and that water flows from one nostril |
and sand from the other ; a large fair is held there once every year; |
there are moreover places of worship with idols at every five coss (ten
to twelve miles) from the source down to the holy city of Jajipur in
the plains.
Le
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 615
May 3lst. I resumed my march at twilight, and did not reach
Kuddoogurh till past 11 a.m. On first starting, there was a gradual
ascent from the river, the path passing through thin jungle along the base
of some small hills to my left (north), the country to my right was
open and undulating, with many villages and much cultivation ; the
high hill of Keunjur, called Baghtunga, was right in front; to the
westward rose the beautiful range of hills I had just left ;—the land-
scape was truly beautiful. Some of the smaller hills are cultivated
to their very top, apparently with cotton, which ought to thrive well
in such soil. :
Having reached a pretty village called Coomiri, midway up the
northern edge of this beautiful village, I had to turn to the northward
and descend into a deep glen, then to re-ascend a rather steep slope
strewed with masses of iron clay and iron ore, from thence I passed
through a thin forest over a succession of undulations and ascents, more
or less steep and difficult, up the north-west face of the mountain. The
path, which is very narrow, after winding round it descends for one
and a half miles inclining first to the eastward, again to the north-
ward of east ; it is excellent for the whole descent, but it is only three
feet wide, and is neither calculated for carriages nor cattle, nor for a
dawk road, I was therefore at a loss to find a reason for Mr. Babing-
ton’s servant having ever recommended it for the dawk to travel by ;
on reaching my camp I was very angry with the man, which led to
an attempt on his part to explain why I had been thus deceived and
harassed,—suffice it to say that I discovered that there had been much
chicanery on the part of the Raja’s people as well as the postmaster’s,
it was this very ghat that poor Capt. Abbott had refused to travel
over, and well he might.
Having travelled compass in hand, making occasional sketches, I
found that I had been led twenty-two miles, (from Bullera,) in a
course which proved to be nearly semicircular, instead ofa direct line ;
it was evident from my observations at Kuddoogurh that I should have
continued nearly due east from Bullera, 1 should then have come —
direct upon one of the dawk stations called Kalleapal and have conti-
nued along the dawk road, the direction of which is very straight as
far as Gorapursa in Mohurbhunj. :
Thad a fine view of the surrounding country from the top of the
mountain, the Buddaum pahar (hill) of the Baumunghatti range
(fifty miles east) was distinctly visible, the country between it and the
Keunjur hills is tolerably level except to the north towards Katkarin-
Jeh, where the old road used to run, there are numerous hills in
that direction ; it was quite evident that the road must be made direct
616 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Jury,
from the pass near Kalleapal to that to the southward of Buddaum pa-
har near Jushpur, in which case the present dawk road would be left
entirely to the left (or north), and Keunjurgurh, where the Raja resides, —
would be left about eight miles to the southward, thereby all trouble ©
to us, and annoyance to the Raja, would be at an end, for in verity, it
appeared that the great desire to prevent the road passing through ;
or near the gurh, was the great cause of all the mischief which had |
arisen ; the Raja’s dewan, who had come with a letter of compliments |
from his master, was overjoyed when I assured him that such was the _
case. :
There being no hut available in the miserable hamlet of ©
Kuddoogurh, I was obliged to take shelter under a small tree (for there _
were none of any size) ; the day was exceedingly hot, therefore 1
suffered a great deal. I felt very uneasy both for my own safety and —
that of my followers ; we had the very worst of water, nearly putrid, _
and the cholera was sweeping away hundreds. The Raja had two —
days previously lost his mother, his eldest son, and a nephew by that —
dreadful scourge. We were all too much fatigued to be able to march _
again in the evening, so we passed the night where we were.
The Raja sent all kinds of supplies his town could afford, and in- —
sisted on my accepting all as my feast ; I thought it prudent tohumour —
him, for my offering payment would have been looked upon as un- i
friendly. ,
Ist June. Having resolved on making a long march to the banks of |
the Byeturni, where I was sure of getting good water, I broke ground —
at 2 a.m. The road was good but very tortuous leading from village —
to village, sometimes to the north of the true line, at others to the ©
south ; the country is high and undulating, with many rocky emi- —
nences of grey granite which in many places protrudes through the |
surface, having the appearance of extensive pavements ; there appears |
to be (generally) but a very thin stratum of soil for there are but few
trees of any size, the most common is the pullas (du¢ea frondosa) and
a large shrub with a pretty white blossom, having an overpowering
sweet odour which the natives are very fond of, they put it in
their hair and through their ear-rings.
[ travelled by many comfortable looking villages on my way ; the
proportion of jungle to cultivation is perhaps as five to one. The |
largest village I passed through was Phoolkonlaie,* about two miles
before reaching camp. This place is a Sassun or Brahmun colony,
* It was from this place that I was driven back by sickness in January of the pre-
Sent year,
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 617
therefore the cultivation is extensive and superior, for the Brahmuns
throughout Orissa possess the pick of the lands; there is much fine
sugar-cane grown here.
Mungulpoor,* where I encamped, is twenty-two miles from last
ground by the road, it is a miserable hamlet belonging to weavers
(Tauntis) it is on the banks of the river, which is here 300 feet wide.
I encamped in a mango grove and passed another hot day, and in
the evening was prevented continuing my march owing to a violent
storm of wind, hail, and rain, accompanied by the most fearful thunder
and lightning Iever witnessed ; it came on at 6 p. m. I had no shelter
but my palkee, which I took the precaution of having placed on some
high ground near the huts and raised on four large boulders brought
from the bed of the river ; many large trees were struck with lightning,
and others blown down, it cleared up about half past eight p. m., when
the Raja’s vakeels came, and had a very long conversation about
the road, and unpleasant matter connected with it; 1 was however
convinced that the Raja was not so much to blame as my predecessor
had imagined, indeed it was my firm conviction that he had just
reason to complain himself.
About 11 p.m. the sentry warned me of the approach of another
storm—I resolved on braving it where I was; it soon came on, and
twice as severe as the first ; nothing could be more frightful than the
lightning, and the peals of thunder made the very ground vibrate, it
was truly awful, the rain poured in torrents; I lighted a candle to
relieve my eyes from the glare of the lightning, and made up my
mind for the worst ; I did not expect to see the light of another day ;
I wrote a short memorandum in the shape of a will, and then fell
asleep; the storm did not clear off till 2 a. m.
At a very early hour my visitors from Keunjur returned, and in-
treated me in the most earnest manner to accept the presents their
master (the Raja) had sent me; they had the previous evening sent me
word by one of my servants (a Brahmin) that they were prepared to
pay me handsomely if I would insure that the road should not pass
through Keunjurgurh, or any where near it, and that if I would take
it out of their district they would even give more ;—they alluded to
this, and said that at any rate I must accept of what they had brought,
otherwise the Raja would not think me sincere in my assurance ; I
however was determined on refusing, and reminded them of the
orders of government, which they must be fully aware of. They still
persevered, nor would they be satisfied till I promised to send a letter
* The survey this year was closed here, after halting for five days on account of the
incessant rain ; every soul was seized with fever.
618 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Jury,
from next camp to the Raja. This was sad want of faith, and a
clear demonstration of the poor opinion they have of European inte-
grity. I tried to ascertain the amount which the Raja had paid, but
could not get at the real truth, though it was evident it must have
been much ; I repeated my assurances that there was no chance of the
road passing near Keunjur, and stated that the Raja would be very
wrong if he gave a single farthing more, and I requested that he would
complain of any person who might in future make any such demands.
The vakeel complained loudly of the trouble, expense, and hard-
ships, their master and his ryots had been put to, by the constant
cutting of jungle, and exploring and opening new roads by the post-
master’s moonshis; however much exaggeration there may be, it is
evident that these worthies have certainly much abused their power, —
and have lived (together with their servants) gratis on the fat of the
land, I resolved on putting a final stop to this source of annoyance, by
requesting the Raja to refuse to do any thing more, unless he received
positive instructions from the proper authorities.
At sunrise I commenced my march towards Gorapursa, a dawk
station twelve miles distant; I first crossed the Byeturni which was —
fast rising, and was attended to the opposite bank (the boundary of
Mohurbhunj) by the vakeels and their followers, who were then
dismissed, I reached Gorapursa at 10 a. m.; the country I passed over
had a gradual rise the whole way with several light undulations,
there appeared to be much heavy jungle to the right of the road,
but in its immediate vicinity there is a fair proportion of clear and
cultivated land. I passed one large village called Sukroori two miles
before reaching that of Terenti, where there is a dawk station; from
thencé to Gorapursa there is one continued forest of small trees and un-
derwood, the distance is about seven miles, and Terenti above six from
the Byturni; four miles beyond Terenti I crossed the Krére Bundun
river, this water was about two and a half feet deep, and running very
rapidly, the bed is gravelly and the banks exceedingly steep.
I encamped under a noble banyan tree and passed a pleasant day,
for the air was very much cooled by the previous night’s rain, the
country in the immediate vicinity is also high and tolerably open, ne-
vertheless it is dreadfully unhealthy ; there is a guard of a native
officer and thirty men from the Ramgurh battalion stationed here, it
suffers much, there are seldom more than one-third of the men fit for
duty, the rest being laid up with fever ; I found the native officer to be
a very well informed man, he was very attentive to my wants and
gave me much valuable information ; I got him to write a letter to the
Raja of Keunjur at my direction, touching his offer of bribes, and sent
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 619
it off by the messenger who had accompanied me from Gobindpur.
I considered it advisable to have some respectable witness to this un-
pleasant business, for many good reasons. |
I was about to resume my march at 5 p. m. when a dark north-
west horizon indicated the approach of more bad weather ; a range of
new huts had just been completed, I removed my palkee &c. into the
largest which was also the most sheltered, it was that of my attentive
host, the native officer; I had barely time to remove when a fearful
hurricane came on accompanied with heavy rain, and hail stones of
great size; almost every hut was blown down, or so much out of the
perpendicular that they were rendered useless, the water was ancle
deep; I had taken the precaution to place my palkee on four large
stones, so that I escaped the wet ; the storm lasted till near midnight
continuing more or less violent ; I was more fortunate than I had been
the previous night, and felt grateful for such shelter.
3rd June. I was unable to march before sunrise for want of
coolies ; 1 then started onwards for Nowagaon, the second dawk stage in
advance ; [had a very unpleasant trip, owing to the muddy state of the
greater part of the road, my progress was very slow, not reaching my
ground till one p. m.; the distance travelled sixteen miles, the direc-
tion of the road was slightly to the southward of east, the country un-
dulating as usual. For three or four miles it runs through a thin
jungle, and then enters the clear land in the vicinity of the Bud-
daum pahar and of Jushpurgurh, at the eighth mile I reached a
large village called Maldapursa, I rested here and breakfasted, after
taking the compass bearings and sketching the features of the country ;
I then proceeded on my journey,—the first mile or more is over the
plain, the road then crosses the continuation of the Buddaum chain
of hills, which ends three miles to the south-west by J ushpur ; there
are three rugged ascents, and as many descents, they are impassable for
cattle (laden) therefore very difficult for a palkee to be carried by,
I walked the whole way, I was informed that there was a passage
round these hills by which the ghat, which is called ‘‘ Tinderi ghat”
can be avoided ; in my travels this year I have proved this to be cor-
rect, I shall allude to the subject ina future page. From the ghat
to within a few hundred yards of Nowagaon, the forest is very heavy,
but the road is good.
I shall not say more of Nowagaon at present than that it is near
the western extremity of a long narrow and once thickly populated
valley in the zemindari of Baumunghatti, the whole of which is
now a vast forest, having been devastated during the Cole insurrection
consequent on the difference which existed between Narindra Maha-
620 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Juty.
patur, Zemindar of the Purgunnah, and his lord the Mohurbhunj Raja ;
there are about twenty-eight miles of dawk road down the valley,
and four dawk stages, viz. Nowagaon, where I encamped, Arjunbilla,
Pooranapani, and Kurrumbilla, this last place is at the eastern extre-
mity at the top of the Nittai Maunghur ghat by which you descend to
the plains.
I left Nowagaon before sunset, and pushed on te Pooranapdnt,
where I rested part of the night ; I had much difficulty in procuring
even a couple of coolies to replace two who had escaped, in consequence
of this I discovered another piece of impudent roguery of one of the
Cuttack myrmidons, a servant of mine having peached against him,
it was this ;—I had tried all manner of means to prevent him from
pilfering as he passed through the villages, he had however managed
to collect a heavy cooly load of bows, arrows, banghy sticks, lat-—
ties (walking clubs) and fowls, added to these a charpoy, this I took
away during his absence, and threw it into a thicket, the former articles
I hid in the thatches of the huts, took the cooly for myself, and
marched on.
About three a. m. of the 4th June, I continued my journey, reach-
ing Bissdi, a large village three miles from Pooranapani, at day break ;
I here changed coolies, and proceeded on to Nowagaon Oopurbaugh
which place I reached at noon, having travelled forty-nine miles,
' within little more than twenty-four hours; at four p. m. I resumed
my march towards Seersa, on the banks of the Subunreeka, which —
place I reached a little after sunset ; the distance was only five miles,
but I was detained for an hour in a large village owing to a severe
north-wester ; I found my dawk ready, and bidding farewell to the
jungles started for Medniptr, which station I reached the following
morning; I rested there during the day, and continued on my dawk
trip to Oolooberriah, arriving at ten a.m; having procured a boat,
I left this place by water and reached Calcutta at sunset; thus ended
my labours for the year 1838, having from the 16th December previous
up to the 5th of June, travelled upwards of 2100 miles.
Having passed so rapidly from Gorapursa to Mednipar I could not
observe much, I have this year reconnoitred all this tract of country in
the course of my survey duties, I shall therefore conclude with a few
marks on its features and capabilities.
( To be continued. )
Art. VIII.—Meteorological Register, hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of August, 1839
Minimum ‘Temperature observed
Maximum Pressure observed
Observations made at Apparent Noon.
| Moon's Phases.
r | Barometer
sees
F | eececee
Barometer
cury.
Of the Air.
an
Su
Maximum Temperature observed
at 2H. 40 a,
Wind.
pose
thesun
heraysof
Aspectof the Sky.
Direction
p22) OF the Mer-
Ress
LES.
if
Pewee sz OF
SR
Seite | Day of the Mone
LBLSS
oo
i
SSRELSSES
BLS
PEERSSS
Souncweocosoccucnanc
BEE
oe
Y.
S
BLESS
rae:
ER
wore
BELL CELL RE
DUwnomnnnanmenocnceKcoenccw
SRS
=
2EES:
(SIO OS SOMO NN SW Om OWS DUES ION OUWS
Ey
=.
g=
g
F
e235
g
as
dy (Nimbi.)
Cloudy.
Cloudy.
on
Cumuli.
E,|Cloudy (Nimbi
Cloudy (Nimbi.)
Nimbi and Cumuli.
Light Nimbi and Cumuli
1 Glonay: and Hazy.
‘Lt, haze on the Zenith & frgts.
.|Gir.-Gum. Cir. str. and
|
|
|
|
.|Cumuli and partial Haze
Overcast very cloudy raining.
Cum-str. very cldy to the N.
Overcast heavy rain.
[of Clds,
artial
aze,
.|Cumulo strati & Cumuli.
Cumulo strati Thunder.
. {Cloudy Nimbi (‘Thunder,)
S. E|Cl %
‘Calm, |Cirro strati and Nimbi.
Minimum Pressure
observed at4 p. nw,
at Sun-rise, at Ou, 50 Mm.
Temperature. | Wind. ‘Temperature. | Wind. S Temperature. |Wind. 5
2 =
aa ] 5 a nh 5 5 a
so x eb 4 > ©
2 (2% ey (ee E SF 12 (Eel g :
= laa a] 4k
2 [RE # |g8l2 5| = = 2 l25| 3 (Se! 3 z
3/3 2 |=2|3 |84| = 3 & [39/4 /8%| 2
= |=2 Bg i. |= |e? = a @ je |= [5?| 2 =
3 |5 ajo jojo /a <4 milo |[olo | a <
8] 80,0) . |Cirro-strati. 84,6) 87,5) 83,5/S. W.|'Tothes. cir.str,It.clds.interspersd. 6] 86,4) 89,0) 84,5|S. W.|Cloudy (Cirro-strati. )
,0] 78,8) . |Nimbi interspersed 81,6) 80,0] 79,0)wbs.vg|Overcast rain & squ 80,3] 80,0] 79,0/S. W.|Overcast raining
80,0]79,5|Calm. |Cirro-starti. 60) 83,5] 87,9] 84,3) W. ..|Light clds. inclining to cum. 85,5] 89,0|89,2|S. W.|Cloudy.
ae “Fr 82,0) 84,5) 82,5 Cloudy (Nimbi. 83,8) 84,4) W. ..{Nimbi raining.
79,0 K 81,5] 81,0) 80,8)S. Overcast It. Nimbidrizzly. 82,9) 85,0 WbS.|Light Nimbi.
79,5/S._..|Cloudy. 83,2) 85,0) 82,2/S, Cloudy. 8] 82,8) 83,2| 81,5|S Cloudy Nimbi Drizzling rain
i) Cirro-strati. 84,5] 88,0) 84,3/S. Partial Haze & fragts, of Clouds, 86,4| 89,0) 84,8/S.....|Cumuli,
iF Cirro-strati. 84,9] 88,0) 84,7) S. Cloudy (Cumuli.) 87,0) 91,0] 85,8)S, To the N. Cum-str, rest Cum
Clear. 85,0] 89,5] 84,8/S, Cumuli. 86,4) 90,8) 85,0)S.....|Cumuli,
Clear. 84,8) 88,7) 89,0). Cumuli. 86,9) 91,0) $4,9/S. E.|Cumuli.
|Generally Clear. 83,9] 85,0] 82,8] W b S.|Cumuli. 84,4) 85,4] 83,0|S.....|Cumuli.
Light Cirro-strati. 83,0) 85,6/81,9'S. .,.,|On the Hor, Cum-strati §3/5/ 85,7/ 82,0)S.....|Cloudy.
..|Nimbi Zenith Clear 82,0} 85,5] 81,8) . |Nimbi interspersed. 83,3) 84,5) 82,5/S.....|Nimbi interspersed.
Nimbi interspersed. 85,0] 87,4] 83,5'S Misty. 5] 86,8) 89,0] 83,2\s, Hazy and Misty.
Cirro-strati. 85,5) 88,4] 83,9 S Mists & It clds. inclining to 86,7| §8,2| 83,5|s. high|Light Clouds and Misty
Cloudy 84,0} 86,0] 82,7.S. W. (Cloudy. 86,0) 89,5 83,9/S b W.|Cirro-strati and Cumuli
\Cirro-strati. 5] 83,3] 84,5] 82,2|S. W. Cloudy. 8] 84,5| 86,0] 83,0/S.....|Detached Clouds and Haze.
84,1/81,9/S. W. Cumuli 83,8) 86,5] 82,5|S.....|Cumuli.
86,5] 34,9)S. .... Clear. 86,0| 88,5) 83,5]/S.....|Cloudy.
83,0) 83,28, B,/Cumuli 5) 84,8) 89,5] 83,58, To the N. Nimbi Zenith Clear.
85,0) 82,2)S. ....|Lt. Nimbi interspersed 85,0} 86,8] 82,5/S. Cloudy.
§|80,0|Calm. | Light Nimbi interspersed 85,0) 81,5/S.....|Cloudy. 80,9] 81,0] 79,8/S.....|Nimbus rain.
80,5/Calm. |Cloudy. 84,9]/82,0/S, BE. |Clou 52,8) 83,9] 81,2|8.....|Cloudy Nimbi
79,8) Calm. |Cloudy. 80,9] 79,9|S. EE, Cloudy (Nimbi.) 2} 81,9) 83,0] 81,2/8. E.|Cloudy.
2 79,0| Calm. |Cirro-strati. 81,0) 80,3). ....{Light Nimbi rain, 52,8) 83,9) 81,3)Calm. Cloudy.
79,2|Calm, |Cirro-strati. 88,0] 84,0). ....|Cumuli and Cirro-strati 5] 86,5| 90,0] 81,8)S,....|Cumuli.
79,5\Calm. |Cirro-strati 83,9] 84,5)S, Cumuli. 86,5) 91,5] 85,9/S. E.|Cumuli.
79,8|Calm, |Cirro-strati 86,1/83,2S. E.|Cumuli. 58] 85,5| 86,7) §3,0/S. E.|Cumuli and Haze.
5] 79,9|Calm, |Cirro-strati. 87,5] 83,7|S.....|Cloudy. 85, 2| 88,1] 84,4/S. E.|Cloudy Nimbi (gathering)
,0|/79,5| Calm. |Generally Clear. 88,0) 83,26. ..|Cumuli. 87,5) 91,2] 86,1 Cumuli,
2] 79,9| Calm. |Clear. 89,0] 85,08. E,|Cumuli. 84,6] 88,2/ 84,0)S.....|Haze on the Zenith.
81,0] 80,2 86,0] 82,9 84,8) 87,1) 83,3
Observations made at Sun-set,
‘emperature, | Wind. Bs ‘Temperature. | Wind, 5
—— a ; a ZB
es (isles! g eB asaleea line 3
3 Fz] a les] g 5 = Fela ies] 8 3
¢ foe] S ae] 3 i 2 [26] < Ime] 3 s
3 F515 lee] 8 2 2 |S"13 aa) 2 zZ
ell caiesea|| et fe aa) 5
ab |6/5 |] a4 4 a [6 16/6 | a 4
86,1] 87,0] 84,0|vy cldy| Heavy rain from 83,0) 81,9| 79,5|Calm. |Cloudy Nimbi drizzly.
57|81,0| 79,0] 78,5|Calm. |Overcast raining. 57| 80,9] 79,0} 78,3| Calm. |Overcast Nimbi.
85,0) 87,5] 84,5/S. W. |Nimbi rain, 82,8] 81,5) 84,0/Ca Nimbi.
30) 81,0] 79,0] 79,0|W. . . Overcast raining. 5] 81,5] 79,5] 79,0] Nimbi interspersed.
83,7| 85,4] 83,018, ....|Cloudy. 85) 82,5] 81,9] 81,2). loudy.
84,5] 87,2/83,218.....|Cumuli. 82,5] 820] 81,5 irro-strati.
85,0) 86,8] 83, 1/8. ....|Clou 83,9] 85,0] 82,0) Cirro-strati zenith clear.
87,3] 91,5] 89,8)8.....|Cum.-sir tothe E. Nimbi. 84,0} 85,5) 81,9)
84,9/ 85,2] 83,0le.b. s.|Nimbi drizzly and showery| ,624]83,9] 84.9] 81,5
83,5) 81,8] S1,8|Calm, |Nimbi interspd. r 82,5) 82,5] S1,u|
84,0] 86,8) 82,8/S. .,..|Cumulo strati and Nimbi. 83,3] 83,8) 82,0
83,5] 85,1] 81,7|S.....|Nimbi rain, 82,9] 83,6] 81,5
83,9] 86,0] 83,0]8.....|Cloudy. 83,5] 84,5] 82.2 Cirro-strati.
86,5] 88,5] 83,5|S.....|Hazy Cum.-str. on the Hor. 84,2] 84,5] 83,0) Cloudy (Cirro-strati.)
86,5] 88,9] 83,0]S.....|Lt. haze on the zenith &frgts. of 5} 81,0] 85,0] 82.9 irro-strati.
86,0) 87,5) 83,2) 8. Cirro. str. & partial haze. 83,8] 84,5] 82,8) ‘irro-strati zenith clear.
86,4] 88,5] 83,9|S. ....|Derached Clouds. i] 84,0] 85,0] 82\8|Calm. |Cirro-strati.
85,0] 88,0] 84,0)S.....|Cumuli zenith Clear. 6} 84,5) 85,6] 83,0|Calm. |Cirro-strati,
36) 86,0 87,5] 84,8)S.....|Cumuli zenith Clear. 2| 85,0] 85,0] 82,0]... ..|Cirro-strati zenith clear.
83,6]85,0) 81 Iw. b. s.|Cloudy. 83,0] 83,5) 81,0/Calm. |Lt, Nimbi & Cirro-strati.
83,9) 86,0] 83,118. ....|Cir-strati. 83,2] 84,6) 81,7|Calm. |Light Cirro-strati,
83,7] 85,0] 82,318. B..|Nimbi (showery.) 82,5] 82,5] 80,|Calm. |Cirro-strati.
82,21 81,9] 80,8|Calm. |Cloudy. 82,0] 81,91 80,5|Calm. |Cirro-strati.
83,0] 82.5] 81,0|Calm. {Cloudy (Cir.-strati.) 82,6] 8210] 81,2|Calm. |Nimbi interspersed.
82,8] 83,2] 81,5] Nimbi interspersed. 82,2] 82,9] 81,0|S....,|Cirro-stratj.
20) 84,3 88,0] 85,2 Cum,-str. on the Horizon 83,5] 89,0) 82,3|Calm. | Cirro-strati,
190} 86,2) 90,4] 86,5] Cumuli zenith clear. 85,0] 85,5] 83,2|Calm. |Cirro-strati,
50} 83,4] 84,0] 81,2le. b, s |Nimbi drizzly. 82,9] 83,5| 81,6| Calm. |Cirro-strati.
St 85.9) 80,0] 88 218..-. Cloudy. 83,5] 84,4] 82,8
84,0/85,7| 83,3/8. 1, |Cumulo strati. 83,8] 85,0] 83,0
84,4) 87,5) 84,7|S. E. |Cum.-strati and Nimbi, 83,5] 86,2) 83,5
84,4] 86,0] 82,9 3) 83,6) 81,8
ge cae
Tea Tra ols
in the Mulluck Country
Wadwah 3. Merrie Polar 1
Deenjoy 1 | Boogdone :
Chubsvah 3) Hinga Bel 1)
Gurbandy 7 Hilahdury q
Fingrt 3 Deam 2
Gulah Jhon 1\ MadarKhat 7
Koorkany fingriroad 74 | Ecoratolly “f
rasalany 7 1) SiagalleIhan 2
Kahung ; #0| Temon 1 |
é Vawholeah Ss Lahoaw 7
Dig Boy 2; - Vauchjoy 2
Kato 2| Mahout 6° 7
fareeneah 7 Burhally 7
Hamp Juan 2 Koneker 2
above Kareemea4|\ Buttallee Khat $
Hogorea Fhan 2\ Fotongah 4
Guary-goeah 5\ Sawneutter Bel’ 7
Coolie Fillage 2 | Pabo Fran 2
Kar Jha Chuprie 7 Gundia 2
T qu 7 77 horeqooree 2 |
Changdooreah 1 Potal 80 |
Muttuck 80
Sing pho 12
Wot BoreeDihing h. 28
Grand Fotal
120
E Vingrew
Faunung
Kujudoo
Guilong
Jugundcoo
Juglo
Farncheeck
Terap Paree
4
1
2)
4
4
1
4
3
Wot Bore Ding KR,
Gabrew Furbut
Haut Hotwah
Fetal
S(N NS NYAS SX
(Bury discontinued
here ow account of The
“apes
Uninhabiled Tract
covered with Junge
the Country West of the Booree Dihing River
MAP OF
MUTTUCK, SINGPHO,
and
Shewing all the Tia Trads that havehitherto
been discovered, by MICA. Bruce, Superintendent
/ TCA. 2, Steger
of Tea Cullure to the Hon ®”’ East Fadi Compd
an Assam.
Sypore 1 June 1839.
JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 92.—AUGUST, 1839.
Art. I.—Note on the Mechis, together with a small Vocabulary of
the Language. By A. CAMPBELL, Esq. Assistant to the Resident
Nipal, in charge of Darjeeling.
To H. T. PRINSEP, Esa.
Secretary to Government of India.
Fort Wiiliam.
Sir,—With reference to my letters of the 13th and 20th ultimo, I
have the honor to forward a few Notes on the Mechis, with a small
vocabulary of their language, for the information of his Honor in
Council.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
A. CAMPBELL.
Darjeeling, September 5th, 1839.
The Mech people inhabit the forest portion of the Turai stretching
along the base of the mountains from the Burrumpootur to the Konki
river, which leaves the Nipal mountains about 20 miles to the west of
the Mechi River. In this tract they are respectively the subjects of the
Nipalese, Sikim, and Bootan governments, occupying along with the
Dimals—an allied tribe—and a few Garrows, a country of about
250 miles in length, having an average breadth of from 12 to 15 miles.
In the eastern portion of the Nipal Turai they are but recent settlers ;
41
624 Note on the Mechis. [ Avaust, |
at Nagol Bundi, on the right bank of the Mechi river, there are about ~
20 families; at Kalikajhar about the same number; and, west from
these places, in the thickest parts of the forest, there are several small |
colonies, amounting in all to about 150 or 200 families. In the Sikim —
Turai, between the Mechi river and the Mahanuddi, there are about |
400 families; to the east of the Teestah river, and in the Dooars of —
Bootan they are still more numerous, and to this latter portion of their —
habitat they point as the original seat of the tribe, although its name —
would indicate its derivation from the Mechi river. I believe that
Mechis are also to be found on the northern confines of Lower Assam. ©
The tribes immediately in contact and mixed with the Mechis, are
the Koochias or Rajbungsi Bengalese, (whose original country is Kooch —
Behar,) the Dimals, Thawas, and Garrows. These neighbours of the _
hills are the Limboos, Kerantis, Lepchas, Murmis, and Bhotias ; of these
several tribes, I hope to furnish some particularsanon. As they associate
much with the former, and frequently meet the latter at the frontier
marts, their habits and manners are naturally a good deal modified by
the contact ; still their peculiar usages, form of religion, language, and
appearance, entitle them to the acknowledgment of their claim as a
distinct people. They are fairer than the Koochias, and have little of |
the regular features of the Hindoo, which characterize that tribe. The 7
cast of the Mech countenance is strongly Mongolian, but accompanied 7
by a softness of outline which distinguishes them readily from the
more marked features of the same order—of the Lepchas, Limboos,
and Bhotias. They resemble the Newars of the valley of Nipal, in ©
complexion and feature, more than any other people I have seen in ~
or near these mountains; they are taller, however, and the fairness |
of complexion is entirely of a yellow tinge, whereas the Newars are |
frequently almost ruddy. Many of the Mechis strongly resemble the |
Mugs and Burmese in face and figure, and like them are much .
addicted to drinking spirits, smoking, and eating pawn. In common
with the Assamese, they are fond of opium eating. #
They never live on the hills at a higher elevation than 800 onl
1,000 feet, and scarcely ever settle in the cleared and inhabited parts of |
the Turai, but, keep entirely to the forest in which they make clearances, |
cultivating crops of rice and cotton with the hoe, and grazing buffaloes. |
The malaria of the forest so deadly to strangers, does not at all affect
them ; on the contrary, they are a remarkably healthy race, and dread |
visiting the plains, where they are subject to severe fevers. They have |
no towns, and rarely even live in permanent villages, generally quit- |
ting a clearance after having had two or three successive crops from the |
land, to take up their abodes in a fresh portion of the forest. In the}
1889. | Note on the Mechis. 625
above respects the erratic habits of the Mechis resemble those of the
Thawas especially ere that race commenced, as lately, to form perma-
nent villages in the open Turai; and are identical with those of the
Dimals.
The religion of the Mechis, in so far as they have any, is the Shivaite
form of Hindooism, but it goes no further than to the occasional
sacrifice—when they can afford a merry-making—of goats, buffaloes,
pigs, and fowls at a clay image of Kali, when they drink spirits and a
fermented liquor made from Murwa to excess, and indulge in much’
licentiousness. The influence of the Brahmins is not recognised; they
have no guroos, nor priests, nor temples; do not perform the shradh ;
and bury the dead in any convenient part of the jungle, confining the
obsequies to a feast among the relations of the deceased, and placing
spirits and prepared food over the grave ; tombs are never raised over
the graves, nor have the small communities any common burying
ground.
There is no distinction of castes among them. In the Nipal Turai
the population of which is composed of the most varied assemblage of
would-be Hindoos, and almost destitute of real ones, the Mechis are
admitted within the pale, and water is taken from their hands by
persons of caste, although they eat fowls, buffaloes, the cow—when
beyond the Nipalese limits—and the carrion of all animals except
that of the elephant, which animal is held in high respect by them,
although not venerated, so far as I can learn. ‘The carrion eating and
other impure but cherished practises of the Mechis are not followed to
the fullest extent in Nipal, where Hindooism is at a high premium,
‘and breaches of the Hindoo law by all pretenders to that faith are
punished with much severity. In Sikim and Bootan, however, the
Mechis indulge their natural habits, and are as omnivorous a race of
human beings as any in the world.
Marriages are contracted in youth or adolescence at convenience,
the men purchasing their wives at prices varying from 10 to 60
Rupees, according to the beauty of the female and the means of the
male. When an accepted husband has not the means of paying for
his wife in money he joins her family party, working for the parents
until he has fairly earned his bride according to previous contract ;
like the poorer classes elsewhere in India, a man can seldom afford to
have more than one wife at a time, there is no restriction however on
this head.
The women share equally with the men in all the labors of the field,
and manage household affairs exclusively ; they likewise attend at the
periodical fairs (Hauths) selling, buying, and bartering the various
626 Note on the Mechis. [Aueust,
articles of home and imported produce. They are generally comely —
and disposed to fleshiness ; the usual dress is a sari (robe) of red silk ©
made of the “Indi” or thread of the silk worm which feeds on the —
castor-oil plants, and their ornaments are confined to bangles and
necklaces of white shell. The Indi silk is entirely a domestic manu- —
facture, and wove by the women, who also color it with the lac dye. —
The Mech language has no written character, nor is it, I believe, allied ©
to the Sanscrit ; whether it is of Tibetan or Burmese extraction, or —
akin to the aboriginal Indian dialects known among the Coles,
Goonds, Beels, and other wild tribes, I am unable to say ; but perhaps, ©
the accompanying small vocabulary may enable competent persons to
decide its root and original country. The Mechis are necessarily un-—
educated, except with a very few exceptions, in the Bengali language, F
from which they have derived all the terms in use for articles common
to a state of life removed from the savage. I regret, that I have not as
yet had an opportunity of meeting a person intelligent enough to give —
me some idea of the construction of the language ; this must remain —
for further inquiry. In the vocabulary I have omitted entering words ~
for which the language has no equivalents of its own, except in a few
instances, to prove the rule above noticed. All the words with B af- —
fixed are evidently corruptions of Bengali or Hindi; none of the metals
except ‘“‘silver’ and “iron” have names. There is no word for
“money.” Gender is designated by the affix of ‘ Jilla” or male, and —
** Jeu” or female, for all animals but man.* §
In the arts the Mechis have made but small progress, they excel in —
the care of their cotton agriculture, but as they grow only the common F
annual plant, the produce is not of a superior kind. Weaving is confined —
to the women as a domestic art. They are not addicted to trade, are q
averse to military service, have no artizans among them, are truly in ~
avery primitive state of society. They are however very cheerful,
have no jealousy or prejudice towards strangers, are industrious, and ~
honest, and crimes of violence, so far as I can learn, are of rare occur- —
rence among them. —
A. CAMPBELL. |
* The names of the months and days of the week are Bengali, and the Mechis who |
furnished me with the vocabulary are unable to give more than nine of the cardinal
numbers in their own language. . 4
1839. ] Vocabulary of the Mech Language. 627
VOCABULARY OF THE MECH LANGUAGE.
fire, wad tiger, meesah
water, diee bird, tausen
air, bar the sun, kranondoong
the earth, ha the moon, nokabur
stone, yoontie guroo, mddsho
God, modié hog, yoma
father, appa rice, myrang
mother, aie paddy, mye
brother, koi cotton, rddn
elder ditto, ada koi blood, tye
younger ditto, aki koi flesh, mdddun
son, beesha hair, kumun
daughter, béésha hindon teeth, hattye
uncle (paternal), adhii eye, mookun
ditto (maternal), amai nose, koontddng
cousin (paternal ear, kumma
uncle’s son), phoomboi head, koroh
wife, bihi
house, nau
raining, noka haioo
tree, bun phang
bamboo, wah
rattan, rydung
iron, shor
wood, bon
sword, choongri
knife, dhaba.
bed, kutt
dog, chééma
elephant, megadett
rhinoceros, gandha
goat, borma
neck, kortunna
mouth, koogha
tongue, chulai
thorax, cherupa
belly, udihi
thigh, phenda
leg, yadii
foot, yappa
stars, hatoorki
clouds, jumai
knee, hantoo
finger, nashima
nail of ditto, nashi kor
palm of hand, nakatulka .
loins, janji
road, lama child, katat
mountain, hajoo old man, brieba
jungle, hakea young ditto, kodkringindong
river, dihi ditto female, shikala
pool, biloo handsome, modjang
fish, nah oil, tai
anake, jeebo salt, shoonkri
628
pepper, banjooldo
maize, toomba
to die, thibat
to sleep, mdddd0bai
sit down, jhopii
stand up, jhickat do
go thither, oojhung tang
come here, puki
go quickly, kodkri tang
lie down, moodoo no.
shut the door, doowar phang |
go to the field, hooa tung
build a house, no lao
cut some wood, bon san
fetch some water, dice Jabo
feed the child, koto jani ho
kill a fowl, taoo shituk
boil some rice, meekum chong
light a fire, wad chao
milk the cow, doodoo laboo
go to market, hattia tung
shoe, jotah (B)
horse, ghorye (B)
cow, mashujuh
buffalo, maishuo
door, doowar (B)
ghee, ghu (B)
milk, doodu (B)
sugar, chinee (B)
turmerick, huldi (B)
thunder, jumai homdung
lightning, nophlambo
cloth, (cotton) he
ditto of castor-oil insect, indi
ivory, megadet hatye
horn, kong
hide, aboo
hoof, yakong
tail, lanjye
wool, komun
a young elephant, megadet oodai
a grave, phokma
Vocabulary of the Mech Language.
[ August,
aman, manchi
a woman, hinjan
plough, wayo
eart, hoo
a bow, jeeleet
an arrow, bulla
language, bhagia
a gun, shelai
table, phalla
chair, kumpulai
paper, leka
pen, kullum (H)
lock, [no word]
key, [ditto ] |
taut (coarse hempen cloth), phasala —
hemp, phatoo
til (sesamum ribet: shibeem —
mustard, bishwar
dal (pease), shobai
pawn, phatye
betel-nut, gwye
lime, chinye (H)
brass, peetulye (H)
silver, tais
a temple, modie ne no (literally
house of God)
a flower, booibar
mangoe, tiekjo
plantain, tali
ditto tree, lie phang
lime tree, narengi phang
fruit, betii
root of tree, rudda be phang
branch of ditto, dalye
leaf of tree, belye
a bridge, chye kong
build a bridge, chye kong ka
make a road, lama yaw
a plain country, ha gébang
the plains of Bengal], haien
Bootan, aga phar
snow, hem
1939.]
snow falls, hem gooklindung
it rains, noka hidung
warm water, goodung dfe
cold ditto, gooshu dye
drink water, dye ling ni
good, gahum
bad, himma
Vocabulary of the Mech Language.
blue, goochum
white, goophoot
red, gujja
yellow, koomoo
green, gangohu
black, koomun
LNo other Colors distinguished by names. ]
leather, bigoor
mattress, gondoo
a Bootanee, kongar
a Bengalli, hasha
a Mahomedan, tooro6p
a Priest or pujari, modie hodis
a Nipalese, muggur
a boat, nan
a jungle fowl, hangriini dausru
a male, jilla
a female, jeu
_ spirits, chaoo
large, ghidett
small, udye
tall, gujau
short, gahye
broad, goo-ar
a great man, grah manichi
to laugh, meniyao
to cry, dagup
to beat, shituknuh
to be angry, brapmo
to swim, chanturri
cotton seed, koon tye
ditto plant, koon phang
sugar-cane, kooshiar (B)
a bear, moofur
wild dog, sheekoo
vulture, sheegoon
crow, tatika
a well, dire kor
blacksmith, kamar
weaver, he daio
huntsman, mye kankea
a spotted deer, kotia menbeang
distiller, shoondi
fine cloth, he goba
coarse ditto, he rujja
new ditto, he guddan
the sky, no krang
above, cha
below, ching
to one side, chapin
Cardinal Numbers.
one, munche
two, munye
three, muntum
four, munbre
five, munbha
six, mundho
seven, munchini
eight, munjo kunnii
|No numeral beyond this]
night, hor
day, chén
month, mds (B)
year, buruk (B)
soft, oofra
hard, guzia
cheap, gair
dear, kom
heavy, eeliching
light, rujenchung
630 Vocabulary of the Mech Language.
wet, ghichi
dry, kran,
beard, konkup
moustaches, [no word }
lip, kooshuti
eyebrow, mooshu kor
eyelash, moosheam
good rice, mujang myrong
sweet, kolan
sour, kokye
bitter, goka
light, monabai
darkness, komshibai
raw, kotung
boiled, komun,
hunger, meenka honkia
grass, jheekab
lame, nating kora
deaf, kumma kanai
dumb, ryeinga
pain, sadung
pleasure, moongu sagyi
sickness, chobea jodung
small pox, bontijaia
[| Aveusrt,
fever and ague, loomgaia
rheumatism, beeshtong
belly ache, yudichaia
head ache, koro chaio
purging, kabai
to-day, dinisanchi
yesterday, kapunsanche
day before ditto, sombursanche
the day before that, tamnepursanche
to-morrow, miasanchi
outside, shetula
inside, noh
before, shekang
behind, yeun
quickly, kookei
slowly, larhay
a wall, jujoor
a post, tongphang
a beam, mandali
a roof, mookoom
a cooking pot, kanta
a large ditto, mikamduh
a water ewer, di heu
a plate, toorsi
Example of forming feminine and masculine.
bull, moshu jilla,
dog, cheema jilla,
buck, borma jilla,
tiger, meeshah jilla,
nephew, adye,
What is your name?
Where are you going?
Whence come you ?
Where do you live?
What is your father’s name?
cow, mashu jeu
bitch, chema jeu
she-goat, borma jeu
tigress, meesah jeu
niece, anai
Sentences.
nunni mooa mamoo
noo bujuntanguh
noo bujung prapaio
noo nua mongwhye
noong noorkpa mammo
Shew me the road to Pankabari? Pankabari lama buriye
What is the name of that hill ?
be hajoo mamoo
What is the price of riceat Dorjeling? myrong sirifehe Dorgeling maelai
1839. | Vocabulary of the Mech Language. 631
Names of Men. Names of Women.
Chakla, Phagooni,
Sunka, Bisaje,
Balasache, Bisahawa,
Deringa sache, Furgunnice.
Poojoon,
Esula,
Puharoo,
Oonti,
Jenti tokla,
Mhedla,
_ Secuta. A. CAMPBELL.
Art. II.—Researches on the Gale and Hurricane in the Bay of
Bengal on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839; with reference
to the Theory of the Law of Storms in India. by HEnry
PIDDINGTON.
PART II.
That the hurricane part of the tempest which we are considering
was blowing in tolerably well defined circles, has been, I think, clearly
shewn in the foregoing part of this memoir. The object of this second
part, is to adduce evidence, which shews that it was at the same time both
a gale, i.e. a strong wind blowing in with tolerable steadiness from one
quarter of the compass ; and a hurricane, namely, a violent wind blow-
ing in a circle or vortex of greater or less diameter. At present too it
seems probable, from the dates, that the gale produced the hurricane.
We may consider that this storm was one of those which usually occur at
the change of the moonsoon from NE. to SW., which in various parts
of the Bay may be said to take place between the 15th May and
15th June. It is from the Ist to the 15th June that we look for the
rains in Calcutta, though sometimes, as in this year, they may be said
to have begun in April. It will be borne in mind then, that whatever
follows, whether facts or hypotheses, relates only to the beginning of
the SW. monsoon. Future observations will inform us, whether the
October Gales as they are called,—though they sometimes occur in No-
vember,—are subject to the same or different laws. (The European
reader will recollect, that October is the epoch at which the NE.
monsoon takes the place of the SW. one.)
4m
632 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ August,
If we look at the Bay of Bengal, Map No. II, we shall be struck
with the fact, that while it is bounded on the East by the mountain
range which stretches from the Malay peninsula to Bootan, often ap-
proaching very near the shores, and rising to the height of from 3000
to perhaps 5000 feet on the Arracan coast; it is also bounded, on the
West, by the Coromandel range, which supports the Eastern side of
the elevated table lands of the Deccan. At the valley of the Ma-
hanuddee (the river of Cuttack) however, at its junction with the
Vindiya range, it turns suddenly to the North-Westward and West-
ward, leaving thus between it and the mountains of Arracan, the wide
opening from Point Palmiras to Chittagong, which, to use an orien-
talism, is the gafe to the plains of Bengal.
The salient angle, formed by the corner where the Vindiya and
Coromandel ranges meet, and the entering one, where the Bootan, or
Himalaya, and Arracan and Cachar ranges join (leaving however the
valley of Assam as an opening for the great Burrumpooter to flow
through,) thus form, as it were, an angular channel; through which
all the lower strata of the current of the SW. monsoon may be sup-
posed to find their way over the plains of Bengal and up the valley of
the Ganges ; and thisis their natural course. But we may suppose that —
the SW. monsoon when urged to any great force at the mouth of the
Bay, about Ceylon, must strike against the mountain ranges of Arracan
in about from lat. 16°, which is that of Cape Negrais, to lat. 20° or |
21°; or about that of Arracan ; and, being deflected thence, must turn —
off in a paraboloidal line towards the great opening offered by the ©
low lands at the head of the Bay, and thence proceed up the valley of —
the Ganges as before. :
But when the head of the Gale is thus deflected, it may meet also with
that portion of the monsoon which has blown along the Coromandel
range and coast—called the “‘long-shore wind,” by the old navigators
—which has a much shorter distance to travel ; and there occasion an |
eddy of variable winds, whirlwind or hurricane, according to the |
force of the first impulse—and this again influenced too, doubtless, by |
many causes to which we are yet strangers.
If this theory be true for these tempests, we should look to find |
points, about the meeting of the two currents, varying in position ac-
cording to their respective forces, at which, during these gales, it should
be comparatively calm, or blowing but moderately ; and it is curious |
that at Balasore, in latitude 21° 28’, and at the Black Pagoda in
19° 62’ N. this comparative calm is found to have existed. My
authority for this is the following letter.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 633
Balasore, July 31st, 1839.
Dear Sir,—I should have been much at your service in giving
you all the requisite information concerning the gale here, had any
taken place, but we had only strong gusts of wind at NE. to SE.
with uncommon heavy rain on the 5th, 6th, and part of the 7th of
June, which even to this day has kept back the rice crops. The ther-
mometer fell to 813°,and unluckily my barometer was broken a few days
prior, so that we could only foretel a gale coming on by the black-
ness of the heavens to the Eastward ; which gale did not reach from the
Northward of Point Palmiras to Balasore, but blew hard from Point
Palmiras to below Pooree to the Southward. No vessels were lost in
the Balasore roads ; but to the Eastward they may have been lost, as a
Telingah topgallant mast was picked up, besides pieces of deal boxes,
supposed to have contained glass-ware, marked ‘“ Proéecto7,” which
vessel was lost to the Eastward, between the reefs, last October.
Gales at Kedgeree, though blowing dead to windward of us, distant
seventy-five miles, do not always reach this coast; as in the May
Hurricane of 1833, when the ‘“‘ Duke of York” was blown from her
moorings at Saugor across to Hidgelee, and became a wreck, yet
the gale did not reach here, although the bank to the Eastward
in the heavens so plainly indicated a gale, that every person here
barred up their doors and nailed them. We only had a good topgal-
lant breeze. |
‘The Neilgherry Hills appear to influence the winds much on the
coast north of Point Palmiras, as the winds are generally throughout
_ the SW. monsoon, SW. to W. in the morning to 7 a. m., veering round
to S. and SE. vp. m.; and in the NE. monsoon, W. to NW. veering
round to NE. after 8 a. Mm.
(Signed) A. BOND.
:
: Mr. Richardson, Branch Pilot, informs me, moreover, that during the
fury of the Gale of 1833, in which the ‘‘ Duke of York” was wrecked,
and he himself was driving; about with all his anchors down, some
| passengers whom he had previously landed at the Black Pagoda were
| upon the top of it, and felt no excessively violent wind, though they
saw the horizon very black, and the sea dreadfully agitated to the
North Westward of them.
The slow rate at which our vortices travel onwards is very remark-
| able, but seems, if future observation should confirm it, to afford coun-
| tenance to this theory ; for, as before said, we may consider them as pent
up between the current passing round the vortex of the parabola and the
Coromandel range ; and no doubt to feel, as water in similar channels
would do, the repulsion from these last. It is clear, as shewn in p. 576,
| by the log of the “Indian Oak,” that the monsoon was blowing up
along the coast as far as Vizagapatam, from between which and Gan-
634 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Aueusr, F
jam, to Point Palmiras, the Hurricane was probably felt. Its limit to
the North we well know to have been between Point Palmiras and
Balasore, but I could obtain no intelligence from Ganjam to fix a limit
to the South.
We'should also find that, as the current of air proceeds up the valley
of the Ganges to the North Westward, it should give rise to an Easterly
Gale, which has also in this instance occurred, as will be seen by
the following extracts, the first being from a very able and interesting
letter from Mr. Ravenshaw, of the Civil Service, dated Chuprah in
Behar, lat. 25° 46’ N. long. 84° 46’ E.
Chuprah, July 17th, 1839. —
Dear S1r,—Having observed in the Newspapers that you are
desirous of obtaining information connected with the Gale which —
occurred in the Bay of Bengal from the 3rd to the 5th June inclusive,
I have the pleasure to contribute my mite to the stock of facts which
you are engaged in collecting. The enclosed extract from my Register
will shew the height of the Bar. and Ther. at 103 a. m. during the |
Gale, and for some days succeeding it. I regret that my official duties
prevented me from taking observations at 44 p. m.; but I hope the
small amount of information afforded will not be without use, in —
shewing the direction and duration of the Gale of this district, inland
from the Bay of Bengal. It will be remarked, that the Gale did not ;
commence here until the 4th instead of the 3rd June, and that it
terminated on the 7th instead of the 5th. The Bar. kept falling
during the continuance of the Gale, and strange to say did not reach its
minimum until the day after the violence of the Gale had ceased, i.e.
the 8th. The direction of the Gale was nearly due East, but on the
Sth the wind shifted to the SW. and West, and on the 9th blew as |
furiously from the latter quarter as it had previously done from the
East ; towards evening, however, it shifted to the NE. On the |
10th it changed to SE., on the llth to SW.; and the following day |
to the West. On the 14th and 15th it again veered to the NE. and |
EDN. until on the 16th it resumed its old position of Kast, which is |
the usual direction from which it blows at this season of the year.
From the above it would appear that the wind, after the violence of —
the Gale had subsided, acquired a rotatory motion and turned twice
round the compass in a Southerly direction before it recovered its
equilibrium. By letters received at the time from Mootebarry, 60 miles
North of Chuprah, and from Gyah, about 90 miles South of this
station, I learnt that the Gale occurred with equal violence at those
places. The breadth of the column of air put in motion was therefore
at least 150 miles, and probably much greater. It would be interest-
ing to ascertain the exact limits of this Gale inland as well as at sea, _
which object might be effected by your addressing a circular letter to |
the residents at each of the principal stations in the Western Provinces 4,
e.g. Allahabad, Cawnpore, Agra, Delhi and Saharunpore. In- |
ca.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 635
formation from these points would probably give the extreme length
to which the Gale extended, as information obtained from Jubbulpore,
Gwalior, and Ajmere, would shew the extreme breadth. I do not
recollect at present from what direction you stated the Gale to have
blown in the Bay of Bengal, but if from the SW., the usual course of
the monsoon, it is difficult to account for its blowing here from the
East, unless we suppose the column of air to have been driven against
the Assam and Himalaya Mountains, and by them turned in a
Westerly course. In this event, it is probable that the Gale may have
subsequently followed the direction of the mountains NW. perhaps as
far as Hurdwar.
I conclude that it is not your intention to confine your observations
and inquiries to the Gale under consideration, but to all storms of
magnitude in the Bay, or its vicinity. The Gale which seems to
occur almost annually in the Bay of Bengal in the month of October,
would, from its regular recurrence, form an excellent subject for
observation. It was felt at Chuprah during the two years that I have
been stationed here. On the first occasion it blew (to the best of my
recollection) from the East, whereas last year it came from the
West.
It appears to me very desirable that either Government or some
public body like the Asiatic Society, should take measures for securing
an uninterrupted official record, not only of the periodical and
occasional storms which extend generally over large tracts of coun-
try, but also of local atmospherical peculiarities—the changes in
the direction of winds and storms occasioned by mountains and the
larger rivers—also of the general character of the seasons in different
parts of the country—the paucity or abundance of rain—the minimum
rise of the Ganges, Burrumpooter, &c.—the price of grain as affected by
the seasons—the date of the commencement and termination of the
rains—of the hot winds—or of any other prevailing winds.
The Asiatic Society through its numerous members might, I
should imagine, without difficulty obtain information on the points
adverted to from all the principal stations in India, which should be
annually digested and published in their Journal. These again will
be compared and generalized every 10 years or so by a Meteorological
Committee of the Society. The Asiatic Societies of Madras and
Bombay might be requested to adopt the same system throughout
their respective Presidencies, so that the observations might embrace
the whole of India. Such a combination of laborers in the cause, and the
consequent accumulation of facts, assisted by the rapid progress of
science in these days, would almost justify the hope that we may
ultimately arrive at the discovery of some general laws by which the
seasons are regulated ; and by which we may be able to foresee and
to guard against both inundation and famine, in a country where their
ravages are often so destructive to life and property.
( Signed) EK. RAVENSHAW.
636 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Aucusr, —
nn
a Bar. at} Ther; } Bar. at | Ther. | Bar. at| Ther:
se, 10% a. M.|attached | 42 p. M. Saas 10ep.mM.| —— Betas.
June 4th} No observation. coen Bn sce sees Strong and cons
9) 29°50 86 an A oa tinued gale from —
6 29°42 864 East, with occa. —
7 29°32 8 4 ; sional rain.
§ Rain; windSW.
eer Sons to West.
Sons itto, W.do.toNE.
Ditto, Wind SE.
11 | 29:39 | 83 wane [ot ciples Gh? cchwie Aal \y See Ape emer
12 | 9938 1} 85 rem eatin UE). oe |
13 | 29:38 | 85 wemdvullle: scbietbl eis wc ettl: C oae ee in aan: :
14 | 29-47 | 87 OEE wane Le a lee |. ee etecien ie ene
15 | 29:58 | 87 ere reer eres Pr ee og a
East, the usual di-
rection of the wind —
at this season. )
N.B. This gale extended in breadth from Mootebarry, 60 miles North of Chuprah,
to Gyah, 90 miles South—and perhaps further, but of this I have no authentic in-
telligence.
As far then as our present knowledge extends, and referring to the ©
state of the Gale in the Southern part of the Bay, we find that the —
impulse, which may be said to begin to be violently felt on the 3lst by ©
the Susan, did not reach Chuprah till the 4th, when it produced an —
Easterly Gale, terminating on the 7th, shifting to the South-West and
West on the 8th; the counter-gale and eddies, if we may so call them,
being only the irregular movements of the various currents produced by
this great derangement of the usual equilibrium of the aerial currents,
which, as is remarked, are usually from the East at this season ; affording
also a proof towards the theory which I have ventured to offer. When —
the monsoon slackens the Southerly and South-Westerly gales, and cur- —
rents may find their way as far inland as this place. The dates show
that the Gale did not begin at the point to which it blew, but that —
it was a progressive impulse travelling about the direction which I —
have laid down. Assuming this theory as a gudde only, let us now see ©
how it accords with the facts we already possess here. By referring ©
to the Map, No. II. we see that though along the coast from Madras ~
to Vizagapatam, by the Indian Oak’s log at Masulipatam, by the
Master Attendant’s report from Coringa, and up to the 3rd at noon ©
by the Laurel Amelia’s log, it was fine, though threatening; yet —
from the 31st May to the 5th June, by the logs of the Lady Macnaghten, —
Petre], Susan, Jumna, and Laurel Amelia—to which too we might —
add those of the Nine, Eden, and Mobile—a severe gale was blowing
between WbS. and SW. diagonally across the Bay, in lines about —
parallel to one drawn from the centre of Ceylon to Cape Negrais, the
termination of the Arracan coast. We find that at Cheduba on the ~
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i SS
1839.] on the 3d, Ath, and 5th of June, 1839. 637
2nd, and part of the 3rd, the John William Dare had a severe gale from
S. to SSE. the gale being then deflected by the mountains of that
coast. At the harbour of Akyab No. 27. we find that our meagre
notices give us “ Easterly winds with hard gales” on the 2nd; on the
38rd, and 4th, “‘ brisk ;” on the 5th, “ gales ;” and on the 6th, SW. winds.
At Dacca* Dr. Lamb’s Register gives as follows :—
Winds. Bar. 10 a. . Ther. Noon.
June Ist. SE. East SE. 29°68 90
2nd, SS. East, ne Oe 90
3rd. East South SE. », 64 91 3 inches of rain.
4th. East SE. South, », 68 88£ 6 inches of rain.
oth. South SE. SbE. see del 85
So that here the winds were varying between South and East.
At Jellinghee, in lat. 24° 8’, long. 88° 42’ E. about 140 miles WDN.
of Dacca, and about 100 NbE. of Calcutta, at the spot where the river
of that name branches off from the great Ganges, a memorandum in-
forms me as follows :—
June 6th, strong Easterly gales with frequent showers.
me db, Gitto ditto.
», Sth and 9th, Frequent showers and cloudy weather.
The following is an extract of a letter and memorandum from H. B.
Beresford, Esq. Deputy Collector, Purneah.
“The observations from 4th to 10th inclusive, in the following
memorandum, were made on the Ganges, some miles south of Pur-
neah—at least so I understand Mr. Palmer to say :”
Transcript of Extract of Day Book, 1839.
June Ist. Wind E. blew hard and rained in the morning.
2nd. Wind E. a warm clear day.
ord. Wind E. clear morning, rained heavily in the afternoon, and blew hard
from South at night.
4th. Wind E. blew fresh.
5th. <A strong gale from the East—rained a great deal—a wet rainy night.
tth. Blew hard the whole day from the East, and squalls accompanied with
rain came frequently.
7th. Wind SE. in the morning—East at noon; died away in the afternoon,
rained a little. |
Sth. Wind S. and SE,
9th. Wind East—rained a great deal and blew fresh.
10th. Wind ESW. and E, again—rained a great deal.
* The Indigo planters of the district of Dacca and the Eastern part of Jessore are
well aware of the tendency of strong Easterly winds to cause rapid rises of the river,
and severe loss to them by inundating their plant. If we suppose the Easterly gale to
be a Southerly and South Westerly one in the Bay, we obtain an additional reason
for this, to the common one of the Easterly gale being partly against the current
a pe Ganges; i. e.the waters of the ocean are driven up into the NE. corner of
he Bay,
638 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ AuGust,
“The inelosed notes I made in original, and regret not having it
in my power to comply more fully with your request.”
June, 1839.
June Ist. Light airs from NE. to E. cloudy at times.
2nd. Ditto, Ditto.
3rd. ENE. cloudy, or slight showers from ESE.
4th. Ditto, ditto light fresh breezes with slight showers.
Sth. Heavy ENE. wind, very cloudy with light showers.
6th. Ditto ENE. with constant sleet and rain.
7th. Heavy ENE. with sleet, wind veered S. to SSE. occasional showers.
8th. Heavy ENE. veering round to South with rain—night, Northerly.
9th. Fresh ENE. cloudy with heavy showers.
10th. Rain almost ali day—clouds flying from East—Light airs from West, a
great deal of rain has fallen, the nullahs rising very high, threatening to
overtop their banks.*
At Ghazeepore lat. 25° 35’ N. long. 83° 33’ E. and 41 miles East of
'Benares and 84 miles W.4S. from Chuprah, Dr. Jackson kindly forwards
me a journal for the month of June, from which the following is an ex-
tract, which I copy to the 11th, to shew how remarkably they agree with
those of Mr. Ravenshaw from Chuprah, in the sudden change of the
wind, from ESE.—which we may call its average from the Ist to the
7th,—to SW. on the 8th. The subsequent changes seem to indicate, as
before said, that the more direct current of the monsoon had for a
short time forced its way upwards; for the remainder of the month
the wind is variable from E. to W. with sultry weather, as usual there
in the month of June.
g Winds. 8 June, 1839.—Remarks, &c.
Q H
| ESE. | 98 | Pleasant breezes, fair weather, 11 4. M. cloudy with a few
_drops of rain, hot and sultry.
2 ESE. | 98 | Light breezes, fair weather, hot and sultry.
3 ESE. | 99 | Fresh ditto, cloudy, at intervals hot and sultry ; at 1/30 Pp. M. a
squall, no rain.
4 ESE. | 96 | Fresh breezes, cloudy at intervals, with hard squalls, fair
weather.
5 ESbE. | 92 | a. m. cloudy and showery, hard gales with showers at intervals.
6 SEbE. | 86 | Hard gales, dark cldy. weather, showers at intervals, night rainy.
7 SEbE. | 86 ee ditto ditto with heavy rain, 7 p. M. wind shifted to
the SW.
8 SW. | 80 | Dark cloudy rainy weather, with hard squalls of wind, 6 P. mM.
fair and continued during night.
9 |SW.toESE.! 80 | Morning dark, cloudy and fair, which continued throughout, 5
p. M. wind shifted to the ESE.
10 ESE. | 84} At 3a.mM. dark and cloudy with drizzling rain, at 5 fair,
moderate breezes.
1k WSW. |-88 | a. m. dark and cloudy, with thunder, lightning and rain, at 8
fair moderate breezes, passing clouds.
GHAZEEPORE, J. JACKSON,
September 14th, 1839. Civil Surgeon.
* In the Northern parts of the district much more rain fell, both the Coosey and.
Mahanuddee were uncommonly high for the time of the year.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 639
From Gorruckpoor, in lat. 26° 45’ N. long. 83° 22’ E. I learn by one
letter that it blew a gale from the East on the night of the 5th and 6th
June; strongly from the East during the 6th, and until the afternoon
of the 7th, when it was NE., also blowing strongly ; on the morning of
the 8th it was NW. strong, and towards the afternoon it shifted to the
East and moderated. The rain commenced at noon on the 6th and con-
tinued night and day till the afternoon of the 8th, when it ceased.
From Gorruckpoor I have also by the kindness of Mr. Vicars the
following memorandum.
Gorruckpoor, 23rd September, 1839.
At the request of Mr. Bridgman, I send you an extract from my
Meteorological Journa], it is a very unfortunate circumstance that I
should have neglected to register the barometer and thermometer until
the 7th of June, I however, noted the direction of the winds and the
Imaximum of the Thermometer, which is better than nothing, and
perhaps may answer your purpose; there was astorm from the East with
rain on the 3lst May.
a Yours sincerely,
N. VICARS.
q 10 a. M. 4 P.M. Remarks.
=
‘ ee ees ee ewe
. a ot
= =I 38 £ aI #8 £¢ A. M. P.M.
A); 8 SeeiQ | A ele
1 | Max. lof |ther.} 91-0/min.'89-2{Estly. moderate, none. Easterly.
2} Do. |....|Do.] 91-2)..../....g&asterly (minimum of None.
Bar. 28°873)
3 | Do. |....|Do.] 92-0|....|....pHasterly, moderate. Storm rain, no wind.
4} Do. |Do.|....} 91°5)....|....fEasterly, strong. Easterly, strong.
5 | Do. |Do.|....f 88-0]....|....pluasterly, showers. Easterly, strong.
6 | Do. |..../Do.] 86:0}....|....JEasterly, stg. hvy.rain Easterly, strong.
(min. of Bar. 28-808)
7 | 28-970)....| 81-0}/28°750]....|80-OfEstly. stg. rain allday. Easterly, strong.
8 | 28-788) 77-5| 78-5] 28-777|7 9-5 77-8 Easterly, strong, heavy asterly, strong.
rain till 4 p. mM.
9 | 28-902 80-7 | 80-2) 28-940) ...|84:OfEasterly, strong, cloudy. Easterly.
10 | 28-964! 81-0!81-0]28-800!82-8 83-0] Easterly, cloudy. Variable.
From Mirzapore lat. 25° 10’ N. long. 85° 35’ E. I am indebted to
Mr. Stuart for the following memorandum of the weather, from Ist to
10th June, 1839.
Ist June, Thermometer, .. 88° .. Fresh Easterly Breeze.
2nd ditto, 43 -. 86° .. Morning wind Easterly. Noon dreadfully hot
and blowing strong from the NW.
3rd_ ditto, os -» 90° .. Nota breath of wind, until 6 a. m.
4th ditto, 5) -. 88 ., Sultry night—strong Easterly wind.
| 4N
640 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Aveusr,
oth ditto, $3 .. 87: .. Blowing heavy from the East, showers, noon
blowing very fresh and weather wild looking.
6th ditto, .% .. 80: .. A regular gale from the East with drizzling
rain, noon gale increasing and more rain,
evening stormy and wet.
7th ditto, 5 -» 80° .. Severe squalls through the night from the
East with heavy and incessant rain, noon
blowing heavier, rained more Northerly,
evening raining very hard.
8th ditto, a .. 80° .. Very wet morning, cleared up about nine.
9th ditto, 5 .- 80° .. Gloomy morning with distant thunder.
10th ditto, 7 -» 80° .. Heavy Squalls through the night, torrents of
rain, cleared up at 8 A. M. noon close, calm
and sultry.
My attention was drawn to this theory while endeavouring to trace
some barometric curve, and some relation between it and the magnetic
equator,* and withal some law which might theoretically account for —
the paraboloidal course of the West Indian and American hurricanes,
as shown by Mr. Redfield and Col. Reid ; and the singular difference
shown by the track of our Hurricane led me to suppose that it might
perhaps move in the axis of the parabola? Mr. Ravenshaw’s letter —
shortly afterwards gave much credit to these views, and subsequent —
facts serve to justify our asserting that for this time at least it has |
done so.
If we describe, as I have done on the Map No. II, a great parabola,
one branch of which stretches towards Ceylon, and the other up to the |
valley of the Ganges towards Agra, the vortex being towards Arracan, —
and the axis in the line of the supposed track of the Hurricane; it will |
be found that the focus of such a parabola falls in about lat. 19° 36’ N, |
long. 88° 10’ E. which was about the centre of the Hurricane on
the 4th. These sort of lines are of course arbitrary, but still the coin- |
cidence is novel and curious ; whether we look upon the whirls of the |
Hurricane to have been produced by the mere dynamic action of the |
streams of air, like the eddies within the bends of a river flowing |
through a curved channel, or suppose that these vortices are Thermo- |
electric Phenomena, produced by the sudden transfer of great volumes of |
the caloric and moisture of the stream of air from the warm equatorial |
regions to the colder ones toward and beyond the tropics. The re- |
marks on the warmth of the weather in the logs, and the thermometrical |
* It may be worth remarking that while this hurricane seems to have travelled from
East to West or nearly parallel to the direction of the Magnetic Equator as laid down }
by Biot, those of the West Indies seem for the most part to come from the South East- |
ward, which is also there the direction of the plane of the Magnetic Equator. The |
“ Raleigh’s’” Hurricane in the China Seas seems too to have trayelled in this)
direction,
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 641
register, with the peculiar state of the atmosphere so well described in
the remarks of Captain Paterson, of the H. C. S. Amherst—and her
track from Akyab we must remember was almost in the direction of
the path of the hurricane till it overtook her at the Sand Heads—are
well worth considering.
These are but vague theories, it will be said, but it will not be
forgotten that theories on a new subject, like torches in exploring dark
caverns often lead us to the passage we seek ; though not by the road we
expected. ‘‘ We have only to be ready to lay them aside when they
have served our turn,’* and if I venture to introduce this one here
it is to point attention to the importance of obtaining electric observa-
tions if possible.
The slow rate at which the vortex appears to have travelled also seems
to show, as before remarked, that it was, as it were, pent up between the
great stream of air blowing along the Arracan range and the Coroman-
del Hills. We see analogous instances to this in the small bays at the sides
ofrivers, where while there is one part of the stream turning round the
shores of it and another flowing from point to point, we see the eddies
are from time to time found almost stationary about the middle of the
bay.t
I wish to be understood here however as suggesting probable com-
parisons rather than advancing a theory.
Col. Reid and Mr. Redfield give from ten to thirty miles per hour for
the rates at which the centres of their different vortices have probably
travelled onwards. If our centres are correctly laid down ; and I think
there is good evidence that at least those of the 4th and 5th are so; it
appears that from the 3rd to the 4th the Hurricane travelled onwards
only about 100 miles, or say 4-16 per hour, and from the 4th tothe 5th
about 70 or 83 miles per hour. This again is conformable to what we
observe in the bends of a stream where the eddies seem to start from
some point, and move onwards with more rapidity in the first part of
their course than latterly. Should future experience confirm this
instance of the slow progress of our Hurricane, it will become an im-
portant element in any calculation to be made by the seaman for
avoiding their violence.
-* Sir John Herschel.
¢ In the rivers of India banks are often formed at these points, which ending by
choking the stream as the river becomes lower, changes its channel in succeeding years.
642 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Aveust,
Practical Remarks and Deductions.
I have quoted at p. 563 an opinion expressed in my hearing, that it
was thought by the individual that “ they would not make much of it.”
Few I think who have perused the preceding pages, will be inclined
to -repeat this, but still as the plain man and the practical seaman
may not so readily arrive at al/ the conclusions to be drawn from the
knowledge we have collected of this single tempest, I have been in-
duced to sum them up here.
My original intention was to delay doing this, and even the publica-—
tion of this memoir, until I could collect also what was to be gleaned
from the records now existing of our former gales and hurricanes,
and then accompany the whole with practical deductions ; but it was
suggested to me by Professor O'Shaughnessy, that by the delay which
this would occasion, we should loose the opportunity of exciting public
attention to the subject before the approach of the autumnal gales,
and moreover, that even by publishing our knowledge in this yet im-
perfect state, we might nevertheless, possibly, avert mischief. This I |
thought sound counsel, and therefore propose to make our former ~
Indian tempests the subject of a future memoir. i
It will then be recollected that what is here said is merely the —
amount of our present knowledge, and that what is said is rather
meant as a suggestion thanasarule. I shall however distinctly state —
the grounds from which the various inferences are drawn, and it will
be for every man to exercise his own judgment thereupon; I shall
also acknowledge when I borrow from Colonel Reid, or other writers.
Clearly to comprehend this theory of gales and hurricanes, let us —
begin with the words. As I have elsewhere said, the words are not to —
be used so much with relation to the force of the wind in a storm, as
to its motion. :
A storm, or tempest, may mean either a Gale or Hurricane, but it :
always means a storm of wznd, and not, as frequently used by lands-—
men, one of thunder and lightning only ; unless so expressed.
A gale means a storm of wind, the direction of which is tolerably
steady for a long time, sometimes not only for days but for weeks.
A hurricane means a ¢urning storm of wind blowing with great :
violence, and shifting more or less suddenly, so as ty blow half or —
entirely round the compass in a few hours.
With this explanation of our words we shall better understand the
things treated of.
The present state of our knowledge seems to show that for the West —
Indies, Bay of Bengal, and China Sea, the wind in a _ hurricane
1839.] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. | 643
has two motions, the one a turning or veering round upon a centre,
and the other a straight or curved motion forwards, so that it is both
turning round and rolling forward at the same time. It appears
also that it turns, when it occurs on the North side of the Equator
from the East, or the right hand, by the North, towards the West ; or
contrary to the hands of a watch; and in the Southern hemisphere,
that its motion is the contrary way, or wth the hands of a watch.
The foregoing memoir with the charts and diagrams shew that this
rule holds good at least for our storm of June last ; and that the wind
was really blowing in great circles in a direction as described ; i. e.
against that of the hands of a watch. We assume then for the pre-
sent, that the hurricanes in the Bay of Bengal always follow this
law. We do not yet positively know that such is the case, but it is
the most probable opinion.
If we describe on a piece of paper a few concentric circles, like those
in the diagrams, and marking a little compass with its fleur de lis to
the North in the middle make four arrows at the top, bottom, and
two sides, writing against them as in the diagram, East-wind, North-
wind, West-wind and South-wind, and then cut this out with scissors,
we shall have what is called a Hurricane-circle or Hurricane-card.
The use of this is to lay it down upon any part of a chart. We may
also cut out a little spindle-shaped piece to represent our ship, and
place this in that quarter of the card at which the wind is found.
The card may be supposed to represent a circle of fifty or of five
hundred miles in diameter, as we please ; and one which would fill up
the head of the Bay of Bengal would show, on our map No. II, the
wind South on the Arracan coast, East at the Sand-Heads, North on
the coast of Coromandel, and West across the Bay.
We have now to judge of three important points, What is the track
of the hurricane if it is to be one? In what direction does it bear from
us now? How far are we from its centre?
We do not yet know what ts theusual track of our Indian hurricanes.
We know from Col. Reid’s and Mr. Redfield’s researches that those of
the West Indies begin about the Leeward Islands, travel tothe WNW.
and then round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and following the
Gulf Stream, are lost in the Atlantic between the Bermudas and
Halifax ; and they have investigated a sufficient number to show that
this may be taken as a general rule. Those also of the Mauritius
- seem to come from the Eastward. All we yet know positively here is
the course of this single tempest ; and hence the great necessity of
further observation and research, to which I shall perhaps farther
allude. We may however, in the absence of better knowledge, take it as
644 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Avueust,
a supposition, that the hurricanes in the Bay of Bengal travel from the
Eastward to the Westward,* and it may be quite safe to calculate
upon their blowing in a circle from right to left.
We must then assume this point, and supposing we have the wind
at ESE. we are then somewhere upon the line leading from the NNE.
point of the hurricane-circle to its centre.
If the wind now veers to SE. and SSE. we can easily understand
that the centre has passed somewhere to the Southward of us, and
that we are upon the 77gA¢ hand side of its track.
But if the wind had begun at North, and veered to the N. West
and West we can also understand that the hurricane is passing some-
where to the Northward of us, and that we are upon the /ef¢ hand side
of its path. At what distance we are from the centre can only be
judged of by the quickness with which the wind veers round ; and it
will be clear that if a ship stood exactly still with the hurricane
coming direct towards her, she might have the wind always in one
direction till the centre passed her, when she would probably have a
shift exactly in the opposite direction. |
The seaman will now understand how it is that he may be run-
ning into a Hurricane or scudding in company with one—which no
one of course desires to do—and how important it is that a know-
ledge of their usual paths should be obtained ; for they seem to have in
all countries tracks which we may call their usual paths.
As an example how a vessel may run into a hurricane, let us sup-
pose upon our Chart, the Amherst, bound across the Bay from Chittagong
to Coringa. It is clear that her course then lies across the track of the
Hurricane, and that, if ignorant of what we now know, she might with
a little alteration of time, and tempted by the fine Easterly Gale, run
into the middle of it; for till now, though a falling Barometer would
teach the seaman that he was to expect a tempest, he was quite igno-
rant, or had only some general rules derived from very partial expe-
rience, to inform him where it was beginning, how it would blow, and
-how he could escape it. We shall know this as I have said before,
when we know the usual path of our Indian Hurricanes.
* In an able review of Col. Reid’s work in No. 23 of the Madras Journal of Later-
ature and Science by T. G. Taylor, Esq. H. C. Astronomer at Madras, he says, ‘‘ The —
East India Gales appear invariably to travel from the coast of Arracan towards the
West, the curves conforming gradually to the slope of the shore until in about the
latitude of Madras when their course is due South, after which the curve binds again
towards the West, the violence of the storm seldom extending below Cuddon or Porto
Novo.” Mr. Taylor speaks here of a gale. He does not observe that he has described
the curve which a hurricane (i. e. a turning gale) would make on three sides of its circle. —
+ Col. Reid, p. 8.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 645
The question of scudding or heaving to must it is evident depend
upon the commander’s judgment as to the position in which he is, his
sea-room and the like; but the tack on which he ought to heave to is
so clearly indicated by Col. Reid’s directions that I cannot do better
than extract them ; he says page 425,
“ Rules for laying Ships to in Hurricanes.—That tack on which a ship should
be laid to in a hurricane has hitherto been a problem to be solved; and is one which
seamen have long considered important to have explained.
<< In these tempests when a vessel is lying to and the wind veers by the ship’s head, she
is in danger of getting stern-way* even when no sail is set; for in a hurricane, the
wind’s force upon the ship’s masts and yards alone will produce this effect, should the
wind veer ahead, and it is supposed that vessels have often foundered from this cause.
«« When the wind veers aft as it is called, or by the stern, this danger is avoided, and
a ship then comes up to the wind instead of having to break off from it.
“‘ If great storms obey fixed laws, and the explanation given of them in this work be
the true one, then the rule for laying a ship to follows like the corollary to a pro-
blem already solved. In order to define the two sides of a storm, that side will be
called the right hand semicircle which is on the right of the ship’s course, as we look in
the direction in which it is moving, just as we speak of the right bank of a river. The
rule for laying aship to will be, when in the right-hand semicircle to heave to on the
starboard tack, and when in the left-hand semicircle on the larboard tack in both
hemispheres.”’
As an example of this on our own diagram. If a line be drawn
across those of the 4th and 5th N. 76° E. and S. 76° W. or about
Wbs. 3 S. and EbN. 3 N., which is the track we have supposed for
the hurricane; it will be seen that all the vessels above it, or to the
right hand of the hurricane’s path, had the wind veering from NE.
to South, and were thus safe upon the starboard tack, and all
* From being taken aback. This taking aback in a tempest we all know to be
most dangerous, not only on account of the getting stern-way here mentioned; being
pooped, dismasted, and the lke; but from another danger which is not sufficiently
adverted to I think ; and this is, that a vessel, may in one of the terrific gusts which ac-
company these sudden shifts of wind be thrown on her broadside in the trough of the
sea with her deck towards the sea! .In such a case she is in the position of a vessel
on a reef which has fallen over to seaward; and there is every chance that her hatches
would be beaten in; which would swamp her. A parallel case to this is mentioned in
Col. Reid’s work, page 221, of the H. C. S. Diana, when part of the upper fore-
hatchway was stove in by the weight of the water above it, and the vessel nearly
swamped in consequence. Hatches, particularly those of the upper deck, should not
only be made stouter then they usually are (they might for lightness be lined with
sheet copper or iron) but moreover two extra strong fore and aft-pieces should be made
to ship parallel with the middle piece, halfway between it and the side, so as to. afford
additional support in cases like this. I shall be told that we know of very few instances
of this accident. This may arise from few escaping to tell the tale. The number of
well-found, stout ships, ably manned and commanded, which disappear induce us to
believe that, apart from fire, there are storm-dangers which we can only guessat. I
think this may reasonably be supposed to be one of them. H. P.
646 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane | Aveust,
those below it,* or on the left hand side, had the wind veering from
N. to SW. and were thus safe on the larboard tack. The vicinity of
the shore, or the necessity of wearing to ease the masts, if the rigging
has stretched too much upon one tack, may oblige the seaman to vary
from this rule ; and close to the centres of the hurricanes anomalies may
be found ; but it will be seen at once, I think, without further explana-
tion, of what great value it must ultimately prove to him.
I annex here a public order recently issued by the Government of
India, and a memorandum by the Lords of the Admiralty and by Lord
Glenelg, which will assist in shewing both the seaman and landsman
what we require in the way of information on this subject.
Calcutta: Wednesday, 1\th September, 1839.—NotiFicatTion.—The
importance of investigating the course and Phenomena of Storms has
been brought to the notice of Government by the Hon’ble Court of
Directors ; and the Hon’ble the President in Council is in consequence
desirous of obtaining local Registers of these Phenomena taken simul-
taneously at as many stations of India as may be found possible. The
public Officers of the different settlements and stations of India are
accordingly invited and requested, upon the occurrence of any Hurri-
cane, Gale or other Storm of more violence than usual, to note accu-
rately the time of its commencement, the direction from which the
wind first blows, whether in gusts or regular, and whether accompa-
nied with rain, thunder and lightning or other Phenomena. Also to
note, with as much accuracy as possible, the changes of direction in the
wind, and the time of the occurrence of each, and lastly, the duration
of the Gale and in what quarter the wind is when it ceases. ‘The va-
riations of the Thermometer and Barometer at each period noticed will
also be of importance if the means are forthcoming of making such ob-
servations. |
The President in Council refrains from making it the business of
any particular Officer to note the above circumstances, but relies on
the known desire of all enlightened persons to promote objects of —
scientific and useful enquiry that the public Officers will arrange
in such manner as to ensure that the observations will be taken by
some one in the vicinity of each station.
Reports upon matters of the description comprehended in this Order
may be forwarded to the Secretary to Government in the General De-
partment, free of postage, (superscribed ‘‘ Storm Report.’’)
A scientific gentleman in Calcutta has obligingly undertaken to
combine all reports that may be so received into a synopsis for ex-
hibition of the results in the manner adopted and recommended by
Colonel Reid, R. E. hy
By Order of the Hon’ble the President of the Council of India |
in Council. |
H. T. PRINSEP,
Secy. to the Govt. of India.
* The places of the Justina and Eden, by an oversight, are unfortunately omitted
in the diagram of the 5th. It will be seen that they had the wind at SW. and SWbW.
on that day.
1839. ] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 647
MEMORANDUM.
Admiralty, Dec. 28th, 1838.
The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty having had under con-
sideration the general utility of recording with clearness and precision,
in the log books of all Her Majesty’s ships and vessels of war, the
actual state of the winds and weather, have thought fit to order that
henceforward in each page of the log book two columns should be
introduced, wherein the force of the wind and the appearance of the
atmosphere, shall be every hour registered according to the annexed
scheme, a copy of which shall be pasted into each book, and painted
on the back of every log board or log slate: and two more columns
‘Shall likewise be given for the purpose of entering the heights of the
barometer or simpiesometer, and thermometer, when such instru-
ments may be on board.
: _ By command of their Lordships,
Cc. WOOD.
To al] Captains, and commanding officers
of Her Majesty’s ships and vessels.
}
| FIGURES TO DENOTE THE FORCE OF THE WIND.
' 0 denotes Calm.
|
] Light DAA op srs. 3 just sufficient to give Steerage way.
| 2 Light Breeze, .. 1 to 2 knots.
| with which a ell cope
tioned man-of-war, under a
| 3 Gentle Breeze, .. > oo) and clean full, would \ 2 ¢0 4 knots.
| ( go in smooth water, from
_ 4 Moderate Breeze, _5 to 6 knots.
5 Fresh Breeze, . ({ Royals, &c.
| Single-reefs and top-
| gallant sails.
>|
6 Strong Breeze, \
Say Moderate Gale, \ i which the same ship Sut Double reefs, jib, &c.
J
just carry, close hauled
’
8 Fresh Gale,... Triple reefs, courses,
&e.
9 Strong Gale, . | Close reefs & courses.
}
|
Bs Close reefed main top-
|10 Whole Gale, .. ae Wiens aoe pe ore sail and reefed fore-
sail.
th wh - ‘
1] iro, Reh) Ue eee ee PO alee cella.
12 Hurricane, +» towhich she could shew .. NO canvas.
|
|
: : 4o
|
|
648 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane [ Aueust,
LETTERS TO DENOTE THE STATE OF THE WEATHER.
b Blue sky—whether with clear | p Passing showers.
or hazy atmosphere. q Squally.
e Cloudy —z. e. Detached opening | r Rain—z. e. Continuous rain.
— clouds. s Snow.
d Drizzling rain. t Thunder.
f Fog—f thick fog. u Ugly threatening appearance in
g Gloomy dark weather. the weather.
h Hail. v Visibility of distant objects—
] Lightning. whether the sky be cloudy or
m Misty or hazy—so as to inter- not.
rupt the view. w Wet dew. :
o Overcast—z. e. The whole sky | . Under any letter denotes an
covered with one impervious extraordinary degree.
cloud.
By the combination of these letters, all the ordinary phenomena of
the weather may be recorded with certainty and brevity.
EXAMPLES.
bem _ Blue sky, with detached opening clouds, but hazy round
the horizon.
gv Gloomy dark weather, but distant objects remarkably visible.
qpdlt Very hard squalls, and showers of drizzle, accompanied
by lightning, with very heavy thunder.
Nautical Magazine,— March, 1839.
PPP DILDO DODD DS
Memorandum respecting the Records to be kept of the state of the
Weather in the British Colonies.
The Captains of Ports, Harbour-Masters, and Keepers of light-
houses, or, where those officers do not exist, some other competent
public functionary, should be required to keep journals of the weather,
on the principle of the log books of ships. A column should be speci- ~
ally reserved for inserting the height of the barometer. Under the ©
head of ‘ Remarks,’ should be entered all meteorological observations
considered worthy of particular notice. When the keeper of a journal
may hear that a vessel has encountered a storm, he will enter in it
any information on the subject which he can rely on, together with
the name of the ship, of her owner, and of the port to which she may
belong. With the view of tracing the course of storms, the Trinity
Board of London have given directions for the adoption of measures to
obtain a more accurate record of the weather, than has hitherto been
kept, at the lighthouses of Great Britain and Ireland. The keepers of
these lights having the opportunity of taking their observations by
night as well as by day, great advantage may be derived from employ-
ing them in this manner. Officers in charge of Colonial lighthouses
should be instructed to keep similar journals. In noting the wind’s
force, both in the Harbour-Master’s journals and in the lighthouse
reports, it is desirable that the officers should adopt the numbers for
1839.] on the 3d, 4th, and 5th of June, 1839. 649
noting the strength of the wind now in use at Greenwich Observatory,
and about to be introduced at the lighthouses under the Trinity Board.
In the cases of St. Helena and Ascension, it is desirable that more pre-
cise information should be obtained by observation, respecting the
* Rollers’ at those islands. As the object of H. M’s. Government in
instituting these inquiries is the advancement of knowledge in science
generally, the Governors of the several British Colonies will consider
how far it may be in their power to obtain useful information bearing
on the subject, from countries adjoining to their Governments in the
possession of foreign powers, or how far it may be useful to the study
of meteorology, to exchange the observations made within their Go-
vernments, for those of other countries in the neighbourhood. If at
any time desired, there would be no objection to the publication in
the Colonial newspapers of extracts from the journals.
( Signed ) GLENELG.
LOPPLIGL LILO IL
There is little to be added to these ample directions, but I may be
allowed here to repeat what has been said in another place,*—that every
European in India, may be said to have a direct personal interest in
this matter ; for, though unconnected with commercial speculations, he
probably looks one day to cross the ocean himself on his return home ;
or has those who are dear to him doing so; or he may be sent to sea
for his health. It is superfluous to allude here to that general interest
which the feelings of humanity must awaken in every man’s mind
when he hears of a new branch of knowledge, which may so much con-
tribute to disarm the tempest of its terrors ; and which careful, common-
sense accounts of storms may so very essentially assist us in perfecting.
In closing this first memoir, which, in the absence of abler labourers
in the field, I propose to follow by others as I can find materials, I ought
to apologize for its imperfections. I have mentioned in Part I.
some of the difficulties I experienced in collecting information, and that,
by the advice of a friend, I published earlier than I originally intended,
to attract attention to the October Gales. When I add to this, that I
am far from being master of my own time, I trust due allowance
will be made for its defects, by those who are not aware of these cir-
cumstances. To solicit information on any question of natural his-
tory is often fruitless enough in all countries, but upon meteorolo-
gical questions, and in India, where the public mind has not yet been
roused to attention on this head, and where observers are so few, is
absolutely at times, to use a Gallicism, désespérant. I trust however
this little essay will shew how much every trifle, insignificant as it
* Englishman, 17th September, 1839.
650 Researches on the Gale and Hurricane, &c. (LAveust,
might be thought by the possessor, may contribute to the end we seek.
Mr. Hudson’s valuable barometrical observations on board the Hope
Floating Light, I have alluded to at p. 589 ; and I may state here, that
,
those of the Hurricane of October, 1832, quoted by Col. Reid p. 269, as —
taken at Chandernagore, are my own; and both prove to be of far more
utility than was at the time supposed by the observers. We may in-
deed, if allowed to speak metaphorically on such a subject, say, that
as the great pyramids of human knowledge must be built of separate
stones, no man can say, before he brings his to the builder, that if —
32
may not become ‘‘the head stone of the corner !
Art. III.—Exztracts from Mr. M ‘ Clelland’s paper on Indian
Cyprinide. As. Res. Vol. xix. Part II.
For such of our readers as do not subscribe to the Researches of the
Society, we take this opportunity of extracting such parts of the 2nd —
part of the 19th vol. just published, as may be separated, without dis-
advantage from the rest of Mr. M‘Clelland’s paper. The utility of ©
Ichthyology is set forth in the following remarks.
“Utility will always be found to depend more on the degree of atten- |
tion paid to any subject connected with science, than on the nature |
of the subject itself; yet it is a common remark that this, or that, |
is important or frivolous, according as we happen to be acquainted with |
it. When we find any branch of science regarded as useless, we may
be assured that, contrary to ordinary expectation, it will prove the most |
productive field we can enter. Science, indeed, can only be use- |
ful where it has been cultivated, and its principles worked out ; practi-
cal results will then follow in proportion to the pains taken to develop |
them. |
“The moral interest of Ichthyology having been sufficiently attend- |
ed to throughout the preceding paper, I shall here pass it over, merely |
remarking, that in common with other branches of natural science it is |
calculated to improve the mind as well as the condition of society, |
while its cultivation need not interfere with any duty, public or pri- |
vate ; and few who are placed on our coasts, or on the banks of any of |
the noble rivers of India, who might not with amusement to them- |
selves, and advantage to science, communicate many observations no-
1839. | Indian Cyprinide. . 651
where else to be collected regarding our indigenous species. The sea-
son of spawning, and places to which the various species resort for this
purpose—their food—the kind of waters in which they thrive best—
whether running or stagnant-—with sandy or with muddy bottoms,—
would all be points of great interest that might be settled by persons of
no pretensions to a scientific knowledge of the subject.
“‘ With regard to the propagation of fishes, Mr. Yarrell remarks—that
an acre of water will let in many parts of the continent, where fresh
water fishes are in more request than in England, for more than an
acre of land. In no part of the continent of Europe, however, can
fresh-water fish be of so much importance as in India, where most of
the domestic animals which in Europe afford the principal food, as
the ox, swine, poultry, &c. are rejected by a large proportion of the
people.
“ Throughout the Mysore country, as well as in many of the western
provinces, large tanks or reservoirs occur, many of them from three to
thirty miles in circumference, and being indispensable for irrigation,
may be supposed to be nearly universal in all populous districts not
watered by rivers. ‘These reservoirs are considered by the Hon’ble
Colonel Morison C. B.* as among the greatest national monuments
to be found in India.
“They are capable, according to Buchanan,f of supplying water for
from eighteen months to two years, and thus of maintaining the sur-
rounding crops should no rain fall within that period.
“They are drained by an ingenious system of sluices and aqueducts of
the most simple, but complete construction, which afford a perfect con-
trol over the distribution of the water. During the dry season they are
all pretty much exhausted, and may, if necessary for repairs, be left
perfectly dry. This would afford an excellent opportunity for destroy-
ing crocodiles and all the various destructive fishes, sparing only the
more profitable kinds, which are limited to two or three species only ;
and by repeating this operation for several seasons, or as often as may
be necessary, all but those we wish to propagate would soon be ex-
terminated.
“¢ By a wise law of nature, the carnivorous animals of every class are
less prolific than the harmless, and may therefore be the more easily
subdued. Nearly all the destructive fishes are viviparous, bringing
* To whom I am indebted for many particulars regarding them.
¢ See his Journey in Mysore.
652 — Indian Cyprinide. [ Auaust, —
~
:
forth comparatively few young; whereas, the more profitable kinds, or —
those which should be the object of our care, are all oviparous, and —
bring forth their young from spawn.
“A single female Carp weighing only nine pounds has been found by
Bloch to contain no less than six hundred thousand ova; and by
Schneider, one, ten pounds weight, was found to contain seven hundred
thousand ova, or eggs.
“The fecundity of the Ruee, Catla, and Mrigala, has not yet been
ascertained, but from their close affinity to the Carp we may suppose —
them to correspond in this respect with that species; the question —
however, is one that may be easily ascertained by weighing a grain
of the roe and ascertaining the number of globules it contains, while —
these will be to the whole roe what one grain is to its entire weight.
The result will show that these species are capable of yielding, by their
extraordinary fertility, a source of food as inexhaustible as the sands of
the ocean, could we only bring their propagation and the safety of
the young sufficiently within our control.
‘In the reservoirs above described, we have every facility for effecting
this object on a scale of great magnitude, without in any way inter-
fering with the other uses of the water.
‘‘There are certain kinds which though they cannot be said to be
carnivorous, would yet be still more fatal to our object by devouring
the spawn or ova, such are the Barbels, common in the higher parts
of our rivers, and which but for a knowledge of this trait in their
character would, from their appearance and flavour, be the first we
_ should recommend for propagation, and thus from an ignorance of
one simple fact, destroy every chance of success. We should not,
however, condemn all the Barbels merely from a fault in some of the
species, the circumstance should impress on our minds the necessity of
confining the varieties of fish in a single reservoir to the lowest
possible number of herbivorous kinds, such as the three I have men-
tioned, namely, Cyprinus rohita, Buch. Cyprinus catla, id. and Cypri-
nus mrigala, id.; there is reason to believe that either of these species
would answer equally well in any part of the plains of India. As
they usually attain a large size, they may be slow in coming to
perfection, and, therefore, instead of having these three large species in
the same water, it would probably answer the purpose better to have
one of them only as a principal species, with any one of the common
Gudgeons or Bangons of India as a cheaper article, which would
1839. | Indian. Cyprinide. 653
not require more than a year or two at the utmost to arrive at
perfection. Beyond a single species of Gobio, and a single one of
the larger species already mentioned, more ought not to be introduced
to the same water, or allowed to exist in it, from the danger of their
proving inimical to each other, a point which I presume has never
been attended to sufficiently in attempts hitherto made to propagate
fishes ; hence, perhaps, the want of that degree of success which no
doubt would have rendered a practice so simple and beneficial, long
since universal.
“The only alteration in the present form of the reservoirs, to adapt
them to the purposes in view, would be to enclose the lowest portions
of the bottom of each with stakes long enough to reach above the
highest surface of the water, and close enough together to prevent
the entrance of crocodiles, otters, and the like, should any such exist in
the neighborhood. The spawning season of the Muee and other
Cirrhins, appears to be in the dry weather; the contrivance here
suggested would therefore protect them at that time, and if there
should be any danger of the whole of the water drying up, wells of
sufficient size and depth might be formed within the enclosure, to
which the fishes would retire during droughts, while the shallow
waters around the wells would afford space enough for the deposit of
spawn.
“Much of our success would depend on keeping these enclosures
as free as possible from all but the species we desire to propagate.
At the commencement of the dry season, before the fish begin to enter
the enclosure, the interval between the stakes might be closed with
straw, and as the water becomes sufficiently low without, most of
the rapacious kinds may be removed or destroyed; none should be
allowed to remain, but that species alone which may be the object
of our care. This done, the only further attention necessary, would
be to save the fish in the enclosure from birds during the remainder of
the dry season.
“Should our success be complete, from every moderately sized female
Ruee we should have on the commencement of the rains from five
to ten hundred thousand fry, which, as the waters rise would be quite
able to take care of themselves till the next season, when it would
be necessary again to destroy the rapacious kinds, as before.
“The repair of the carays* of Mysore, is said by Buchanan, to be
* Such is the name by which the reservoirs are known in Southern India when kept
up for irrigation. ;
654 Indian Cyprinide. | Auausr,
attended with considerable expense, nevertheless it is understood to
be an indispensable object to have them in perfect repair, since the —
fertility of the country depends entirely on them. The plan here
proposed of converting them to new purposes of utility would add
to their importance, and the interest of keeping them up, without in
any way increasing their expense.
“On the fishes of Bengal, Assam, and other provinces subject to the
inundations of the larger rivers, we can exercise no control, nor is it
desirable that we should, even if it were in our power, the supply of
fish being plentiful and constant enough: but in the higher parts of
the plains, near the foot of the mountains where the larger Cirrhins
and Barbels retire during the dry season for the purpose of spawning,
fisheries might be carried on with advantage to a considerable extent.
‘Tt would here be out of place to enter on the subject of sea fisheries,
and before we could do so with advantage it would be necessary to
pay as much attention, or more, to the fishes of our coasts as we have
devoted to those of our rivers.
“‘ Already we have attained one important piece of information regard-
ing the value of the Swlea fish of our estuaries, Polynemus sele, Buch.,
which from the earliest times has been celebrated throughout China
for its isinglass. This substance was formerly supposed to be afforded
only by certain fishes in the rivers of Muscovy, from whence it was
exported to all parts of Europe, where, from its high price, its use
is chiefly confined to the arts.
“A solution of this substance mixed with Canadian balsam and
spread on black silk forms the useful article called court plaster. A
few grains of isinglass boiled in milk forms a most nutritious food,
which is given medicinally.
“‘Tgnorant of its abundance in certain fishes of the Hoogly, that used
by the English residents in India is still imported, probably at an
expense of about 800 Rs. per maund,* while the same thing is collected
in abundance and shipped to China from the Calcutta river.T
“Ten grains of this substance is sufficient to give the consistency
of jelly to a pint of water, and as it keeps good in a dry state for any
length of time, we may imagine its value as a portable food, and what
its importance might be in times of scarcity, since one pound avoir-
* It is retailed in Calcutta at a much higher rate.
+ See Journal of the Asiatic Society for March, 1839.
1839. ] Indian Cyprinide. 655
dupois, at the above rate, would afford a nutritious meal to 1560
persons.
“‘ Whether it be used in times of scarcity in China I do not know,
but probably it is collected and stored to meet such occasions, since
Dr. Lumqua—an honorary member of this Society—a Chinese Physi-
cian, long resident in this city informs me that the Bengal fish-sago
procured from Polynemus sele, Buch. is known throughout the empire,
and that nothing could surpass his surprise on his arrival nearly twenty-
five years ago in Calcutta, when he found that with the exception
of his own countrymen who carried on the trade, no one appeared to
know or care anything whatever for the article in question, and as no
one could describe the fish, the same ignorance continued up to within
the last few months to prevail on the subject. The advantage, however
inconceivable, of an abundant supply of any substance, a single maund
of which would afford a nutritious meal to upwards of one hundred
thousand persons, could only be felt occasionally, but the intrinsic
value of the article in all the common conveniencies of life, is eminently
calculated to direct attention to other uses of the species affording it.
‘This is one of the largest and finest fishes, both as regards flavour
and whelesomeness, on our coasts or in our rivers, while the season at
which it is taken is the one most favourable for a residence in boats or
ships in the Sunderbuns. Under these circumstances it is not likely
that the subject of sea fisheries in this quarter will be altogether over-
looked, longer than the circumstances on which their success must
depend shall have been properly examined.
* All sea fisheries are practised on migratory species, which advance
annually at stated periods in search of food and proper situations to
deposit their spawn. Their progress is so regulated that at certain
seasons they approach the different coasts, in their course, with so much
regularity as to enable the people to repose as much confidence and
hope in their coming and departure as they usually place in the ripen-
ing of their crops. The shoals of fishes are so dense as to cover the sea
for leagues without interruption, and extend to a solid depth of many
fathoms in some instances, so that they are taken as quickly as it is
possible to salt and barrel them. The season lasts from a month to six
weeks, when thousands. of ships are laden with cargoes which are to
serve as the common stock of food for many of the surrounding nations
for twelve months, when the fishing is recommenced.
“Such are the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland, on the coasts
of Norway, Sweden, and Great Britain; and unless the coasts of India
4p
656 Indian Cyprinde. [| AucusT,
afford promise of resources of similar extent and importance, the object
would hardly require much public attention. _If, however, it be found
that we have species on our coasts equal in every respect to that which
is the object of enterprize at Newfoundland, and that these advance in-
to the Sunderbuns at a season when ships and men without number
may be employed with safety, there can be nothing to prevent the
national importance of the circumstance.
‘Tn this instance, as well as in that of the propagation of fresh-water —
species, science, while it exhibits varieties as numerous almost as the
stars, teaches us at the same time how to strip the subject of vagueness
arising from this cause, and amidst the countless species which inhabit
Arig pei ig See ree
our seas, directs our attention and our energies to a few only, and of ©
these the Swlea, or Polynemus sele, Buch. is the one which from its —
bulk, its habits, and its qualities in every way seems capable of becom- —
ing a permament benefit to society. It appears to be the Cod-fish of
the tropics, and equals its representative in the northern seas in all
those qualities which render that species so invaluable ; but from its
bulk it is unmanageable by the Indian fishermen, who are also without —
the means of preserving it.* These however are not sufficient reasons
why an article that might add an exhaustless supply to the common
stock of food should be altogether lost, now that an European spirit,
under the influence of a paternal government, begins to infuse itself in
all things connected with the resources of India. As. Fes. vol. 19.
p. 457—464.
* It must have been long known that the difficulty of preserving meat depends more
on the state of the atmosphere in regard to electricity and moisture than on tempera-
ture. In Calcutta, in the month of December, when the mean temperature is about
60°, it is not uncommon to keep meat before it is dressed for eight days, though in |
England during the summer at the time of herring fishing too, it cannot be kept in the
best meat-safes for more than half that time, though the temperature be lower than
here. With salt and other means at hand, I conceive there would be no difficulty in —
curing fish in an Indian climate in the months of November and December, when the 4
Sulea fishing would be carried on; nevertheless the subject is one of much interest, |
and I cannot therefore omit the following remark with which | have been favoured on
this head by Mr. C. K. Robison, one of the Magistrates of Calcutta. ‘* It would be a
famous thing if these enormous fish (the Sulea) could be cured, as well as their isin-
glass Pptaited’ and I cannot help thinking the measure very feasible, if the fishermen |
at the time of taking them and cutting een up, dipped them first into weak chloride
of soda mixed with a small quantity of impure pyroligneousacid. This would not only
preserve the fish till the salt acted, but improve the flavour.’? These materials could
be manufactured at a very cheap rate on the spot, as well as every thing else that would |
be requisite. For anaccount of the Sulea fish, see Journal Asiatic Society Bengal,
March 1839, p. 203. Also an article on ‘“‘some Indian Fishes by Dr. Cantor,’’ Pro-
ceedings Royal Asiatic Society, April 1838, As. Res. vol. 19. p. 464,
1839. | Indian Cyprindae. 657
“Cyprinide, of all fishes of equal importance are those that appear
to have occupied least, the attention of naturalists; a circumstance the
more curious, as in consequence of their being peculiar to fresh waters,
they are more universally distributed in the interior of continents,
where they ought to be more familiar and useful to man than any other
family of the same class.
“Regarding their distribution, little has hitherto been made known.
It would not appear that there is any one species common to Europe
and America ; it is not however to be supposed that we are yet prepar-
ed to form an accurate comparison between the Cyprinide of the old
and new worlds, since the majority of species in either seems as yet to
be but ill defined. Nor is it to be supposed that ichthyology has yet
been prosecuted in America to an extent at all likely to make us ac-
quainted with the numerous species that must inhabit the extensive
lakes and rivers of that continent. Of African species few only are re-
ferred to by Cuvier, while the Nile is known to present some species
that are not found in the south of Europe. The Chinese species may
yet be said to be almost unknown, with the exception of a few deter-
mined by Cuvier from the very doubtful data afforded by paintings ;
although it is seldom that so favourable an opportunity is afforded for
collecting information on any branch of natural history, as that which
the British embassies in China possessed, for investigating the peculia-
rities of the fresh-water fishes of that empire, from the length of time
they passed in boats on some of the principal rivers. Nor is any thing
whatever known, as far as I am aware, of the existence of Cyprins
in New Holland or any of the Polynesian Islands. In India the fishes
of several of the great rivers yet remain to be investigated, as those of
the Irrawaddi, the Indus, and the Nerbudda. A collection of drawings
of the fishes of the Indus, prepared during a scientific mission under
Capt. Burnes, has recently been deposited in the museum of the Asia-
tic Society ; and Mr. Griffith, to whom every branch of science is as
dear as the one in which he is fast rising to the highest station, is now
engaged in making extensive collections of, and observations on, the
fishes of the same river. The museums of Paris must already be well
stored with Indian species collected by Messrs. Duvaucel, Jaquemont,
and De-Lessert, but I doubt if any of our British museums contain
many of the commonest species of the Ganges.
“ Natural history is now assuming a station so important in the highest
scale of intellectual pursuits, that any remarks at all calculated to
impress on the minds of those who are connected with missions into
658 Indian Cyprinde. [ Aucusr,
new countries a lively sense of the interest that attaches to its most
minute details, will not, we may be assured, be taken amiss. Inform-
ation however carefully collected on such occasions as those referred to,
becomes comparatively useless when unaccompanied with specimens
of the things to which it relates. We should ever recollect that the
easiest and best way to promote our own fame, and contribute at
the same time to the advancement of natural history, is by making
collections, nor are we without examples of the highest awards having
been, though somewhat prematurely, conceded to collectors. Never-
theless, to render collections of the highest degree of real value in the
present advanced state of science, those who make them should gather
at the same time as much information as possible regarding the circum-
stances under which the various objects comprised in them live, or
occur; and it is in this that the intelligence of the naturalist may —
be best and most profitably displayed during his Journies in new coun-
tries.
“The following tabular view of the distribution of Cyprinidae, though
avowedly imperfect, will serve to show how the leading groups are
generally dispersed. Cirrhins, for instance, appear to be peeuliar to
India, or at least to the tropical parts of Asia, and the Catastoms
to America; while both are represented in Europe by the true Carps.
From the number of Gangetic species, the Barbels like the Cirrhins
would seem to have their metropolis in India, from whence the genus
is extended over the Caspian Sea, and the Nile into Europe.
“The Gonorhynchs would also seem, as a group, to be natives of the
Kast, one species only having been found in South Africa, none in
Europe, and eleven in India. ;
‘“‘The greater part of the Sarcoborine are probably also Eastern
fishes, with the exception of the Breams and Lenciscs, although some
of the European forms set down under the latter genera may be found
to belong either to the Perilamps or Opsarions.
“The small sub-genera of Pecilia appear to be equally distributed in
all parts of the world, one having been already found in Africa, two
species in India, where a few more may be expected, seven species
in America, and seven in Europe; but in every case the species of
one continent have been found to be distinct from those of another.
“The Loaches (Cobitis prop. Lin.) afford another instance of the —
concentration of numerous species in India, while three only are found
in Kurope, and none whatever in America. The annexed table exhibits
the general distribution of the family.
1839. | Indian Cyprinde. 659
« GENERAL VIEW OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF CYPRINIDA
ASIA.
a a Zz
n < 7 Paes
Bt SUS ete one
One a 22 oo = &B «=
ae a “= wn G6 O &
p> 2 Gq ih Zo
FamiLy. SvB-FAmM. GENUS. SUB-GEN. in ze a 9 + 7 Et
( Cirrhinus Cuv. ——13——— — 18
Liabeo. Grersleuoae lines Sry Moddod
pouistomue Leseur, a —19 = — i oF — fe
Barbus Cu». .. _ — —
eae Oreinus TEI ene ea a SE |
Cyprinus prop. Cuv. .. -. 6— 4? 4?—— — 14?
Gobio Cuv. .. «2 «2 «6 2—16———— 18
PGE ST ge ae pn 1
Gonorhynchus Gron... »» —-—1l0—— 1—l
Systomus McClell. .. .. ——12———-— 12
osese Abramis Cur. 5 2 1———— 7
Biesans Siete onaune Photons Agass. Possil f Genera in the lacustrine deposit
Ka. McCleil. pius Agass. of Giningen.
Perilampus McClell. .. .. — ———-—12
Leuciscus Klein... .. «- 13? 42 9 —— — — 26
Opsarius McCleli. ve —— 12—-——— 12
1 Peciliaprop. Se eee a
Lebias Cuv. .. — 3——-—-— 4
| Pecilia J FundulusLacép. 5? 2 —— — — — 7
McClell. ) Molinesia Leseur,— 1 — — — — — 1
CyprinodonLacép. 24—-—-——-— 6
AplochelusMcClell. — 3———-— 3
APALOPTERI-
( N& McClell. Anebleps Bl. — — — — — 1— 1
Platycara McClell. .. .. —— 3———-— 38
Psilorhynchus McClell, .. —— 2———-— 2
Cobitis § Cobitis propria McC7. 2 — 12 — — — — 15
Lin. U Schistura McClell, — — 11 — — — — ll
ee
42 37 189 4 2 4 1229
“The American species of this family referred to in the Regné Ani-
mal, only amount to thirty-three, but Dr. Richardson in his report on
North American Zoology mentions nearly as many more, imperfectly
indicated by Rafinesque Smaltz, and other writers as belonging to the
rivers and lakes of the new world ;* still however the preponderance
of species in favour of India is so remarkable, that it is only by extend-
ing our consideration to other genera of the order Malacopterygit ab-
dominales that we find the equilibrium restored in the distribution of
fresh-water fishes. Thus the Salmonide which form a large propor-
tion of that order in the rivers of both Europe and America, are in
India quite unknown, not one species of that extensive family having
*«* [have not yet seen the volume of Fauna Boreali Americana by Dr. Richardson,
which is devoted to Ichthyology, the volume on Birds being the only part of that im-
portant work which has reached India.
A}
660 Indian Cyprinide. [Ava ust, m
yet been found in this country, where the blank appears to be filled up
by the excessive development of the Cyprinide. 3
“‘ One species of Tench,* four Leuciscs,t and one Gudgeon,{ are enu- —
merated among the fossils of CEningen by M. Agassiz, who also des- —
cribes two new genera || Rhodews and Apius, nearly allied to, but dis- —
tinct from the Perilamps and Systoms. They are distinct from the —
first, by the dorsal and ventral margins being equally arched, and the a
caudal and anal fins being less developed ; and from the second, by the es
absence of spines in either of the latter fins ; both belong however to F
Sarcoborine, and will serve to render that group far more complete
than it appeared to me to be before I saw M. Agassiz’s splendid work. —
Two fossil species of Cobitine are also found in the same locality, one
of these, C. cephalotus Agass. belongs to Schistura. The marlstone in —
Switzerland and the sand stone of Fontainbleau, and consequently to : i
correspond with the miocene or early tertiory period.” Op. cit. p. 257
—262. :
PILPG PP PP OP PE PP ID
As a specimen of the manner in which the subject is treated we shall
here give from the synopsis of his paper one of the three sub-families in- "
to which Mr. M‘ Clelland has separated the Cyprins; on a future occa-
“1, Sup-Fam.—PHONOMINA.S§ J. M. i
“Cuar. Mouth slightly cleft, either horizontal or directed more or —
less downward. The stomach is a lengthened tube continuous witha
long intestinal canal. Colours plain. Three rays in the branchial mem- ry
brane. 4
“‘Oxss. They occur only in fresh-water, and comprise a large propor- |
tion of the fishes of lakes and rivers, more especially those that are of $
economical importance. Their food consists chiefly of confervoid |
plants and other productions of the vegetable kingdom. 4
* Tinca leptosoma, Agass. Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, vol. v. t. 51.
t Leuciscus papyraceus, Agass. V. t. 36. P. leptus, Agass. V. t. 57. ZL. pusillus, 4]
id. l. c. L. eningensis, id. and L. heterurus, id. 1. ec. + |
{ Gobio analis, Agass. t. 57.
|| Rhodeus elongatus, Agass. t.54. and R. latior, id. 1. c. Of the genus Apius, M. 4
Agassiz describes A. gracilis, and A. brongiarti, V. t. 55.; but the Satter as well as —
Leuciscus papyraceus are from the lignites of Ménat.
§ From Poionomos, that feeds on herbs.
1839. ] Indian Cyprinde. 661
“T. Gey.—CIRRHINUS.
‘““Cuar. Lower jaw composed of two short limbs loosely attached
together in front, where instead of a prominent apex, there is a depres-
sion; lips soft and fleshy with four cirri,* dorsal without spinous rays.
Oss. This genus would seem to be represented in America by the
Catastomi of Leseur, and in Europe by Cyprinus proprius, Cuv. In
India it affords several of the most favourite, abundant, and wholesome
species.
Spec. C. macronotus, J. M. t. 41. f. 1.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to four; forty-one scales
along the lateral line, and thirteen in an oblique line from the base of the
ventrals to the dorsum. D.23: P.16: V.9: A.7: C. 19.
Has. Assam and North-eastern parts of Bengal, where it attains from
two to three feet in length.
Spec. C. nandina, Buch. P. G. +t. 8. f. 84.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to three; forty-four scales
along the lateral line, and twelve in an oblique line from the base of the
ventrals to the dorsum. D.26: P.16: V.9:A.7: C.19.
Has. Bengal and Assam.
Spec. C. calbasu, Buch. P. G. t. 2. f. 33.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to four anda half; forty-two
scales along the lateral line, and fourteen in an oblique line from the base
of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.15: P.17: V.9, or 10: A.8: Oe.
Variet. Forty-two scales along the lateral line, and fifteen in an oblique line
from the base of the ventrals to the dosum. D.16: P.15: V.9: A.5:C. a
Has. Bengal and Assam.
Spec. C. rohita, Buch. P. G. t. 36 f. 85.
Length of the head to that of the body somewhat less than one to three ;
forty-two scales along the lateral line, and twelve in an oblique line from
the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.15: P.16: V.9:A.7: Cx.
Variet.t t. 41. f. 2. Forty-three scales along the lateral line, and thir-
teen in an oblique row from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.15:
PAG: Vi9<7A.8.2: 0.20:
Has. Bengal and Assam.
* Iam not sure as to cirri forming any very valuable character of a natural
enus. The length of the dorsal fin certainly does not; in the first species it is as
jong as in the Carp.
t+ P. G. These initials refer to Buchanan’s work on Gangetic Fishes.
t This fish attains a large size in Assam, and is probably the true Ruee of the
natives. That which is figured by Buchanan is as far as 1 have seen a small fish,
though the larger kind which I have figured would seem to be the one he has described.
This as well as the preceding species present so many varieties, probably the result
of artificial means resorted to for their propagation, from their value as an article
of food, that it is difficult to define their true characters.
662 Indian Cyprinide. [| Aveust,
Spec .C. gonius, Buch. P. G. t. 4. f. 82.
Scales minute; snout muscular and perforated by numerous mucous
pores. D.15: P17: V.9: A.7: C.19.
Has. Bengal and Assam.
Spec. C. nancar, Buch. P. G. p. 299.
Sub-operculum rudimentary, and concealed beneath the integuments
D203; P18 V.92 4.8 6.09. |
Has. North-eastern parts of Bengal.
“ The following three species have a black spot at the base of the cau-
dal, and the dark colour of the back descends in fasciated points on the
sides, thus indicating a relation with the Sarcoborine ; but until the
nature of this relation be determined, and their habits and struc- —
ture known, I place them with the Cirrhins. I only know them ©
by Buchanan’s figures and descriptions.*
Spec. Cyp. morula, Buch. P. G. Pl. xviii, f. 91.
Length of the head equal to the altitude of the body, and to a fourth of
the length; lips pendulous, the hinder fimbriated. D.13; P.16: V.9:
A.8: C.19.
Has. Ponds in Bengal.
Spec. Cyp. joalius, Buch. t. 42, f. 6. Bt
Head large and very blunt, mouth low and horizontal. D.12: P:—?
V.9: A.B: C.—?
Has. North-eastern parts of Bengal.
Spec. Cyp. dero, Buch. P. G. t. xxii. f. 78.
Only two cirri, Head oval and blunt, snout prominent and rough, lips
smooth-edged. D.13: P.18:—? V.9: A.7: C19.
Has. Bramaputra.
“ Sus-Gen.—LABEO.
“Car. Structure and habits agree with those of the Cirrhins, but
cirri are wanting, or very minute.
‘“‘Oxs. The last species would seem to be a Catastomus, and the two
first to be very nearly allied to each other, and to differ chiefly from
C. gonius, Buch. in being without cirri. They correspond with the
species named by Buchanan, Cyp. curchius, C. cursa, and C. cursis,
but I cannot altogether reconcile them with his descriptions ; they ap-
pear to me to be varieties resulting from domestication. |
* To these may be added for the present Cyp. pausio, Buch. P. G. 317. t. 42 f. 4 p.
it seems to differ from them merely in being without cirri.
¢ This sign a, denotes that the figure given is from Buchanan’s collection.
1839. | Indian Cyprinide. 7 — 663
Spec. Cyp. curchius, Buch. t. 40. f. 3.
Scales minute and disposed so as to indicate longitudinal stripes, lips
fleshy and fimbriated, seventy-eight scales along the lateral line, and
thirty from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.17: P.16: V.9:
cote Cine
9°
Has. Bengal and Assam.
Spec. Cyp. cursis,* Buch. t. 38. f. 3.
Snout thick and projecting, eighty-three scales on the lateral line, and
about twenty-seven across the body from the base of the ventrals to the dor-
sum DD, 16: P17: V.97.A.7: ©. =
Has. Assam and Bengal.
Variet. Cyp. cursa, Buch. t. 38. f. 2. 3
Scales and fin rays the same as in C. curchius, but the back is more
abruptly arched, and the abdominal margin is straight to the anal.
Spec. C. dyocheilus,¢ J. M. t. 37. f. 1.
Goreah of the Assamese.
Head long, opercular plates covered with thick integuments, snout mus-
cular, forty-four scales along the lateral line, and thirteen in an oblique line
from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.12: P.18: V.9: A.8: C.19.
Has. Assam, where it usually attains two feet and upwards in length.
“TY. Gen.—BARBUS.
“Cuar. Lower jaw composed of two lengthened limbs, united in
front so as to form a smooth narrow apex. Dorsal short preceded by a
strong spine, lips hard, four cirri, intermaxillaries protractile.
“Ops. « Species of this genus inhabit the Caspian Sea, the Nile, and
several of the rivers of Europe, generally confined to clear water. The
comparative shortness of the intestinal canal proves them to be less
exclusively herbivorous than any other fishes of the same sub-family.
The Indian species, indicated in the Regné Animal, all belong to other
genera. |
Spec. B. hexastichus,t J. M. t. 39. f. 2.
Cyp. tor, Buch. P. G. 305.
Lobura of the Assamese.
Length of the head to that of the body as two to seven, twenty-five scales
along the lateral line, and six in an oblique row from the base of the ventrals
to, theidorsum.’ D.11: B.172V292, 4.8 :.C.19.
Has. Great rivers in the plains of India. Ordinary length from one and
a half to three feet.
* This variety had been figured from a dried specimen and transferred to stone,
before I found in Buchanan’s collectiona most excellent drawing of it.
T So called from the pendulous structure of the snout descending so as to form the
appearance of a second lip.
i From the scales forming six rows along the sides.
4a
664 | Indian Cyprinide. [ Auaust,
Spec. B. progeneius,* J. M. t. 56. f. 3.
Cyp. tor, Buch. Coll.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to three, twenty-six scales
along the lateral line, and six in an oblique row from the base of the ventrals
to the dorsum, with a large cellular appendage to the apex of the lower jaw.
DWP 16: V9: At 6.19,
Has. Great rivers in the plains of India. Ordinary length from 14 to 3
feet.
Spec. B. macrocephalus, J. M, t. 59. f. 2.
Bura hetea of the Assamese.
Length of the head to that of the body as two to five, twenty-seven scales —
along the lateral line, and six in an oblique lne from the base of the ventrals
to the dorsum. “D.11: PalGe V.10 2A7 HC I19:
Has. Rapids in Upper Assam. Ordinary length from 2 to 3} feet.
Spec. B. heaxagonolepis,t t. 41. f. 3.
Bokar of the Assamese.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to four, exposed surface of
the scales hexagonal, twenty-seven scales along the lateral line, and seven
in an oblique line from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.12: P.16:
Nios, des Cn.
Has. Upper Assam. Ordinary length from 12 to 23 feet.
Variet. Cyp. putitora, Buch.
Head small and blunt, with eleven rays in the dorsal, attaining occasion-
ally nine feet in leneth.t
Spec. B. megalepis,§ Hardw. Ilust. t. 93.
Cyp. mosal, Buch.
Mahdseer of the Hindus.
Body below uniformly arched at the insertion of the anal, length of the
head to that of the body as one to three. D.13:P.17: V.9: A.7: Cy.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal. Length occasionally four or five feet.
Spec. B. chelynoides, J. M. t. 57. f. 5. Jour. A. S. vii. t. 56. f. 5.
Head large, lips thick and smooth, thirty-three scales along the lateral
line, and nine in an oblique line from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum.
110: P2316; V-90A.7C.1s.
Has. Mountain streams at Simla. Usual size about six inches in length.
Dr. Macleod’s Coll. |
* From ITooyeveoc, that has a prominent chin or long beard; in allusion to the
singular appendage to the lower jaw of this species by which it may be easily —
recognized.
¢ In allusion to the form of the exposed portion of the scales.
+ This fish I have been unable to identify with Buchanan’s description, I may
therefore have described it under another name; he says the head is blunt, oval, small,
and smooth, which scarcely applies to either of the foregoing, in which the head is re-
markably lengthened ; that of B. hexayonolepis would come nearest to it, though some ©
of the others seem to correspond more in other respects with the account given. Pisc.
Gang. 303.
§ From Mega large, and Jepis a scale.
1839. ] Indian Cyprinide. 665
“Ogs. The following five species have the dorsal spine serrated be-
hind. The first three are probably varieties of the same species.
Spec. Cyp. sarana. Buch. P. G. p. 307.
Cyp. kanta, id Coll.
Cyp. kunamo Russ ?
Head blunt, oval, and small, with a small bone at either side of the up-
per lip, green above, below silvery, scales large. D.10: P.16: V.9:A.8:
C19.
Has. Ponds and rivers in India. Rarely attaining two feet in length.
Spec. B. spilopholus,* J. M. t. 39. f. 4.
Head much compressed, cheeks and snout perforated with mucous pores,
forty-eight scales along the lateral line, and seventeen in an oblique row
from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum; each scale marked with a
black spot at the base. D.1]: P.15:V.9: A.7: C5:
Has. Northern parts of Bengal.
Variet. Cyp. chagunio, Buch. P. G.
Scales large and spotted at the base, head much compressed, with nume-
rous prominent mucous pores on its fore part. D.12: P.15: V.10: A.8: 0.19.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal.
Spec. B. diliciosus, J. M. t. 39. f. 3.
Head short and blunt, thirty-four scales along the lateral line, eleven in
an oblique line from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum, with a bright
gold coloured spot on each operculum. D.12: P.16: V.9:A.7:C.19.
Has. Assam. Ordinary size about 10 inches in length.
Spec. B. rododactylus,t+ J. M.
Fins red and orange, except the dorsal and upper lobe of the caudal, ten
rays in the dorsal.
Has. Lower Assam. Usual size about 5 inches in length.
“ Sus-Gen.—OREINUS,{ J. M_—Movunrain BarBeEts.
““Cuar. Head fleshy, mouth vertical, lower jaw shorter than the
upper, snout muscular and projecting, furnished with cirri, dorsal pre-
ceded by a serrated spinous ray, scales small.
“ Oxgs. Intestinal canal and stomach form a tube equal to about four
or five lengths of the body, including the head and caudal.
* From spilos a spot, and pholis a scale.
t+ Rododaktylos, literally rosy-fingered, in allusion to its red fins.
{ From Oreinos, pertaining to mountains. This genus has been since published by
. Von Heckel a German naturalist, from the collections taken home to Europe by
Baron Hugel on which Mr. M‘Clelland observes page 455 “ that it would really seem
as if we intended to leave all that requires either intellect or observation to discover in
the productions of India to our neighbours on the continent, &c. &c. To be fairly rivalled
in any pursuits where facilities are equal between the parties would be bad enough, but
to be indebted to strangers for a knowledge of the productions of our own country
argues a fault somewhere, but where that fault lies it might be a delicate question to
enquire, as none of us I fear, would be altogether free from a share of the reproach.”
666 Indian Cyprinde. [ Aucust, '
Spec. O. guttatus, J. M. t. 39. f. 1.
Head covered with thick integuments, branchial apertures small, sides ~ ;
and fins irregularly marked with brown spots, scales minute. D.10:P.17:
V.11: A.10: C.20.
Has. Mountain streams in Boutan, at an elevation of about 5000 feet,
where it was found by Mr. Griffith.
Spec. Cyprinus Richardsonu, Gray. Hardw. Illust. t. 94. f. 2.
About eleven rays in the dorsal, and nine in the anal, back speckled —
with minute dots. *
Spec. O. maculatus. J. M. t. 57. f. 6. Journ. A. S. vii. t. 56. f. 6. 4
Mouth situated on the lower surface of the head, small shapeless spots
irregularly distributed over the body, but not on the fins, scales minute. : :
DAN: P18; VL Aso eae: i
Has. Mountain streams at Simla, elevated between 5000 and 6000 feet,
where it was found by Dr. Macleod.
Spec. O. progastus,+ J. M.t. 40. f. 4. Adoee of the Assamese.
Muzzle fleshy and pointed, lips thick, somewhat pendulous and muscu- ai
lar, abdomen very prominent beneath the pectorals. D.12: P.13: V.10:
Ade C19;
Has. Rapids in Upper Assam, where it occasionally attains 18 inches in e
length, but its flesh is believed to produce vertigo and other alarming effects "
on those who use it. 2
“III. Gzuy,—CYPRINUS Parorriws.
““Cuar. Body elevated, lower jaw short.and rounded in front, lips i
hard, thick, and without cirri; dorsal long. Dorsal and anal usually |
preceded by spinous rays. |
“‘Oxss. Only two species of this group have been as yet found in India,
and one of these is without the dorsal and anal spinous rays.{
Spec. C. semiplotus, J. M. t. 37. f. 2. Sentooree of the Assamese.
Head slightly depressed, with a single row of large mucous pores extend-
ing horizontally in front of the snout, back gibbous, thirty-two scales along —
the lateral line, and ten in an oblique row from the base of the ventrals to
the dorsum. D.27: P.16,: V.9: A.9: C.19. sk
Has. The rapids of the Bramaputra in Upper Assam. Usual size 1 foot
to 13 in length.
* This may probably prove to be O. guttatus.
+H poyagTwe, that has a prominent belly.
} They have little affinity to each other; in C. semiplotus, the head is small and —
gree le as to conceal the opercular plates, and in C. catia, it is large with naked
opercula.
/
1839. | Indian Cyprinide. 667
Spec. C. catla, Buch. P. G. t. xiii. f. 81.
Head large, forty-four scales along the lateral line, and fourteen in an
oblique row from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. Dorsal and anal
without spinousrays. D.18: P.18: V.9: A.8: C.19.
Has. Fresh-water rivers and ponds in Bengal and Assam. Ordinary
size from 1 to 3 feet in length, but occasionally it is found twice that size.
“TV. Gen.—GOBIO.
“Cuar. The dorsal is placed over the ventrals, and like the anal
is short and without spines, lower jaw shorter than the upper, and is
either round or square in front, lips thin and hard, snout prominent.
«Oss. The Gudgeons thus defined are a very natural group, remark-
able for the extraordinary length of the abdominal canal. One of the
only two indicated by Cuvier from Buchanan’s species, is an Opsarion,
a genus no less remarkable for the shortness of the abdominal canal
than the Gudgeons are for its length; but as the distinctions on which
the subdivisions of the family are here made, have not before been
observed, we cannot be surprised, that it should be repeated in the last
edition of the Regné Animal from Linnzeus, that the stomach of
Cyprinide “ is eontinuous with a short intestine.” The following five
species have each two cirri.
Spec. Cyp. mrigala, Buch. t. 38. f.1. P. G. t. 6. f. 7.
Length of the head to that of the body as one to four and a half, depth of
the body about one-fourth of the length, forty-four scales along the lateral
line, and fourteen in an oblique line from the base of the ventrals to the
dorsum. D.16: P.17: V.9: A.8:C.19
Has. Rivers and ponds throughout Bengal and Assam. Ordinary length
two feet.
Variet. Rewah of the Natives, t. 58. f. 1.
Head less compressed than the body, upper jaw somewhat prominent,
forty-three scales on the lateral line and thirteen in an oblique line from the
base of the ventrals tothe dorsum. D.15: P.16: V.9: A.8: C.19.
Has. Ponds in the vicinity of Calcutta. Length from 6 to 12 inches.
Spec. Cyp. curmuca, Buch. Jour. Mys. III. t. 30.
Snout prominent and furnished with tubercles or mucous pores, lips
smooth, and on each there is asmall bone. D.11: P.16: V.9: A.8: C.18.
Has. Rivers in Southern India, where it occasionally reaches three feet
in length.
Spec. Cyp. reba, Buch. P. G. p. 280.
Head blunt, mouth small and directed downwards, lips soft. D.11: P.17:
VEO 5A. 38.10.19.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal and Behar, where it attains two feet in
length.
668 Indian Cyprinidae. | Aucust,
Spec. Cyp. acra, Buch. P. G. p. 284.
Cyp. angra, id. Coll.
Cyp. Hamiltonii, Gray, Hardw. lust. t. 86. f. 1.
Lasseem of the Assamese.
Snout prominent and fleshy, thirty-five scales along the lateral Hae! and
fourteen in an oblique line from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum.
D.10: PloOe V9. AS Y OA9*
Has. Bramaputra.
Spec. G. lissorhynchus.t J. M. t. 55. f. 5
Snout smooth and blunt without cirri, thirty-nine scales along the lateral
line, and thirteen from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D,11: P.16:
V9: Ao: C19:
Has. Large Rivers of Bengal and Assam. Usual length 6 to 9 inches.
“In the six following species the scales are thin and rough, and gene-
rally placed so that each scale is in the axis of the one immediately
preceding or succeeding, and not in regular oblique rows as is usual in
the family ; but this peculiarity is not so well marked in some species
as in others. They are all without cirri.
Spec. Cyp. bangon, Buch. Coll. t. 58. f. 2.3
Cyp. cura, id. P. G. p. 384.
Snout smooth without cirri, scales in parallel rows with a grey line
between each row. D.12: P.15: V.9.: A.7: Ses,
Has. Bengal, where it attains a size of eight or ten inches,
Spec. Cyp. boga, Buch. P. G. t. 28. f. 80.
Snout perforated with numerous mucous pores, lower lip fimbriated,
scales raised on either side of the base of the dorsal, lobes of the caudal
slightly divided. D.12: P.—V.9: A.8: C.—
Has. Bramaputra. Usual length about nine inches,
Spec. G. bicolor, J. M. t. 40. f. 1.
Snout smooth, long, and rather pointed, lower jaw shorter than the upper,
forty-two scales on the lateral line, thirteen in an oblique row from the base
of the ventrals to the dorsum. Blue above, beneath silvery, pectorals small.
D2 PAG eV OAs C9;
Has. Rivers on the northern side of Assam. Griff. Coll. e
Spec. G. anisurus,t J. M. t. 40. f. 2.
Snout blunt, lower jaw shorter than the upper, lips hard and smooth, thirty- .
nine scales along the lateral line, and thirteen in an oblique row from the
base of the ventrals to the dorsum, lower lobe of the caudal longer than
the upper. D.12: P.17: V.9: A.7: On.
Has. Upper Assam. Griff. Coll.
* Buchanan gives the fin rays as D.11: P.18 or 19: V.9: A.8: C.19.
+ From dissor smooth, and rhynchus the snout.
} From anisos unequal, and oura a tail.
ad Ee ere
1839. | Indian Cyprinide. 669
Variet. Cyp. bata, Buch. P. G. p. 383.
. Upper lobe of the caudal longer than the lower, with an ill defined trans-
verse bar, ventrals smaller than the pectorals. D.12: P.17: V.9: A.S:
C.19.
Has. Rivers and ponds in Bengal, where it attains a foot in length.
Spec. G. limnophilus,* J. M. t. 50. f. 3.
Scales in parallel rows, thirty-six in each row, and twelve across the body.
DAO Plo: V Oo Ar7 3 O19,
Has. Pondsin Bengal. Length 122 inches.
‘In the remaining species the scales are as usual in oblique rows.
Spec. Cyp. pungusia, Buch. t. 42. f.1. (+
Snout fleshy, porous, and prominent, forty-one scales along the lateral
line, and fifteen across the body ; lips fimbriated. D.14: P.18: V.9: A.7:
C.19.
Has. Bengal, where it attains a span in length.
Spec. Cyp. ariza, Buch. Jour. Mys. 111. t. 3.
Snout and under lip smooth, twelve rays in the dorsal; in other respects
it resembles the last.
Spec. G. ricnorhynchus, J. M. t. 55. f. 1.
Snout thick and wrinkled, forty-three seales along the lateral line, and
ten across the body from the base of the ventrals to the dorsum. D.12;
Eels. V9? AY C219,
Has. Northern parts of Bengal, here it was found by Mr. Hodgson.
Spec G. malacostomus,t J. M.
C. falcata, Gray Hardw. Illust. t.—?§
Nepura of the Assamese.
Snout thick, fleshy, and perforated with numerous large mucous pores,
margins of the lips double and fimbriated. D.12: P.16: V.9: A.8: C.19.
Has. Rapids in Upper Assam. Length from six to twelve inches. Mr.
Griffith’s Coll.
“V. Gen.—GONORHYNCHUS.
“ Cuar. Mouth situated under the head, which is long and covered
with thick integuments, body long and sub-cylindrical, snout per-
forated by numerous mucous pores, dorsal and anal short, opposite, and
without spines. The intestine and stomach form a continuous tube
about eight lengths of the body.
* From Aun a swamp or lake, and proc to love or frequent.
+ Its form is not so slender as represented in the figure. Buchanan also gives seven-
teen rays to each pectoral, and eight to the anal.
t From jadakoc soft, and @roua the mouth.
_§ This plate is not numbered in Hardwicke’s Illustrations, nor is it included in the
list of plates prefixed to the volume.
670 Indian Cyrinide. [ AucusrT,
“ Oxss. This genus hitherto rested on a single species long since found
at the Cape of Good Hope, but the Garre of Buchanan chiefly belong
to it, as well as several species which have since been found in India.
“The first three species are without cirri.
Spec. G. gobioides, J. M. t. 43. f. 1. Herilwa of the Assamese.
Altitude of the body to its length as one to four, thirty-seven scales along
the lateral line, and nine in an oblique row from the base of the ventrals to.
the dorsum. D.10: P.15: V.9: A.7: C.19.
Has. Bramaputra, in Assam. Length about a span.
Spec. G. petrophilus, J. M. Jour. Asiat. Soc. iv. t. 1.
Scales very minute, body and head long, eight rays in the dorsal. *
Spec. G. rupicolus, J. M. t. 43. f. 4, 5.
Snout thick and smooth, pectorals rounded;+ fins short, and the
membrane in which their rays are enclosed thick and opaque; thirty-five
scales along the lateral line, and nine in an oblique row across the body.
D.8:P.10):: V9 « A.6: €.20.
Has. Mishmee mountains. Length about two inches. Griffith’s Coll.
Spec. G. bimaculatus, J. M.
. Snout warty, porous, and divided by a fissure, without cirri; a black spot
at the base of the caudal, lower lobe of the caudal longer than the upper,
thirty-four scales along the lateral line and eight rows between the ventrals,
Steen pectorals and ventrals lanceolate. D.9: P.13: V.9: A.7:
C:.3
10°
Has. River Laeeh at the foot of the Mishmee mountains, where it was
found by Mr. Griffith. £
Spec. Cyp. lamta, Buch. t. 43. f. 2. (3 P. G. p. 343.
Cyp. godiyava, id. Coll.
Four very short cirri, pectorals and ventrals lanceolate, and a black spot
on either side of the tail, snout thick and warty. D.10: P.13: V.9: A.7:
C.19.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal, where it attains 2% or three inches in
length.
Spec. G. gotyla, Gray, Hardw. Illust. t. 88. f. 3.
Snout thick, and divided by a deep transverse fissure in which numerous
large mucous pores are situated, a fleshy pendulous point at each corner of
the mouth; four minute cirri.
Has. Mountains of India.
* The habits of this species are fully described, but we want to know more of its
specific characters.
+ The form of the pectorals is not accurately represented in the figure.
{ Also at the foot of the Nipal mountains, where Mr. H
found a specimen now in the Asiatic Society’s collection.
of the caudal are of equal length. It is so like the succeeding variety that I have
thought it unnecessary to figure it separately.
odgson appears to have |
In this, however, the lobes |
1839. | 4 Indian Cyprinide. 671
Spec. G. fimbriatus, t. 43. f. 3.3
Cyp. sada, Buch. P. G.
Four cirri little shorter than the head, pectorals and ventrals falcate.
eo Po? V9: A327,
Has. Northern parts of Bengal, where it attains a few inches in length.
‘The remaining three have each two small cirri.
Spec. G. macrosomus,* t. 43. f. 7. 1G.
Cyp. latius, Buch P. G. p. 346.
Depth of the body to the entire as one to six, two cirri, scales small,
WA Pd: V 9: A. 7: C.20.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal.
Spec. Cyp. gohama, Buch. P. G. p. 346. t, 43. f. 6.(3
Cyp. dyangra. id. Coll.
Is shorter in proportion, and more arched above and below than the
former, and has eight rays in the anal.
Has. Northern parts of Bengal.
Spec. G. brachypterus, J. M.
Lower surface of the head flat with a cartilaginous zone behind the mouth
like G. rupiculus,t a few irregular pores on the snout, thirty-six scales
on the lateral line and seven rows across the body.
Has. Mishmee mountains. Griff. Coll.’’
[A coloured drawing of each species is given, together with a detailed
account of whatever is known regarding it. |
Arr. 1V.—Account of a Journey from Sumbulpur to Mednipur,
through the Forests of Orissa. By Lirut. M. Kittor.
( Concluded from page 606. )
I marched from Mednipfr about the middle of December of the past
year, and proceeded by the regular dawk stages as far as Doodkhundi
a small village beyond Ghooteah, distant thirty-six miles. From this
place I left the road and proceeded to Gopibullubpur, a town on the
right bank of the Subunreeka river and about eight miles due south.
On first leaving Medniptr the Cossai river is crossed (forded) and
the high iron-stone formation (at the extremity of which the town
stands) is quitted. The road (if it deserves such a name) passes over low
land as far as the second dawk station called Chardeh, a little beyond
this the iron-stone is again met with, and forms the southern limit of
the level valley of the Cossai, which is throughout highly cultivated
* From Makooc long, oa the body.
_t Italso agrees with that species in the form of its fins; the presence of two very
minute cirri being my chief reason for separating them, I have not thought it necessary
to give a figure,
4k
672 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. [Aueust,
and thickly populated; the chief cultivation appears to be rice, there is
however some indigo, also sugar-cane.
From Chardeh to Ektale (the 5th stage) there is but very little
clear and cultivated land, consequently much jungle ; a little cultiva-
tion occurs near Bajennah (the 3rd stage) also near Purooliah (the |
4th). The soil is much the same as that of Mednipar, perhaps a little
more sandy. Although there is so much dense jungle, there are —
evidences of the land having once been cultivated, and were it cleared
I should think that the soil would prove rich and well adapted to the
growth of cotton.
Ektale is a large village on the edge of the high iron-stone forma-
tion, here bordering what may be termed the valley of the Dolung river,
and (like that of the Cossai) fertile and well cultivated. There
are several large villages right and left of the road towards Ghooteah,
which is on the high land to the opposite side of the valley, distant
four miles from Ektale.
Messrs. MacDonald have an indigo factory near Ghooteah and much
plant is grown on the high grounds in its vicinity.
There appears to be much low jungle to the northward of the road,
and a considerable belt to the southward also, beyond this towards
the valley of the Subunreeka in the Dholbhoom and Maunbhoom
districts (commencing near Ghooteah) the country is open and
well cultivated, I remarked some very fine gram and mustard, and_
should think that superior wheat, barley, and flax might be |
- grown throughout this tract, likewise sugar-cane. The scenery is
very beautiful, particularly towards the southern and western horizon, |
the Semulpal, Kussum, and Baumunghatti hills in Mohurbhunj add—
greatly to the beauty of the landscape, and when the broad bed of the
Subunreeka is full in the rains, it must also contribute no small share
of elegance to the picture.
I halted a couple of days near Gopibullubpur, whichis a very large
village belonging to a Gosain ; a little to the northward are several |
other villages close together, the principal of which is Nyabussaun, it
gives name to a large purgunnah belonging to Mohurbhunj. The Raja
has given it on a long lease to Messrs. MacIntosh, indigo planters, who
have several factories on the Maunbhoom side of the river, one of |
which is opposite to Gopibullubpar; their bungalow was burnt |
down the night previous to my arrival. The Mohurbhunj people
appear dissatisfied with the arrangements above alluded to, they seem
to be averse to the cultivation of indigo, thinking that it impoverishes
the land.
; 1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 673
I wished to have advanced to the hills where the pass over
which the dawk travels, is situated, but so determined were the
people to prevent me, that I was obliged to alter my course. I did
not lose much by it as I was enabled to survey the country along
the right bank of the river and its vicinity, which had never yet
beendone. This portion of the Subunreeka valley is very fertile, but,
of no great extent inland ; undulating ground, and beds of shingle, co-
vered with dense jungle occur, forming a belt that divides it, from the
valley of the Boorabalung river, which rising in the Semulpal hills,
winds under those of Kussum and Bunkati, then flowing in a souther-
ly direction towards the Nilgur hills under Balasore, finally empties
itself into the sea near Bullramgurhi.
There is little or no fine timber on the belt of high land above al-
luded to; I passed over it in two marches, and entered the Boorabalung
valley, then continued in a north-westerly direction to Bunkati, the
principal village of the purgunnah of Ooperbaugh. I crossed the
Boorabalung which is a very clear, rapid stream, about kneedeep,
with very steep banks; its course is here very tortuous, there are
many rapids ; I re-crossed it before reaching Bunkati near to which
place, I halted a couple of days. There are falls over some talcose
rocks about a mile below the village, the spot is held sacred. The
water does not fall from any great height, but the strange appearance
of the rocks and the wooded banks of the stream, which above the
falls is still and deep, render the scene very beautiful. The singular
appearance of the rocks (talcose) is occasioned by the strata being
vertical or nearly so, they lean against a totally different formation,
which appears to be basalt in different stages of decomposition.
I here observed a very simple, though ingenious, way of entrapping
fish. In one part of the falls, in a narrow space between two rocks,
there is a long slanting thatch fastened, from the lower end of which
is a fine basket work frame, slanting at a wider angle than the former,
and above it ; the fish in attempting to leap, fall on to the thatch and
slip down to the lower part of it, from whence they cannot escape.
The crafty Brahmuns impose on the people: by telling them that the
presiding ‘“‘ Thacoor” or deity has the power thus to cause the fish to sa-
crifice themselves to him or her. The Brahmuns remove the fish
early in the morning, and cook them in their ‘‘ Bhog mundup” temple
cook-house ; the first dish is placed as an offering before the idol, for
the consecration of the whole, which is eaten by the attendant priests,
or distributed to their friends. | |
The village of Bunkati is nearly deserted, as well as most others in
674 Lieut. Kittoe's Journey through the Forests of Orissa. {| Aucusr,
this fine purgunnah ; the farmers are of the Bhoomia cast ; they have -
been obliged to forsake the lands on account of the serious extortions
and acts of injustice inflicted on them by their dissipated and ignorant
chief, the Raja of Mohurbhunj. It is much to be regretted that our
Government has not the right to exercise more extensive control over —
the tributary mehauls in general, particularly over this of Mohurbhunj, ~
in which there is so much fine land, that could be brought to favorable
account. ‘The ryots cultivate little more than what is sufficient to
answer their immediate wants, knowing too well that the production and
possession of more, would only afford further grounds and opportunities
for their being plundered of all, it is hence that on the occurrence of a bad
harvest the poorer people perish from starvation, and its accompaniment,
;
fo eo Sa ss,
pestilence. I have been told that more than half of the population of —
all the jungle mehauls has been swept away within the last three or —
four years from these causes ; judging from the scanty population, and —
the number of deserted huts to be seen in every village, wherever I
have travelled, I am inclined to think that there is little exaggeration
in the assertion.
It is scarcely necessary for me to add that it would be hazardous for |
Europeans to take tracts of country, (were the chiefs to give the lease —
of them) unless the government would protect their rights. There is —
an Indigo factory at Jalda near Seersa in the Oopurbaugh purgunnah 34
but as an instance of the uncertainty of procuring labourers, this fac-
tory was nearly at a stand still, during the present season, in conse-
quence of the causes above alluded to, (viz. the desertion of the ryots.) —
Whilst touching on the subject of Huropeans farming in these —
mehauls, I must add that although the population is at present so —
scanty and at all times its number uncertain, I feel confident that
were purgunnahs taken on long leases with the guarantee of pro-
tection on the part of our government there would be (under proper |
and equitable management on that of the European farmers) no want —
of ryots of all classes, Boomiahs or Sontauls, and even Dangurs —
from the northward, who would flock to them for employment; the
wants of these people are few, consequently labour is, and would be, —
very cheap. The Boomiahs are a powerful and industrious race of |
people, they are the principal landholders in these parts. The Sontauls —
are an inferior class, but a cheerful race and make very good labourers ; —
I have frequentiy seen eight or ten employed on the road, cheerfully —
dragging timber carts, with one or two of them playing on a kind of
flute, made of the joint of a bamboo, as an accompaniment to the songs _
of the rest of the party.
| 1839.] Léeut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 675
There are a few guallas located here and there, they generally
elan together and have villages to themselves. It would be of great
service if some colonies of these useful people (who are usually
_ bearers) were induced to come from the Mogulbundi* near Buddruc
and Cuttack, and to establish themselves in different parts of the road,
the only obstacle to dawk travelling would then be removed. I should
here observe that the only sure means of establishing a good thorough-
fare for both merchants and the dawk, would be for government to
purchase the land on each side of the road, to the extent of half a
mile each way or more, and then to allot it to the dawk runners
and bearers, as well as to other persons requiring it; in a very few
years every available beegah of ground would be eagerly taken, cleared
and cultivated ; for the first five years nothing but a nominal rent
should be exacted, and ultimately it could be assessed at a low rate.
The purchase would not amount to much, and some of the tracts I
should think would be readily rented by Europeans, to wit the Bissai
valley, which I shall presently describe.
From Bunkati I proceeded due north for two short marches, when
I reached the foot of the pass called ‘“‘ Nittai Maungur,” or the “ Tha-
coorani” ghat, from the high hill of that name, which commands it ;
this hill (as the name implies) is looked upon as a form of the goddess
of destruction ; all very prominent mountain peaks, caverns and na-
tural curiosities in general, are deified by the benighted inhabitants
of the jungles.
In the evening, I ascended the ghat, it is very rugged and steep, we
lighted numerous bonfires to scare the wild beasts, and encamped for
the night, in the middle of the road, the only level and clear ground
we could find ; the following morning we marched to Bissai, passing
the Kurrumbilla dawk stage, about midway; it was here and on this
occasion where I observed a break in the hills to the northward of the
pass, that led to the discovery of a defile by which this valley can be
entered with a scarcely perceptible ascent, I further discovered that a
fine road existed, by which many years ago merchants used to travel,
it is now blocked up with fallen trees, and overgrown with high grass,
there are several tanks and many mango topes, one of the former is
ealled the Brinjarah’s tank. Judging from the vast number of large
peepul and banyan trees of great size and age that occur by the road
side, together with what information I was able to collect, I think
that the road must be of great antiquity, and no doubt much frequent-
* The Mogulbundi includes most of the Purgunnahs in the plains which are under
our regulations.
676 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. |Aucust, —
ed, the sites of many villages still appear. The people say that some —
of the former rebel zemindars of Baumunghatt{ blocked up this road, —
to compel the merchants to travel by the lower valley and through —
the town of that name; whatever truth there may be in this, it is
equally probable that the thoroughfare was closed to keep out the
Marhatta plunderers towards the end of the last century. I have
traced this high road as far as the Byeturni and I have no doubt that
it continued on to Sumbulpur and thence to the western coast.
I halted for the day at the village of Bissai, this place, was together
with every other in the valley, destroyed by the Coles in 1834-35, it
has been partly rebuilt; before its destruction it extended for near a
mile in length, but like most towns in Orissa, it had no depth. I con-
tinued my march and survey up the valley by the regular dawk stages
|
;
|
and halted for a day at Nowagaon, which place I have before men- —
tioned. Many small villages had sprung up since my visit on my march
from Sumbulpur, but every one had suffered more or less from the
herd of wild elephants, sixty in number, which infest this valley and
the surrounding country; these beasts had thrown down the huts
to obtain the small stores of grain, and had destroyed every description
of cultivation from one end of the valley to the other. Many people
had put bags of poisoned rice in their stores but the sagacious beasts
were not to be caught. I was told that since a number were destroyed
by a Gosain many years ago, by poison, not one has taken the bait.
Nowagaon is (as I have said before) within a couple of miles of the
westernmost extremity of the valley ; it has once been a large town and
on the old road, the course of which is apparent from the rows of aged
peepul, banyan, jaumun, mango, and other trees, there isa place near this
village held sacred, it consists of the remains of a temple under a clump
of enormous trees of various kinds ; to the branches of one of them, are
nailed numerous pieces of iron chains of various sizes, which must have
been fixed there as offerings to the destructive deity, whom the poor
inhabitants suppose to live in a cavern at the top of one of the high
hills which tower above the valley on its north side, close to the vil-
lage ; they believe that at night, she comes from her retreat and with
the chains fastens up her herd of tigresses for the purpose of milking
them. They further relate that whenever the villagers neglect to make
the usual offerings of milk, rice, and fowls, she becomes enraged and
loosens some of her tigers, who never fail to carry off both men and ~
cattle. The poor zemindar could not understand why I did not make
some offering, I could not speak Ooreyah, therefore I was unable to ex-
plain the folly of such degrading superstition.
1839.) Liewt. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 6177
The Bissai valley is evidently a most fertile tract of country, it is
| about twenty miles or more in length, and averages on the whole about
four in breadth ; there are several small streams intersecting it, and one
large torrent called ‘“‘ Korkaie” which rises in the Seemulpal moun-
tains to the southward, and crossing the valley between Nowagaon and
Arjunbilla, winds down its northern face, turns round the base of the
Soolapat hill (one of the points in the trigonometrical survey) then pass-
ing through the Baumunghatti valley continuing in a north easterly di-
rection, ultimately joins the Subunreeka somewhere near Ghatislla ;
the water of this rivulet could be made available for sugar mills.
Leaving Nowagaon I proceeded by a narrow defile towards Jush-
_ purgurh, which place I reached in two marches. I passed the Tinderi
ghat (which I have already described) to my right, and found myself
in another extensive valley, bounded on one side by the Buddaum
_ range, and on the other by the lofty Seemulpal and Selma mountains.
_ The villages here (like those of Bissai) have all been destroyed, the coun-
try has become a perfect wilderness but in the immediate vicinity of
Jushpur it is open and well inhabited, the cultivation is chiefly rice and
oil seeds.
Jushpurgurh is the capital of a large purgunnah of that name, be-
longing to Mohurbhunj, it is situated at the confluence of the rivulets
Krére and Bundun, on ahigh mound between the two ; the place was
in former years strongly stockaded, but at present there is scarcely a
vestige of the works left. The town is built round the foot of the mound.
The two rivers assume the name of Krérebundun below their junc-
tion, where, for the distance of a mile they flow in a deep and narrow
channel as far as a spot called Ram Teerut; at this place the (gneiss P)
rocks stretch across a little below the level of the banks, the Krére-
bundun falls over them into a tolerably deep chasm, in which there is
a large circular basin ; beyond it is a smaller fall into a second pool
from whence the river flows over a gravelly bed by a most tortuous
course, till it finally empties itself into the Byeturni a little above
Jotepur. The water is considered very good, there are fish in abun-
dance, a very fine Mahasir: was caught and brought to me. The
mode of fishing here is curious, a net is let down and placed in a circu-
lar manner, several persons ply about in canoes and keep tapping the
rocks at the bottom with long poles to frighten the fish from under
them, the two ends of the net are gradually closed, it is then drawn up
and the fish taken out.
There are the remains of a small temple beside the falls, also seve-
ral strange marks in the rock caused originally by the water: some are
678 Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. LAucusy,
in the shape of a man’s foot, others of the hoof of a cow, all have
been improved by human skill, and the priests assert that the former
are the marks of Ram and Seeta’s feet ; and the latter those of ‘‘ Nandi”
the bull of Siva.
In examining the nature of the rock and of the shingle bed, I dis-
covered beautiful specimens both of the common and of the precious —
green serpentine, the natives say it is washed froma small hill above
Jushpur, it is a most beautiful mineral and would make very elegant
mantel-piece ornaments ; I sent a man to bring mea large quantity, but
he never returned. |
From Jushpuir I marched through an interminable forest for four
days, being misled by the roguery of the zemindar, and the obstinacy of
my guard and other attendants. I passed the site of many large
villages, and over vast tracts of grass, elephant-high, growing on land
where once luxuriant crops had smiled, but all is now a wilderness.
The forest has no underwood, every inch of the land could be cultiva-
ted. I left this wilderness, at Sukroori alarge Sassun village near the:
high road, and which I have mentioned in a former page, it belongs to
a junior branch of the Mohurbhunj family styled ‘‘ Burkonwur,” who
hold the purgunnah of their kinsman the Mohurbhunj Raja.
We had the misfortune of being overtaken by rain (which set in
on the 12th January,) the first march from Jushpuir. We had great
difficulty in procuring supplies, and were much tormented by the chi-
eanery of the Zemindars,; who were evidently acting under the Raja’s ©
orders ; the rain fell daily, not a dry spot could be found, consequently
every person suffered more or less, sooner or later; we were more for-
tunate at Sukroori where there was good ground and plenty of shelter.
The natives of the country seemed to take it very coolly, they always
construct bowers under shady trees in the centre of which they set fire
to huge logs of dry or rotten wood, which are kept constantly burning ;
at night, all hands sleep in acircle round the fire with their feet towards
it, few have any clothing beyond a small piece of cloth, which answers
at once the purpose of a dhotf, a covering sheet, and a bag to tie up
their store of rice. Iam inclined to think that there is a virtue in the
dense smoke which is kept up, that it dispels malaria.
We halted three days at Sukroori, but the rain not clearing, I deemed
it expedient to order a move and marched to Gobindpur, the place
where I had encountered the fearful tornado on my march from
Sumbulpur, thinking it better for my followers at any rate, to have
the advantage of the good water of the Byeturni, I was however mis-
taken, the incessant rain caused almost every person in camp to catch
;
| 1839.] Lieut. Kittoe’s Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 679
| jungle fever ; for several days I had barely a servant to attend upon me,
_ I was forced even to pitch my own tent, I soon followed the general
example likewise my family, for our tents were saturated as well as the
ground, which being soft caused the pole to sink into it; not a
:
|
: dry spot was to be found. I broke ground and moved to Phoolkonlaie,
where the soil was better, but the fever was too much rooted in all, for
the change to be of any benefit ; after passing many days in this
_ unhappy state, I resolved on retreating the best way we could to
| Mednipir, which station we fortunately reached on the sixth day ;
“this change restored us.
A few remarks on the climate of these tracts, and tie apparent
causes of sickness may be acceptable.
While at Phoolkonlaie stretched on my back with fever, I observed
that the wind below was blowing in a different direction from what
it was above, which latter was westerly with a clear sky, we were
enveloped in clouds and mist, with variable wind from an easterly
direction ; this atmosphere, if I may so term it, appeared to extend to
the height of the level of the mountain tops, viz. about 1600 feet. The
tract of land extending between the Buddaum and Keunjur hills, a
span of 50 miles, is considered very unhealthy by all, may it not then
be attributed to the absence of free and variable currents which in
other more open tracts dispel the earth’s vapors and prevent an accumu-
lation, which must be the real cause of sickness? as long as the ground
is dry there is less danger, but a single heavy shower followed by
cloudy weather causes the poisonous vapor to rise, and there is no
escaping its evil effects.
I have here described one cause of fever, but there is another of an
opposite nature, viz. the intense heat of the country in the months of
May and June, after every particle of vegetation has been consumed by
fire. From the description I have heard of this fever I should imagine
it to be of the brain; the patient with little warning is seized with a
shivering, violent head-ache, and vomiting, delirium quickly follows,
and in three days death puts an end to his miseries ; natives and
Europeans suffer alike from this scourge, for a. more particular account
of it, I would beg to refer my readers to Mr. Motte’s Journey to the
Diamond mines, alluded to in a former page.
Before I take leave of my readers, I will offer a few remarks on the
products of the forests; of these the tussur silk is the most common,
and at the same time, most valuable. Lac is also to be found; the
production of both in large quantities might be effected, particularly
of the former.
4s
630 Lieut. Kittoe's Journey through the Forests of Orissa. (Aveust,
The tussur worm is reared on the assena trees (Terminalia alata to- 4
mentosa) which are left standing wherever the jungle is cleared and
their branches are kept lopped to a certain height, the more easily to —
allow of collecting the cocoons, great quantities of which are also found
in the forests; they are mostly bartered to the merchants from the ‘
plains, but some are spun and wove into coarse pieces for the wealthier —
ryots and zemindars of the country. :
The lac insect is said to abound in the Nursinghur district, north of -
Dholbhoom, it has lately been imported and propagated in that purgun-_
nah. It thrives on the peepul “ Ficus religiosa” also on the kussum. —
Those people who collect lac and attend to its culture, have certain 4
superstitious rules, which they strictly adhere to, thinking that the —
slightest neglect will displease the patron deity and cause failure. —
They believe that there are certain quarters of the moon, and certain
days, on which the insects taken from the parent stock must be spread —
on the trees, the persons who perform this office abstain from food —
or drink, neither do they wash nor perform any of nature’s functions, —
there are other minor rules which I cannot recall to memory. — 4
Dhoona (the resin of the sl tree) is collected in considerable quan-—
tities, and likewise bartered. 3
I believe that very few deer hides and horns are collected in these —
parts of Orissa, although there is no scarcity of ruminants of various —
species, amongst which are the formidable Gowri Gaw (Bos gaurus.)
The forest abounds in fine timber, but unfortunately the largest and —
soundest trees are usually found in the most inaccessible glens. The —
Tendoo or bastard ebony grows to-a great size and is very common;
some trees produce very fine logs, and of any length, large quantities —
of this wood rough wrought in thin bars of from two to three feet in —
length, are exported to Medniptr where they are sold to the turners ;
and converted into rulers, walking clubs, and hooka pipes, and ulti- —
mately sent to Calcutta. “
There are many kinds of wood which I have no doubt would —
answer well for furniture purposes, that of the nux-vomica in particular, —
as no insect will go near it, not even the white ant, it is hard with —
rather a fine grain and pretty colour; the tree grows to a great height "
and size.
A small quantity of ‘ Kuth” (catechu) is prepared from the Krére
‘‘mimosa catechu” but not for exportation. -
The pullas (Butea Fundosa) grow in the Keunjur jungles in
greater numbers than in those of Mohurbhunj, and if there were a sale
for the gum, no doubt the people would poner it.
nl
ay
eo
1839.] Lieut. Kittoe's Journey through the Forests of Orissa. 681
There are many trees the seeds or nuts of which yield good oil, the
mohwa or moni ( Bassia latifolia) in particular is very plentiful.
Having enumerated all the jungle products which came under
my notice, I must now add that for Europeans to traffic in any, it would
be advisable to establish a mart at Kumererha on the Subunreeka, a
large village through which the road passes, it is in the Dholbhoom
purgunnah belonging tothe Raja of Ghatsilla, it is nearly opposite to
Seersa in Mohurbhunj, where there has long been a weekly mart held
on Tuesdays ; this would soon give way to any new one established on
the Dholbhoom side, as property is more secure. There is an indigo
factory near the village, belonging to Messrs. Macdonald, the situation
is far from unhealthy for there is no heavy jungle very near the
place,itis under the influence of the sea breeze which blows up the valley
of the river. The hot weather is also rendered less oppressive from
the frequency of severe thunder storms, which are attracted by the
adjacent hills, they are generally accompanied with showers of rain and
hail. The country as I have before said, appears very fertile particu-
larly the lands of Dholbhoom, very good sugar is produced, and I should °
think that the Mauritius cane would thrive on some of the gravelly
jungle tracts, the soilof which remains moist a few inches below the
surface. The white ants would be the greatest drawback. I must
now conclude, trusting that ere long, British industry and capital will
be profitably employed in the jungle mehauls to the benefit of the
merchant and of the now unhappy ryots upon whom the light of
civilization has not yet dawned. M. K.
Art. V.—Note on a pillar found in the Ganges near Pubna, and of
another at Kurra near Allahabad.—By Lieut. M. Kirtor.
The elegant pillar represented in the accompanying plate, Fig. 1. (to-
gether with three others) was found a few months back in a chur, (sand
bank), in the Ganges near Pubna, and sent to the Asiatic Society,
by Mr. Allen of the Civil Service. I requested that gentleman to
give me any information he might be able to obtain, to enable me to
judge, whether these elegant pieces of Hind sculpture had been sunk
there by accident, or whether they might not have formed part of some
_temple existing on the spot, previous to the River having taken its
present course ; the following is the reply he has favoured me with—
“It was found with three others exactly of a similar kind (one of
which has been slightly injured), embedded in a chur on the Ganges
682 Note on a pillar found in the Ganges near Pubna. [Avueusr,
about four miles from this station (Pubna); the end of one of the
pillars was visible on the sand bank, and all the four were dug up very
close to one another, with them were found halfa dozen stones, which
were not sculptured, nor of any particular size; the latter seem to me
to have been a part of the pavement or steps of the building.”
Mr. Allien further states ‘on referring to Rennel’s old Maps, I
observe that at that time in the direction that the chur now is, there
must have been a village at some distance from the river, traces of
the ancient course of the Ganges are still visible about two miles and
a half or more off.”
On first examining the pillar it occurred to me that it had never
been erected, as the capital is unfinished, and that in all probability
it had been sunk by accident ata remote period, while being conveyed
to some place lower down the river. I am now inclined to think that
the whole may have belonged to some temple existing on the spot
previous to the inroad of the river.
The pillar which is here represented is of a hard black stone, re- ~
sembling basalt, but from the long action of the water and mud, its
surface has become of a dirty white colour. Its height is seven feet in
all, thirteen inches and a half at its base, (which is square) and ten |
inches and a half diameter at itssummit which is circular ; from the base
to the second moulding, (three parts of its entire height) it has twelve
sides; an exception to the more general rule, which requires the base
to be square, the second division octagonal, the third of sixteen sides,
and the fourth perfectly circular.
The style of architecture is that of the twelfth or thirteenth century.
The workmanship is remarkably good, and the group of figures repre-
senting dancers and musicians though rather rudely proportioned, have
much lifein them. On one of the sides is a lizard, and on another a
bee of which I cannot make out the meaning, unless they be merely
as guide marks to the mason for facing them properly.
The circumstance of four only being found, confirms my opinion
that they have supported the roof of the ‘“‘ Nandi Subha” or ante-room
in which the “ Nandi’ (bull of Siva) is placed, and as the tops of the
pillars are only rough hewn, it is probable that they supported a wooden
roof such as are still common in the vicinity of Cuttack, where there
are some of great antiquity and of most extravagant workmanship.
Fig. 2, represents the fragment of an elegant pillar at Kurra near
Allahabad, which I drew several years ago, when encamped at that
place. It is built into an old Mahomedan tomb of great antiquity, and
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=-b
=.
1839.] Note ona pillar found at Kurra near Allahabad. 683
has evidently been taken from one of the temples destroyed during the
first Mahomedan invasion.
The most remarkable features are the heads, and festoons (hanging
from their mouths), which is one of many instances I have seen of
Hindu ornaments, apparently of Grecian origin, which I shall remark
upon more particularly at some future period. — M. K.
eee
Art. VI.—Note by Messrs. Jessop & Co. of Calcutta, on the smelting
of the Iron Ore of the district of Burdivan.
To the Officiating Secretary Asiatic Society.
Dear Sir,—The Iron Ore with which we made the experiment in
smelting, was a portion of that obtained by the Coal and Iron Com-
mittee from the district of Burdwan. We smelted above half a ton
of it, which yielded about 2 ewt. of Iron, or barely 20 per cent. ; it
would therefore be considered an Ore of little value by the Iron
masters in Great Britain.
The operation was carried on exactly according to the practice of
the large blast furnaces in England ;—owing however to some peculi-
arity in the nature of the metal it could not be brought into a fluid
state, but after its reduction from the Ore, lay in a mass at the bottom
of the furnace.
We were not prepared for such a result, and as we had no means of
extracting the metal, we were compelled to discontinue the experiment,
when the hearth had become full, instead of carrying it on for a day or
two, or until the whole of the Ore we had at our disposal was consumed.
We have no doubt that if we could have submitted the Iron, as it
lay in the furnace to the process of puddling, it would have been
converted into an excellent malleable Iron, similar to that made by
the natives in various parts of India, by whom the metal is never
brought into a fluid state.—It would be interesting to ascertain whe-
ther the same difficulty, viz. the non-fluidity of the metal, was not
experienced at the Porto Novo works ; we have some reason to think
that it was the case.
We consider it very probable, however, that after repeated experi-
ments, conducted by persons experienced in the business, a method
of treating the Ore might be discovered, by which the Iron would be
obtained in a fluid state, so as to be available for the purposes of a
foundry.
684 Note on the smelting of the Iron Ore of Burdwan. [Aveusr, —
We have the pleasure to send you samples of the Ore before and
after calcination, also of the Iron produced, and of the Lime-stone used —
in the experiment.—The latter was procured by us from Sylhet and ~
is of excellent quality.
We are, Sir, &e. &e.
20th Sept. 1839. | JESSOP & CO.
P. S.—The following are the quantities of the materials expended ;— _
Ore 1220 lbs. Coke 1278 lbs. Lime-stone 744 lbs.—The experiment bi
occupied about twenty-three hours. , ‘i
Art. VII.—Note on the habits of the Coel, and on the discovery of ; :
Isinglass.—By Mason Davipson. s
To the Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
Str,—Happening to stand in the veranda of my bungalow, a few — ‘
days ago, I heard a loud chattering noise on the lawn; believing that
a young crow had fallen from its nest I advanced to put it out of the
reach of harm. Instead of a crow I was much astonished to find that 3
an old crow was feeding a young bird of a dark brown colour, trans. _
versely striped with cinereous bars. On asking its name of anative
who also saw it, he replied that it was a young Coel. I approached it ~
within a few yards and saw it receive food from the crow’s bill, in the _
usual supplicating posture, with extended wings, and body slightly
quivering. ‘The native informed me that the Coel never made a nest,
but always took possession of that of a crow, by whose incubation, its
eggs were hatched; and also, that the crow invariably continued to
feed its adopted nestling, until it could shift for itself. From having —
seen this I can have no doubt of its truth. A few days ago theneigh- |
bouring mango topes, resounded with the plaintive notes of the Coel, |
but at present they are not to be heard from which I am inclined
to believe, that like the Cuckoo it is a bird of passage. It is a curious |
coincidence that they should both rear their young by practising a i
similar imposition on other birds. Is this common to the genus? oe
Observing in your 87th number that Mr. M‘Clelland states, that |
“The very valuable production, Istnglass, has been recently found
“ to be yielded by one of the fishes of the Hoogly.” .
I beg to mention that on the 18th of June, 1820, while residing at
Sooltanpoor, Oude, in a bungalow on the banks of the Goomty, I ad-
dressed a letter to that eminent naturalist the late Major General
Hardwicke, acquainting him that I was in the habit of opening every —
2
“
1839. | Note on the discovery of Isinglass. 685
large fish of the genus Cyprinus that was brought for sale, and
extracting the air bladder, from which I made Isinglass. While re-
siding at Calpee, on the Jumna, in 1832, I made a quantity large
enough to fill the drawer of a writing desk, from every large fish such
as Rohoo, Kutla, Muhaseer, and various others which were brought
for sale. The weights of the pods varied according to the size of the
fish, (which was never above forty pounds) ‘from half a drachm to half
an ounce. I rejected the fibrous and soaked the gelatinous coat in
strong limewater for five or six days, (in the cold weather) when
it was ready for use as Isinglass, and equal to any for sale. I am of
opinion that the article may be found in every fish that rises to
breathe, whether whale, grampus, porpoise, shark, &c.; that the quan-
tity will depend on the size of the fish, and the quality be found
nearly similar in all.
I am Sir, &e. &e.
S. C. DAVIDSON.
Allahabad, \5th Sept., 1839.
Arr. VIII.—Note on the Scapes of Xanthorheea and Fossil Stems of
Lepidodendra.—By Lieut. N. Vicary.
To the Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
I have the pleasure to send you some remarks on the resemblance,
existing between the stems of “‘ Xanthorhea ;” a native of New South
Wales, and the fossil stems of “‘ Lepidodendra.” It is an object of such
great interest to trace any affinity between fossils and existing species,
that I make no apology for obtruding my rough note upon you, and
asking you to publish it.
Xanthorhea belongs to the tribe Asphodeleew and is well known
in N. S. Wales under the name of “ Grass Tree,” the naked flower
scapes rise to ten or twelve feet in height, from the bosom of a tuft of
grass like leaves, and are used by the Aborigines as shafts for their
spears, for which they are well suited from their lightness and strength ;
there are seven species described, some of which do not form a distinct
stem, and others form a stem often eight or ten feet in height, and
occasionally branched in an irregular manner, not symmetrical as in
Coniferze, from which in the fossil state, that alone would be sufficient
to distinguish them—they have no true bark, but as in Cycadee an
outer coat formed by the bases of the fallen leaves, the coat is from one
| to two inches in thickness, rough outside, but becoming smoother on
the older parts, exhibiting the bases of the leaves, arranged in quin-
on
686 Note on the Scapes of Xanthorhea, Sc. [Aveusr,
cuncial order, their very bases become accreted within into a false
bark of considerable strength—the outer coat is with difficulty separa-
ted from the fresh stem for the purpose of examination, but in the
old and partly decayed. stems, is easily detached and gives a clear
view of the inner surface. I found some’stems quite hollow, the woody
core having decayed and disappeared, the cortical portion contains a
large quantity of resin with the appearance and colour of Gamboge,
which is perhaps the cause of its preservation, this resin is also found
abundantly on the ground round the base of the plants, and I believe
is for the most part exuded on those occasions when the grass is set
fire to, a practice resorted to in N. S. Wales as in India, for the pur-
pose of destroying the more rank kinds of vegetation—the inner sur-
face of the false bark is densely covered with lozenge-shaped areole
arranged in a quincuncial manner—the transverse diameter (with
respect to the axis) is the longest—the woody core exhibits impressions
of similar areole, a point rises in the middle of each, which is received
in a corresponding hollow in the areola of the outer coat—it appears
in fact as if the outer coat was a mould in which the wood was cast,
the base next the crown of the root is thickest, rounded and blunt,
the shaft is often irregular in thickness with a strangulated appearance,
owing perhaps to those seasons in which the growth of the plant was
retarded. I regret having neglected to examine a transverse section
of the wood, and cannot recollect any thing peculiar about it unless
its coarse and loose grain.
The above imperfect note exhibits several points that quadrate with
the descriptions given of some Lepidodendra and I send it to you
chiefly for the purpose of drawing the attention of those who feel an
interest in such things to a further and more complete investigation of
the subject. It was my intention to have brought some stems to
Calcutta and to have followed up the inquiry with the assistance of
some person more competent to the task, I however was unable to do so.
It would be easy to procure them from Sydney, as there are many very
large trees flourishing at about two miles to the South of it, small ones
are to be had everywhere.—The resin mentioned above has been
sent to England, and found to be useful to coach makers as a varnish.
I am Sir, &e. &e. |
N. VICARY, 4th Regt. N. I.
ott
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 687
Art. IX.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
(Wednesday Evening, the 2nd October, 1839.)
The Right Rey. the Lorp Bisnop of Calcutta, Vice-President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
Captain J. W. Bircu was proposed by Dr. O’SHauGuHNEssy, seconded by the chair-
man. |
Mr. E. K. Hume was proposed by Mr. SrocauELER, seconded by the officiating
Secretary.
Read a letter from the Secretary of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, acknow-
ledging the receipt of copies of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.
Read a letter from Messrs. W. H. ALLEN and Co., Book Agents of the Society in
London, forwarding account sales of the Transactions and Oriental publications, to-
gether with a statement of books supplied by them to the Society, exhibiting a
balance of 162, 12s. 2d. in their favor.
Library.
Read a letter from J. VauGuan, Esq. Librarian, American Philosophical Society,
forwarding the following books for presentation to the Society :—
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 6th, part 2nd., New Series.
Memoir of Dr. P. S. Puysicx, by J. Ranpo.ry, | vol.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6.
Medical Statistics from 1821 to 1830, by G. EmMEron, Esq.
Read a letter from Mr. J. Avpaut, forwarding for presentation a copy of an Arme-
nian and French Grammar.
Read a letter from H. T. Prinsep, Esq. Secretary to the Government of India,
forwarding 50 copies of the Rey. W. Taytor’s examination and analysis of Colonel
Macxkenziz’s Manuscripts.
The following Books were presented :—
Bulletin de la Société Géographique, vol. 1O—by the Society.
Proceedings of the Geological Society, Nos. 60 and 61, with a list of its Members—
by the Society.
Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the Royal Asiatic
Society—by the Society.
Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. vol 52, part Ist.—by the Society.
Crisp’s observations on the abolition of the Impress System in two letters, addressed
to J. W. Coorrr, Esa.—by the Author.
Ditto, Treatise on Marine Architecture.
Notice Historique sur la vie et les Voyages de Réné Caillie, par M. Jomard,
Paris, 1839.
L’ Inde Frangaise ou collection de dessins Lithographiés, representant les Divi-
nités, &c. &c. des peuples Hindoues qui habitent les possessions Frangaises de l’
Inde, et en général la Cote de Coromandel et de Malabar, par M. J. J. Cha-
brelie, avec un texte explicatif, par E. Burnouf et E. Jacquet. Paris, 1827
et 1835. Tome Ist and 2nd, folio, 2 copies—from the Government of India.
4 Li
688 Asiatic Society. | [ Aueust,
Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, par G. Cuvier, 4th edition Paris, 1834 4
1837, 8vo.
Atlas, a ditto ditto, en Livraisons.
Le Regné Animal distribué d’ aprés son Organisation, par G. Cuvier, Paris,
1835, Liv. 49 Molusques, 10mo. Liv.
Compendium Logice—presenied by the Bishop of Isauropolis.
The following books were received from the Booksellers :—
Royle’s Illustrations of Botany, part 10th.
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia; History of England.
Alif Leila, 5 copies—subscribed for by the Society.
The Officiating Secretary laid before the Meeting the Second Part of the 19th vol.
of the Transactions of the Society. A
Mr. Boucnez, the assistant Librarian of the Asiatic Society, submitted to the Meet-
ing a Manuscript Catalogue of the Society’s books, with a request that it be printed.
Resolved—That the Catalogue be referred to the Committee of Papers.
SHau Kaspeer Uppekn laid before the Meeting a Manuscript copy of the Zeech
Bahadur Khanee, with a request that the Society would join him in paying half the
expense of its printing, on the same footing as it has done towards the printing of the
Sharya ul Islam. :
Resolved—That a Committee be formed consisting of Mr. H. T. Prinsep, Mr.
J. C. C. SutHERLAND, Mr. Joun Curnin, Mr. Jamres MIDDLETON, and the Rey.
H. Pratt, to report as to the merits of the work.
Museum.— Note by Dr. M ‘Clelland :—
‘“ Skeletons, presented by the King of Oude, of an Elephant, of a Camel, and of a
Tiger. The first has been indifferently prepared and worse treated, the cartilages and
apophyses are detached, the former as well as some of the caudal vertebra, and the
‘last range of tarsal and carpal phalanges are altogether wanting.
The Camel, otherwise a valuable addition to our Museum, wants the entire caudal
vertebre, together with two pieces of the sternum, anterior part of the jaws, and cor-
responding teeth, together with some of the tarsal and carpal phalanges, cartilages
of the ribs, &c.
The Tiger wants two caudal vertebrae, a femur, and twenty-two phalanges of the
tarsus and carpus.
Skeleton and skin of a Kangaroo prepared from a specimen presented by Mr. H.
T. PRINSEP.
The skin of a Boa, twenty feet long, presented by Ensign R. W. Birp, 4th Regt.
N. I. with the following note from the Hon. Mr. Witt14M WILBERFORCE Birp.
‘I have the pleasure to forward the skin of a Boa, which I have been requested
to present on the part of Ensign Ropert WitserForceE Bird, of the 4th Regt. N. I.
for the Museum of the Asiatic Society.
When the Boa was shot, it measured 21 feet, in length. It had swallowed a spotted —
Deer, which was taken out of the inside, not too much decomposed for the spots in
the skin to be quite distinct. Where the Deer was, the skin measured three feet
one inch across,
(Signed) W. W. BIRD.’
4 Orme
——— eae oe
1839.] Asiatic Society. 689
An adult specimen of Artonyx from Assam where they are common, presented
by Captain Jenkins, and the more valuable as that in the Museum appears to bea
young ungrown animal.”’
Oriental Publications, Antiquities, &c.
Read a letter from J. Muir, Esq. recommending to the Society to procure a copy
of the Pseudo-Vedas, composed by the Romish Missionaries on the Coromandel Coast,
Seharunpoor, August \3th, 1839.
My Dear Sir,—I last year wrote to Mr. Prinsep and the Rey. Professor MaLan,
former Secretaries to the Asiatic Society on the subject of the Pseudo-Vedas,
composed by the Romish Missionaries on the Coromandel Coast, in the hope that
steps might be taken by the Asiatic Society to procure from Madras or elsewhere a
manuscript copy of the work, for their own library. I now take the liberty of addressing
you on the same subject, and of offering the sum of 25 Rupees towards the purchase
or transcription of the manuscript, ifthe Asiatic Society of Bengal see fit to adopt any
measures for this purpose.
The Society has already admitted into the 14th volume of its Researches a Disserta-
tion on the subject of these Pseuwdo-Vedas, and the literary interest attaching to them,
is, I think, sufficient to justify this application to the Society, to take steps for
rendering them accessible to its members. It seems, at the same time, to be desirable
that the reasonings of the Romish Missionaries on the subject of their discussions
with learned Hindoos should be brought within the reach, and made available for the
use of those who are labouring to promote the same cause at the present day,
I remain, My dear Sir,
Yours faithfully,
J.C. C. SuTHERLAND, Esq. : J. MUIR.
Secy. As. Soc. Bengal, &c. &c.
Resolved—That the Secretary be requested to address the Rev. Dr. Witson of
Bombay, soliciting his aid in obtaining a copy of the work.
Read a letter from L. WiLkinson, Esq. urging the printing of the Siddhants.
To W. B. O’SuHaueunessy, Esa.
Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
$1r,—1 have the pleasure to forward to you by Dawk Bhanghy four copies of a
very admirable little disquisition on Caste, by a learned Boodhist of olden times,
who exposes the weakness of the arguments on which the institution rests, in a most
uresistible manner. I beg you will be so good as to present one copy in my name to
the Society, and accept another for yourself.
The other two I beg you will present to any gentlemen most interested in exposing
the evils of the institution. ‘They will no where find arguments of a like cogency to
anative’s apprehension. They will do well therefore in studying the work.
I shall be very much obliged to you if you will let me know what your Society
thought of my proposition for printing the S7ddhants, the Gruhun Laghuvu with
Mullaris Teeka, and the Rekha Gunit. Since I wrote to you I have been favoured
» by some friend unknown to me, with a copy of the Beeja Gunit or Algebra of
- Bhascur Acharyu printed at Calcutta, thus only three instead of four works remain to
be printed. I lately submitted a proposal to Government and also to the Agra
School Book Society to the like effect, as. I did through you to the Asiatic
690 Asiatic Society. [Aueust, s
Society. The Agra School Book Society are most anxious to get these works printed, — ‘
and Lord AuckLanp I understand received the proposal favourably. By all parties ‘
agreeing to take a certain number of copies, the share of the expense on each will be ©
too trifling to deserve consideration. !
Believe me, My dear Sir,
To be yours very faithfully,
L. WILKINSON.
Resolved—That the subject be referred to the Committee of Papers.
Read an application from NEEMcHAUND SHEEROMONEE, demanding remuneration —
for correcting the proofs of the Mahabharata.
Resolved—That the application be referred to the Committee of Papers.
Physical.
Read a letter from Messrs. Fraser, Macponacp and Co. forwarding a claim of —
Mr. W. Scort of Singapore, for Co’s. Rs, 240-3-9 for expenses incurred by him a 4
keeping the register of the tides of that place.
Resolved—That the Society recognize and discharge this claim in question.
Read the following letter from Mr, Sconce regarding some Geological specimens j
forwarded to the Society.
My DEAR SUTHERLAND,
and from the circumstances under which they were found, what I infer to be relics of 3
some of the ancient epochs which mark a Geologist’s History of the world. The —
largest and most important—if it be real—of the specimens, seems to be the remains —
of an animal of the turtle kind; though in a much larger scale than the modern ©
turtles or tortoises. The size however will not disprove identity, if there be other ~
marks sufficient to guide the judgment of one acquainted with Natural History. I
knowing nothing of such matters, am merely led by the appearances which the a
specimen exhibits of animal conformation—the shape and relative position of the parts, —
and the peculiar marks of some of the parts are such, as not I think, to be inanimate .
concretions accidentally formed in a sand hill. The specimen was broken before I :
discovered it—and I sent my gardener with insufficient instructions to dig out the re- _
mainder. He brought me consequently a heap of fragments, and what I send you are %
such parts as I could put together. Ihave packed the pieces in such a manner that —
you will be able, I dare say to trace the form they assume. When put together, 2
they form two distinct portions, and of these I shall enclose pencil sketches that may
help you to *‘pick up the pieces.’? I send also several unconnected bits of the same ~
specimen; in one of these you will detect distinct traces of a claw—and in another
what looks like a paw in relief. In this latter you will observe corroborative evidence —
of animal existence in the evident delineation of five fingers or toes, and also marks
of spurs or nails. I send also in another box an entire fragment—that is, a portion
just as it lay in the hill. My idea of the specimen is that it exhibits the external |
form of the animal, and the fossilization as we now see it, was effected during, ori a
consequence of, animal decomposition. I cannot detect how far the hardened mass ;
may be a type of the—so to call it—turtle shell. The last specimen I have men 3
tioned will shew you that the fossil was, as it were, a case or mould—enclosing fine
white sand. Externally it was included in a stratified deep brown sand hill, to the ~
depth of forty or fifty feet below the surface.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 691
I also send a piece of charred wood, I found it in a position which makes meattach to
it some importance. I discovered it in a bed of firm blue clay beneath successive strata
of sand and clay, and some twelve or fourteen feet from the surface. The site exter-
nally is a swelling hillock. But the most extraordinary circumstance attending this
specimen is, that while it was imbedded in and beneath strata that must have been
deposited while the surface was exposed to repeated inundations, if not uninterrup-
tedly overflowed, there are what I take to be undoubted marks of heat and fusion—not
merely in the wood being charred—but in a fused crust an inch or two above where
the wood lay. This crust generally speaking is not the thickness of two rupees: but is
spread as regularly as any of the layers of clay and sand. I observed however that it
seemed to run as fused matter generally does, making its way into crevices, and
gathering into a mass. But what satisfies me more strongly of the fused origin of this
crust, is that just above the charred wood—an inch or two,—it appears to have
trickled in a state of fusion through the clay, making a hole for itself scarcely
a quarter of an inch wide. I send specimens of the clay, the crust, and of that portion
of the clay, through which the fusion ran. I suppose that the heat from the fused
liquid above was sufficient to char the wood. Willing to send you the specimen as
entire as possible, I have not scraped it or cleared it so as to ascertain the appearances
of the wood.
There are also some smaller specimens of what I suppose tu be quondam shell-fish.
One I am told is a muscle—ifa shell, it is at all events a bivalve: the two shells sepa-
rate—and the one is flossy looking. These shells I found also in a strata of clay and
sand more or less hard—and it seems odd, that when broken, they emit a strong su-
phureous smell. I am too ignorant on such subjects to know whether these things have
any value; you will judge when you see them, and if worth while, I should be glad, if
you offered them to the Society.
Tam
Yours very sincerely,
A. SCONCE.
Before the Meeting broke up Dr. O’SHaucunessy, exhibited several Photogenic
drawings prepared by himself, andin which a solution of gold was the agent employed.
A more detailed notice of the experiments described will appear in a subsequent
number.
[ We cannot dismiss the subject of the Proceedings of the October Meeting, without
adverting to their having been distinguished by the first exhibition in the Society’s
apartments of Colonel M‘Lxrop’s, magnificent model of the Nizamut Palace of
Moorshedabad. We strongly recommend all those who can value a first rate practical
lesson in classical architecture to visit this triumph of taste and skill. Aided by
the ‘‘ Report by the Surveying Committee,”’ published in our last number, the visitor
can acquire by an hour’s study more correct ideas on some of the noblest features
of the Orders observed in this structure, than he could derive by any amount of study,
from books or plates, or could gain without great difficulty, even from the building
itself.—EDs. |
ae
¢ aouG
" a Ay, oat
4 Shchteyt ef”
Minimum Demperature observed
Temperature. |Wind,
the Mer
cury.
the Mer-
cury.
Surface,
Aspectof the Sky.
| Ofan Evapg.
5
s
a
&
@
a
| of
| Direction,
| Of
Arr. X.—Meteorological Register, kept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of September, 1859
Maximum Pressure obseryed
Observations made at Apparent Noon
| Moon's Phases.
Boot
. |Nimbi interspersed,
SREELS| Of the air.
Beas
‘S|
&
B23
Bs
‘alm. |Cumulo-strati on the hor. zen.
. |Cirro-strati and Haze,
. (Clear Cloudy on the Hor.
Srey
2.
a0
gz
See
2
ERE
ae
28
233
SN
Ea
Sas
2
Boe
concmo
eS
LES
. |Generally Clear,
2
Ss
SSEZ
‘Dona oo
3
woncucawnuumEm
SSS
BSR
umocce
22
Calm, |Light Cir.-str. zen. Clear.
Calm. |Overcast Rainin,
‘Calm. |Cirro-strati zenit!
Calm. |Generally Clear.
=
3
i
x
2
Be
&
23.
wusenee
See
2
wowoun
SLBIS
f=]
&
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re
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SB
~SaS
BomDowoowmoos
a
=.
&
Se
=
=
RS
77,9|Calm. |Clear.
77,5\Calm, |Clear.
78,0|Calm, \Clear.
222
Beware
zee
BESSESRLNG
‘Clear.
.|Clear.
at 9H. 30 a1.
Temperature.| Wind, a ‘Temperature. | Wind.) S
(_—— = i -
to 3 2 jx -
eR 2 se |e J2(Ssl
<i5e| 2 2 ze] < jae] 3
2 FE) = z a /gs| 2 2s] 2
3 2a] 2 é |=2|3 |2a] =
= |22) 2 E cra ee | See | es
6/6 / aA 4 ga jo |oj5 | a 2
83,0) 82,0|S. ....|Nimbi interspersed 82,5] 83,9] 82,0)S.
82,7| 81,8)S. ....|Nimbi interspersed. 82}) 82,8] 81. ry
87,9) 84,9/S. ....|Light Nimbi and Cumuli. 84/9/ 87,9] 83,5 Cloudy Lt. Nimbi zenith Clear.
85,9] 84,5/S. ..../Cumuli, 86,2/ 90,8] 85,2
88,5) 83,2/S..../|Cumuli. 85,5) 83,9| 84,0) y
87,0) 83,0)S, ....|Cirro-strati & Cum. zen. clear. 9.) 89,0/ 83,2 Partial Haze, & detached clouds
r.
87,0) 83,5/S. 85,5) 88,2) 83,9) trati and Nimbi
87,5) 84,0/S. 84,4/ 88,5) 84,9)
87,5] 83,5 3] 86,0! 88,0] 84,0)
88,0] 86,5 86,4) 90,5| S44)
83,0] 83,0 87,2| 90,5| 84,0)
86,3] 83,2/8. 86/5/ 91,0] 85,0)
87,5| 83,81. 86,0) 89,0) 84,5
82,7] 80,4'S. 84,2) 87,5] 83,2)
84,8] 81,5/S. 82,8 85,2/ 82)
86,7] 82/9]. 85,9) 90,0] 83,9)
87,0] 85,3]8. 86,0| 87,5] 85,0)
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84,0/S. W.|Clear.
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-
JOURNAL
OF
THE ASITATIC SOCIETY.
No. 93.—SEPTEMBER, 1839.
Arr. I1—Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab removed from above the
Kothoutiya gate of the Fort Rohtas. By the Editors.
In our May number, we presented our readers with an interesting
letter from Mr. RavENsHAW, communicating some inscriptions collected
in Behar. Mr. Ravensuaw notices the Persian Inscription over the
gateway of the palace on the summit of the fort of Rohtas. This
informs us that the palace was built by Raga Man Sinc. The date of
the inscription is the 28th day of the 7th month of 1005, u. =., or about the
middle of April, 1597 a. vp, Mr. Ravensnaw adds, that the Sanscrit
inscription over the Kothoutiya gate of the fort had been taken to
Chupra by Mr. W. Ewer, and was then on the premises of Mr. Luxe.
It has since been forwarded to the Astatic Society, and we are thus
enabled to present our readers with a transcript and translation.
The inscription gives the following genealogy of the Tomara family
for cleven generations, and twelve Rajas.
Vira SInuH,
UppHARAN,
Gana Patt,
Haneara Sineu Deva,
Kirti SInu,
KALYANA SAHI,
Mana Saunt,
VikRAMA Sadi,
Rama Saut,
Sati Vanana, left two sons.
Syama Sanur and Vira Mirra Sen.
4u
694 Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab removed from _—_—[ Srpt.
Vira Mitra Sen, the last, succeeded his brother, and is stated to
have conquered from Ser Kuan the fortress of Rohitaswa,—to the great
astonishment of the Emperor of Delhi. He rebuilt it, and it became
known by his name. He erected in it a row of lofty temples, in which
he located Siva under the name of Mitreswana, and he also in 1688 —
Sumbut, or 1631 a. p., built a palace and a Mundira in which he —
located Durca, and it was by his order that the Poet Siva Deva of ©
Maithila (celebrated at the Court of Delhi) composed, in honor of his
illustrious family, the verses which were found engraved over the
Kothoutiya gate. This is named from the neck of rock which joins the
hill to the table land. Bucwanan mentions this inscription,* but
evidently was not acquainted with its contents. He describes it
as confirming the facts obtained from the Persian inscription, and as
contemporary with it. But in reality there is no mention of the Viceroy —
Maw Sineu, and the date 1654 Sumbut, quoted by Bucwanay, seems
to have been obtained by the addition of 57 to 1597, the Christian year
which corresponds with 1005, u. =. in the Sanscrit inscription the figures _
1688 are very distinct, and this year also results from the conventional
numeral words used, “ vasu dwana shat chandra.”
The bold assertion that Vir Mitra took the fort from the formid-
able SHer Kuan is not justified by history; and if we assume on |
the evidence of the stone, as we perhaps may, that Vir Mitra |
was living in 1631 a. pD. it is impossible that he could have been
opposed in war to the celebrated Pathan emperor who died in |
1540. We are left then to surmise that Vir Mirra Sen may have —
been a native chieftain of that part of Behar, and perhaps entrusted
by the Mohammedan ruler with the charge of the fort. The invention |
and adulation of the poet. has supplied the rest. ‘
Though the slab should be thus convicted of error and exaggeration, |
there may still be some historical facts pointed at. In the 7th
verse the grandfather of Vir Mrirra’s great-grandfather is repre-—
sented to have sustained the king of Yavanapura ( Jionpoor ),—the
king of the east, against the emperor of Delhi. The dominion of the
Jionpoor Muslim kings extended to Behar. Allusion is probably |
made to the emperor Betou1, and Hosen Suan the king of the East.
After a long struggle the latter was in 1478, driven to seek shelter with
ALLAHUDDEN the ruler of Bengal. It may be observed that the
Hindus applied the term Yavana to denote their Afghan invaders,
though this term properly belongs to the Greek or Jonian. We have in
* Buchanan, vol. iii. p. 432.
1839. ] above the Kothoutiya gate of the Fort Hohtas. 695
rendering the seventh stanza, ventured to construe the concluding part
as alluding to the use of artillery, by the modern name of top. The
words admit of a different version, and we are not satisfied that we are
justified in the liberty taken. Mana Sant, the father of the great-
grandfather of Vira Sinau, was the lord of Gopachala, indicating
probably a neighbouring hillfort. If any gentleman near Rohtas would
institute an inquiry as to whether any of the Zomara family there still
exists, and if their family traditions or records in any way square
with the particulars of the inscription,—an important service would be
rendered.
We learn from the 12th verse, that JALALUDDIN ever designated
Mitra SEn and his brother as ‘the unique heroes.’ JALALUDDIN was
the name of Axsar, who died in 1605 a. p. The style of these verses
is modern, and their merit is rather mediocre.
SHER Kaan is stated by Bucnawnan to have taken the fortress of
Rohtas by surprise. He mentions that the tradition is, that it was
wrested in 1534 a.p., from the last Hindu Emperor of Hindustan, a
descendant of Pratapa Drvaua,* to whose family the fort belonged.
On what authority Bucuanan has elevated the descendant of the
chieftain of Japila into the last Hindu emperor, does not appear.
In closing this article, we would remark that the Rohtas slab gives a
useful lesson of caution to distrust panegyrical inscriptions.
The removal of slabs from ancient buildings and temples has been
condemned by the good sense of the Asiatic Society, and we suggest
that the Rohtas slab should be restored to its proper place.
aeaaa: I
ea aeNsals aewacias Hes Ty aay
wen faa west aaarrarat atafaca g gat |
Fonfasteafafaqqearersan west
Farr Tedsataeires faa: arf: AAT HT Vt
* See our May No.
696 Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab removed from [Sepr.
Frere: Cats: TAIT FT WIUSAUITATT
au STatauat wacaafaat atfeat aa Tee: |
qa Wace: Taaia wat aa Feat ART
TH MAUTTAS TCT CAAT WSIATATSATEAT: 12!
“igen eke qaAATIa A | CeTIAHT:
a3 fécfacttace sfaad ara weatfaarer |
ATTA a fearchafaafaerraeany AT TH
year agra acafachan Reva eafatat WT URI
acy seafaqedtafrrata fraceat faarenthgay
wafer fararera free LETRA:
afeaa sparen aaata waa fearsacrai
wares ward faa TAT apf TE] WATT: 1811
aT TT T meee hea earfgad afeac:
aqmvfasraer Saaae: BVT EAVTAT SAA: |
qi! fedieaamfaarfcqadiqergay saan
meal S_ceeaaeat rat TEATS S YN
aT: afifde: wasafa a ware seq TTA
ama fifadtstferaata fafedt sex eTAMATyy |
afhaaarnfan vafa efoect afeaat waa
AC USHAUS UACATTH VUSATUSTT MAT 11
AT RANTS: Casals TATA ALT HATSTL
AT ATT HATA TCA TA PaaS AT TACT
wre fearaarsh afqerazisiadaeaea
é Ns e N
Ey faeat Maat FaaTCats eqTIATANe Tse Ish
1839. | above the Kothoutiya gate of Fort Rohtas. 697
aq ayant fefatetatafedtemematay:
waa fa Rat afatefa faget eat aa yA |
afeay Tareas fra hata fafaut a hagraTA
MACaAATAT YAS MATS ATTA SayT eI
satemaarfacgraarend qqusizia
WAT AISACAATTA TAM TATA TAT: |
Agila TATA Aaa LAAT
aq aleert Afar: Catrcaas SATA ATTATT lle}
MUIAISeCMTAAILA A
WAM a AA AMAT Tae: |
aarafa sfaratatrararrc
aga: waa afer Tat 119,011
srufaarea afa afsarer qa:
OIG Te eG Cac CCHCC CR
a: aye as faargqarata freer
WTR: Rta fayfaaATTAaTE, ULL
aver araante: fafrqqzatafrstay at
FAIA AAAATSVTALTTTATOT |
ala Fy cara VPeRC ACU STTSaIAT A
facd aang auras aad athe Haas TT: tt V2 I
aa atramarfeleranaetagiaay waar
eretaradt afafcts faery: |
i Rona: fafarhrcaserer afew
AAG: WATT: wfaquiaaa ataaat ait Teat St
698 Sanserit Inscription on the Slab removed from [ Sept.
MUA wisdear ymaTafaray Meal AA
gai gr fea wana sat Scores false |
aaa aria eanactieta wfaaafadter Aatearcrts
Maraaafa Fen wacaa aay frees TTT? US
sea Sifradahafaqacateaageraiiy
fazericg eraraaaeatearse aaa |
SAAT UTE afrfafaafanay TAYATANT
Mewar aaahtafetarcte ys earierate AAS KY
are sTiaaahataqqeaiay as ae
q fare aZATATAMAATUA STATA AETATA |
tae qaifeqraaaa fad wudarie Saat
Wa faarafacat feaacfaas wrwaare Await NW LE
ud eal azeaaarufaady faraaent AC
ae fears vara att ser atetega |
fag arefaurangeasueat aw faasacre
wrt degree feeatrra fae erate MANTA NVI
ah wireygerafucsa Tere WaWEg Cera Wer
ay SifamataaaaaTiUd Cat AAA: |
ariaeatetre Fyaaaat CATIATATS Tait
aaa aratta aa fatale fatea: aeMsaeASeAT NGI
Srategifearg aarraay SAYA:
Pacurfraraaaaaray ae CTIA: |
ronfuacarfveana: wath Tara
MAS FATTY ALAAATAT MTCC TT th VE HI
Loe © eee
1839. | above the Kothoutiya gate of the Fort Rohtas. 699
a fea tetera aC Maa CaATgE EET:
WTRTR wauracas fara pa aac |
wg frat fee uaTaA TARA TEIT
SATA faey aRTT AF AM ASE: 11 Re
VAT! CATA SAT TATAT AEAATITT: |
my yfaar: ay, TT AKA TEST RL
WHA BTCET I
TRANSLATION.
1. Salutation to Her. By the order of the hero, the illustrious
Mirra Sen, a gem on the diadem of the universe, I eulogize for their
glory, some celebrated scions of the Gona race in the lineage of Pannu,
having first praised the lotus of the feet of Saraswati, and having
prostrated myself before the divine Krisuna, meditating on Ganzsa,
and contemplating Duraa, the mother of the universe.
2. Renowned was the Lunar race. From the lineage of Panpvu
sprang the TomaRas, victorious in war,—in which are millions of heroes.
In this was Vira Singh born, by whom, when he had conquered kings,
were wrought many imperial fortunes looking in a hundred directions.
3. His son was that great hero of resplendent glory, to whom the
wise had fixed the appropriate name of UppHaray, as if upholding the
world. His son was Virama, a hero singular from his subjection of
hostile warrior kings. Hearing of his prowess, InpRa, trembling exces-
sively, stood aghast.
4. His son was the illustrious Gana Patt, the shrine of the lotus-
born goddess, at whose feet glided the coronal gems of hostile kings in
their prostrations. Of whom, how vast was the power; placed as he was
in his fort, and saying—“ the thought even of the lords of Delhi never
reached this place.”
5. His sonwas unprecedently great, firm in war, like the snow-clad
mountain,—the divine tree to the supplicant—the asylum of valor and
constancy; who crushing by force the kings his enemies, as a lion does
the deer, got the title of Huncara Stnca Deva, celebrated throughout
the world.
700 Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab removed from [ Serr.
6. To him, a son Kirti Sincu was born, from fear of whom, kings
ceased to fight, —whose liberality was celebrated in three worlds,—whom
intently adoring Hari and Hara, trembled the fortune of Inpra,—
in whose brawny arms a terrific bow rivalled the grace of the awe-
inspiring arc of ARJAUN.
7. To whom was born an illustrious son Karyana Sant, by
whose favor the nymphs of paradise, in the bower of Inpra, revel in
joy with lovers obtained by the fate of war—who happily established
in his kingdom the lord of Yavanapur, after he had quickly overthrown
in war the king of Delhi and his hostile army, in the conflict of artillery
and squadrons of horse and elephants.
8. His son was Mana Saul, renowned in every quarter, and celebra-
ted for his generosity. ‘‘ What is this Inpra, Kuvera, or Baur?” Such
were the doubts of the learned: while him the lord of Gopachala con-
quering,—BuaraTI in strains of ascending melody modulated in the
different harmonic notes loved to celebrate his complicated glory.
9. His son was VixraMa Saul, surpassing fame—the crowd of
whose enemies was dispelled by the heat of his intense and culminating
glory ;—in consequence of whose liberality, the divine tree and other
sources of gifts withering as it were, became abashed.
10. His son was Ram Sanat, whose prowess, valor, and perseverance,
shewed in every quarter,—at whose name, a guest unwelcome to their
cars—forthwith slipped the bows from the palms of his enemies
hands.
11. His son was Savi Vauana, celebrated for his excessive generosity
and clemency,—who when he had in war overthrown many kings, shared
the throne, graced by the regent of the gods.
12. His sons were SyaMa Sant, a gem on the diadem of the
universe, and Mitra Sena, renowned in the three worlds,—volcanoes
in the ocean of their enemies’ army,—fervent in gift, war, and mercy—
and votaries of the lotus of the feet of Hara and Hart. —Eyver does
JALALUDDIN SHau designate them as unique heroes.
13. Syam Sanz died illuminating the roads of heaven, designated
by holy saints as PRanLaDA AMBanrisua or Baur. On his death, Vira
Mirra Sen the younger brother of that monarch, though grieved,
protects the world, awing the armies of hostile kings by his intense
majesty.
14. Apt to baffle the martial throng by force of his arm,—which
experienced warrior of unrivalled prowess, having conquered Suzr Kuan
quickly made his own the fort at Rohitaswa: beholding that, the
1839. ] above the Kothoutiya gate of the Fort Rohtas. 701
astounded emperor of Delhi exclaimed, no one has ever effected the
same—other conquering heroes also felt intense astonishment.
15. On occasion of his vows of gift, by the libations of that Mirra
SEN, a gem on the diadem of the world were extinguished—the many
flames issuing from the fire of the poverty of the learned. That
produced in the house of hostile kings, often was suppressed by streams
of tears profusely gushing from the eyes of their wives.
16. From his donation of support and food to famine-striken
Brahmins, a divine tree on earth—that Mirra Sen, a gem on the
diadem of the world, repeatedly giving precious metals, not counted,
but weighed, when he had constructed a house at Kashz, established in it
a pre-eminent Brahmana.
17. So generous, eloquent, and the shrine of valor and virtue—
Mirra Sen, by whose name this fort is known, rebuilt the decayed
Rohitaswa, having erected a row of lofty temples. He located in them
an image of Siva under the name of Mirreswara, and made a divine
garden here surpassing the bower of paradise.
18. In the year 1688 of the era of the king VikrRaMaRka4, that gem
on the crest like the moon of the world, constructed the palace.
Having constructed the building denominated Mandira, he located in it
Duraa, the mother of the three worlds. These verses were made by
the son of Krisuna Deva, known in the Mth territory.
19. Like streams of nectar to gods, may these verses impart delight
to virtuous men,—these verses of the poet Siva Deva, celebrated in
the court at Delhi, born in the Vaideha province, a votary of Sri
KrisHN, contemplating as reality the three worlds.
20. Like a golden mountain with its ramparts, is the summit of
Vindha, whose palaces reflect the beauty of the nectar-fraught
luminary—the epitome of similies exhibited in composition according to
the rules most approved in the universe,—abounding in bowers, dens,
lakes, wells, and pools,—a land of plenty, dispelling worldly fear, where
lived the Brahmun GADENDRA.
21. May the virtuous be gratified—kings intent on the law—the
subjects happy—and may there always be abundance.
Be there welfare and good fortune.
702 On Camel Litters for the Wounded. . [Serr.
Art. I].— On Camel Litters for the Wounded.— By Wi. Pinprneron, Esq. ‘
To the Secretary to the Government of India, Military
Department.
Sir,—I have to beg you will do me the honor to submit, for the —
consideration of the Honorable the President in Council, and, if ap-
proved, for transmission to the Right Honorable the Governor Generalof —
India, the accompanying Memorandum and sketches. The importance
of the subject to the interests of humanity, and to the movements of a
military force, will, I trust, excuse the intrusion of it upon his Honor’s —
attention.
CaLcUTTA, I have, &e.
loth February, 1839. H. PIDDINGTON.
Memorandum.
In the countries towards which the Army of the Indus is now ad-
vancing, it is nearly certain that no extra dooly-bearers for the carriage
of the sick and wounded can be procured; and of even those taken —
with the force, it may be doubtful if they can be kept long together
should the advance be prolonged far beyond the frontier. The sick —
and wounded then would, in this case, be left without the means of 4
carriage, and not only many valuable lives might be so lost, but im- —
portant military operations might be greatly impeded, or even prevented.
I found the other day, in the course of my reading, what appears to
be so simple and cheap a plan of providing against this cruel aggrava-
tion of the miseries and losses of war, that I am induced to lay it
before the Right Honorable the Governor General, not doubting that he of
will allow it a trial. i
The plan I allude to, is in the ‘“ Memoires de Chirugie Militaire du f
Baron Larrey,” a name standing so high in the annals of his profession
for every talent and virtue which can adorn it, that nothing falling from Bi
his pen can be unimportant. I translate here the passage, which is
found in vol. i. p. 278, of the “ Campagnes d’ Egypte.” ‘*
Preparations for the campaign in Syria were ordered— “
“The Medical Staff assembled to concert the necessary arrangements Es
for their branch of the service in the army destined for this campaign. 3
I was particularly occupied in providing every thing necessary to insure o
assistance to the wounded whom we might expect on such a painful ~
and perilous expedition. The means of carriage were the first object of a
my attention, for merely dressing the wounded on the field of battle was
1839. | On Camel Litters for the Wounded. 703
insufficient; they were moreover, tobe placed out of the reach of the Arabs,
and to be saved from thehorrors of hunger and thirst, to which they would
have been exposed if not promptly carried off. We had to employ for
this purpose the camel—the only beasts of burden in the country; and
to render the means of carriage easy for the wounded, as well as
light for the animals, I had a hundred baskets* made cradle-wise,
two fer each camel, which were carried, one on each side, suspended by
elastic straps. They were so made that they did not in the least
impede his paces, or his movements, and yet were long enough, by means
of a lengthening flap on hinges at oneeend, to carry a wounded man
lying down at full length.”
In adopting this plan, the simplest methods seem to be those most
likely to succeed, and to be least subject to get out of order; and I should
suggest that a few be made of basket-work—nothing is so durable
as the entire ratan if it can be procured,—as well as some of the
frame-work kind shewn in the drawing.
For the simplest sort a cradle-like basket, higher at one pA to raise the
head comfortably, and a tarpaulin for rainy weather, seem to be all that is
necessary. ‘The straps or slings for this, should, I think, be fastened to
bent iron bars going rownd the cradle, (not fastened to the sides of it,)
and turned into a ring at the inner, upper side, sufficiently strong and
properly placed. A spare ring or two may be added when necessary for
steadying the whole, and a short plank should be placed outside
across the bottom, where the iron bars take, that they may not cut in
upon the basket.
A frame of light wood, with a corded net-work bottom, should be
placed inside, and a quilted mattrass and covering; the last pretty wide,
so as to be doubled if required, will be sufficient for the inside. There
should also be two pillows, one for the head, and another to lay at the
side, if required by the patient to steady himself against the motion of
the animal.
Any intelligent officer accustomed to Camel-carriage will be able to
arrange the lesser details of the necessary ropes, spare slings, &c. as
| well as the fitting of the curtain and tarpaulin, and a medical officer
_will easily add those necessary for the safety and comfort of the
wounded and sick. H. PIDDINGTON.
Caucurra, 12th February, 1839.
* * Paniers disposés en forme de bercean’’ are the words used; though the Baron’s
plate represents frames with curtains, which would have been expressed by the words
_ “Cadres avec des rideaux.’’ Probably the plate may represent a better sort for the
officers, and the Baron has forgotten to mention this ?
*
704 On Camel Litters for the Wounded. {Sepr.
MILITARY DEPARTMENT.
To the Officiating Secretary to the Government of India,
Military Department, Calcutta.
Srr,—I have had the honor of receiving and laying before the
Right Honorable the Governor General your letter No. 478 of the 25th
ultimo, with its enclosures herewith returned, from Mr. Piddington,
submitting a memorandum, with sketch of a Camel litter for the con-
veyance of the sick and wounded in the Army of the Indus.
In reply, I am instructed to convey the expression of His Lordship’s
acknowledgments to Mr. Piddington for his useful communication, a
copy of which will be forwarded to His Excellency Lieut.-General
Sir John Kean, K. C, B. Commanding the Army ‘of the Indus, for
information.
J. STUART, Lt. Col.
Art. III.—Note by Dr. Kean of Moorshedabad, on Dr. STEWART’S
Table of Mortality among Hindu Females.
To the Secretaries of the Asiatic Society.
Sir,—The table furnished by Dr. Stewart, and published in the ~
Journal of the Society for April last, may be expected to attract much ~
attention. Its results.are unexpected and startling. Considering the —
ignorance that prevails on the subject of Indian statistics, the unex-
pectedness of such information may be no argument against its —
accuracy ; but the frightful mortality which the Table exhibits as rile
from one source, will lead many to doubt its correctness, and all, to wish —
that there may have been some error in the data on which it is based.
We learn from the Table that one-fifth of the female population of
Bengal die in childbed. But we know that only a portion of the ~
female population can, during any given period, suffer from this cause —
of mortality. This portion might perhaps, without involving much —
error, be estimated at one-third of the whole; and if so, a mortality
amounting to one-fifth of the female population will be equivalent to
three-fifths of the portion actually liable to that cause of mortality ;—in ~
other words, out of every five of the mothers in Bengal, three will die
in childbed.
It is not however by arguments of this kind, nor faded by
arguments of any kind, that the truth of the Table can either be
established or overturned. A census ought to be taken, and accurate
1839.| Note by Dr. Kean on Dr. Stewart's Table of Mortality. 705
registers kept, of such casualties as occur within the limits. A general
census, though desirable, is not absolutely necessary on the subject.
In replying to the inquiries of the Secretary to the Prison
Discipline Committee, the writer of this took the opportunity of
suggesting the advantages that might be obtained from taking the
census and keeping registers in particular Zillahs, or in limited
districts around every Jail. It is obvious that such registers would
have been available for many purposes, but the advantage then mainly
insisted upon, was the facility that would have been afforded for
comparing the mortality in the Jails, with that in the surrounding
districts. It is understood that the suggestion was referred by the
authorities to the Sudder Dewanny, who discouraged it, on the ground
that it would lead to vexatious domestic intrusions. Convinced that the
plan might be carried into execution without causing either vexation
or annoyance, he selected a village containing 762 inhabitants, in the
neighbourhood of the Moorshedabad Jail, and kept a register of the
births and deaths for one year. During this period no death
occurred from childbirth. Next year the register was made to include
another village, embracing altogether a population of 2,778 persons,
and during this period there was entered only one death in childbed.
The registers for the first year were placed in the hands of your late
Secretary by Mr. Adam, and are doubtless to be found among the
papers of the Society.
These registers are not alluded to here as any authority on this
subject, but merely as a practical evidence that they can be kept
without causing trouble or inconvenience to any one. It is to be
hoped, therefore, that Government will speedily institute measures for
ascertaining the truth on this important question.
The above observations are by no means intended to convey the
idea, that the mortality among native females from the cause assigned
is not very great, on the contrary, it is believed to be excessive ; nor
is it likely to be otherwise till means are taken to disseminate among
them something like information, and to introduce something like
rational practice in reference to obstetric medicine. Yours truly,
MoorsHEDABAD, A. KEAN.
11th October, 1839.
Explanatory Note by Dr. Duncan Stewart, Superintendent General
of Vaccination.
Mr. Kean has very justly pointed out a blunder in the note which
accompanied my Table, published in the April number of the Journal,
706 Explanatory Note by Dr. Duncan Stewart. [ Serr. —
which certainly conveys to the reader the erroneous impression that —
all the 1828 cases of “ childbed disease” were mothers.
IT took the earliest opportunity in my power of rectifying the
misapprehension which this gave rise to, as soon as it was pointed out
to me, by addressing a brief note to the Englishman newspaper on the
subject.
If you will do. me the favor, in noticing Mr. Kean’s letter, to refer
him to the paragraph which I have marked in the accompanying
printed copy of my Evidence before the Municipal Committee, and the
annexed Table, he will perceive that the mistake has arisen from the
careless omission of an explanation there given of the native term used
to denote that class of diseases.
« The term employed to include all accidents of this nature, and ap-
“ plied indiscriminately to the infant and the mother, (antari-rog) is —
‘“ one which attributes the fatal termination of such cases to demoniacal
“influence. It is not applied to casualties after the first month, and
“‘ we may therefore conclude that the picture here given, distressing
“though it be, does not exhibit the total amount of suffering, and
“ of death, caused by the barbarity, ignorance, and prejudices, of the
‘‘ Hindoos in their management of lying-in women. The number of
“‘ still-born children is not given at all, nor is it, I fear, ascertainable.
«The picture is sufficiently frightful, which shows, as matter of fact,
“ that of 1801 children who died during the first year of life, 1237 died
“from the accidents of childbed. Out of 88 mothers who lost their
*‘ lives in childbed, four appear to have been so young as thirteen, two
“aged fourteen, six aged fifteen, and eight died between the ages of
“ fifteen and twenty.”
By reference to the annexed Table it will be seen that of the
1328 cases of “ childbed” mortality, 1237 were infants under one year
of age ; and referring again to the Table in your April Journal it will be
seen that most of these were not one month 2//, and probably not older ;
356 are stated to have died on the first day of illness; 308 on the
second ; 146 on the third, and so on. Neither the Table now sent nor
the former has reference to the ratio of ‘ mortality to population <”
the imperfection of the census, which does not assign the ages of the
living on any particular day, renders this impossible. The present
Table exhibits merely the comparative prevalence and mortality of
particular diseases, and the influence of these as affected by sex and —
age. The Table in the April Journal was drawn up from the same
data, in order to discover the intensity of particular diseases, as evinced
by their duration, before causing death.
OE a ee ee ee
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707
Explanatory Note by Dr. Duncan Stewart.
1839. ]
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1839.] Fossil Shells in the Saugor and Nerbudda territories. 709
Dhoonra and a village adjacent, only differing in colour from the first
sent you, which were a reddish brown, and the others being white and
of a more calcined appearance. |
Some of these Shells being shewn to a native gentleman, he said,
that he had heard similar ones were to be found in Scindea’s country ;
and on Mr. Fraser dispatching a man to the quarter indicated, those
labelled “ Rae near Narwar” were brought in.
About this time I forwarded specimens to Major Ousley, who was
then making the settlement of Betool, consequently surrounded by
Putels of the district, and on his exhibiting the Shells, several of these
country gentlemen came forward and informed him, that similar were
to be found in several places about the neighbourhood of Betool. The
principal sites are Sussoondra to the east ; Bhurkawara, Bhyawara, Jaora
to the south; Budoree, Kolgaon, Gaekham, Bakore, to the south-west ;
and Moorkha to the east of Mooltaye.
The next site ascertained was a bluish coloured Fossil Shell of
calcedony brought from Narainpoor, situated in the Sobagpoor Pergun-
nah, north of the Nerbudda, and finally those sent in from Domadadur
in the Ramgurh Raja’s territory, south of the above river. For a
knowledge of the two last sites we are indebted to the assiduity of
Mr. Fraser in this most exciting pursuit.
I have also formerly sent specimens that were known to have come
from near Mundla: our present circuit of the Agent to the Governor
General, has enabled me to ascertain the site from whence they are
derived; Phool Saugor, a village nine miles west of Mundla is the
locality, in a nulla called by the cognosient Sunkh Deyra, and on a hill
close by the Shell Breccia and Fossil wood were obtained. From this
place the only Bivalves (four in number) have been procured ; two of
which I forwarded to the Asiatic Society, and the remainder are in
Mr. Fraser’s collection.
Accompanying this notice, I send natural sized drawings (for which
I'am indebted to my friend Captain P. A. Reynolds, of the Madras
Army,) of all the varieties we have now discovered.
No. 1. Specimen of a Shell from Dhoonra.
2. From Phool Saugor, near Mundla. Those from Sussoon-
dra, Gyekham, Bhurkawara, in the Betool district,
are identically the same species.
3. From Narrainpoor, remarkable for the great breadth of
the third whirl. Those from Rae Scindea’s country
and Domadadur in Ramgurh are similar.
Bath ¢
710 Fossil Shells in the Saugor and Nerbudda territories. [Sepr.
4. From Moorkha, east of Mooltaye.
5. 5. 5. Three varieties found in the Breccia from Phool Saugor,
near Mundla.
6. The only specimen of the kind from Sussoondra, east
of Betool.
7. Shell (imbedded in Breccia of the same kind) from Jaora,
south of Betool. This and the two next specimens
are not reversed, as all the others are.
8. 8. Two specimens from Phool Saugor, near Mundla, iden-
tical with No. 7 from Betool district.
9. 9. Two drawings to shew how curiously one Shell is —
imbedded in the other. These are two very beautiful —
specimens, but the pencil cannot give any idea of the —
crystals at A A which add so much to their appearance.
10. Is delineated to give some notion of the very remarkable —
shape into which the shell has been compressed.
Many brought in are almost flat, some have an
indentation exactly corresponding to another Shell,
but without any appearance of fracture or fissure,
so that at the time of the convulsion it must have
been in a plastic state.
So ends my notes on Fossil Shells, chiefly found in the Saugor and ~
Nerbudda territories, for the discovery of which, after my geological
friend the lime-burner, we are indebted to the zeal and ngoNalys of
Messrs. Fraser, Ousley, and Ommauney.
The next communication will be on the dispatch of Fossils, that orl
late travels on the Nerbudda have produced; and for which you will —
be indebted to the above gentlemen, aided by their Secretary.
GEORGE G. SPILSBURY.
Camp, Source of the Nerbudda,
15th March, 1838.
DPPP LPL OL IP OPES
Supplementary Note on five additional varieties of Fossil Shells —
found in the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories.*
A. A drawing of a Shell totally unlike any of the others, and as
yet only found at one site. Its great difference consists in
the ribs or furrows so plainly shown in the specimen; this
kind was found in March, 1838, on the Ist plateau of the
* Indeed the whole set, with exception of those from Rae, are so.
1839.] Fossil Shells in the Saugor and Nerbudda territories. 711
Mekul range of Hills, at the top of a steep trap ghat, on
the high road from Sohagpoor to Umurkuntuk, near a
village called Pureye;—the whole ground for some two miles
was strewed with Shell Breccia.
B. This is a drawing of a Shell also found at the same site, and
is not a reversed Shell. This, and the specimens No. 7
and 8. 8. found at Mundla, and also Betool, are the only
Shells whose whirls are twined as those of the present
day are.
C.D. Bivalves found at Phool Saugor and Mundla, and only a very
E. Also
few specimens have as yet been brought in. One similar
was sent in from Mohtura Hill, (a branch I suspect of the
Mekul Hills,) in the Ramgurh Rajah’s country, where the
Domadar ones are found.
a Bivalve, great numbers of which have lately been
found in the Nerbudda near Jhansee Ghat, a fossil field
which Mr. Fraser, the Agent of the Governor General, has
brought to light, and of which I shall have more to say on
forwarding some notes on fossils and sites from Hoshin-
gabad to this.
F. Another Bivalve intermixed with E., but as yet only a few
have been brought in.
On referring to the plates of the Himalayan Fossil Shells attached to
the Rev. R. Everest’s paper in the xviii. vol. of the Society’s Transac-
tions, the only Bivalve bearing any resemblance to those under notice is
Fig. 138, Plate Ist. described as undetermined, which in general cha-
racter has much the appearance of some found at Mundla, but ours are
reversed.
Plate 2nd. Bivalves, Fig. 26, b. the supposed Unis comes
very near our F'.—all the others are totally distinct.
The whole of the drawings are of the natural size, and I am indebted
to the able pencil of Captain P. A. Reynolds, of the Madras Service, for
their delineation.
JUBULPOOR,
llth October, 1839.
Te Note on the River Goomtee. [ Serr.
Art. V.—WNote on the River Goomtee, with a section of its bed.— By
V. TrecEear, Esq. Jounpore.
The accompanying section of the River Goomtee was taken about
20 miles (in a direct line) from its mouth, abreast of the village of
Mye, at a time when the slowness and shallowness of the stream
rendered the work one of neither labour nor difficulty. The depths
were taken at every three feet, in a horizontal line perpendicular to
the direction of the current, which runs here nearly due East. The
rate on the 4th March last was one mile and 640 yards per hour—on
the 13th June it was three miles an hour, and this latter I think the
average velocity during the rains ;—it is however sometimes much
greater, probably nearly five miles, but at others much less, and
occasionally when the Ganges rises much and suddenly, there is no
current at all. | E
I have marked the highest level in ordinary seasons, but it some-
times rises considerably higher;—last year it overflowed both banks to —
some distance, destroying parts of many villages and overthrowing a —
number of houses in the city of Jouwnpore ;—there, the road at the north q
end of the bridge was passable only by means of boats, and a large ©
lake was formed between the city and the cantonments. No one ~
remembers its having ever been so high ; but it is somewhere said, that q
a fleet of boats once sailed over the bridge; the natives hereabouts —
have no tradition of so extraordinary an inundation, which, if it really —
happened, must have caused much destruction ;—in fact, I think it —
questionable, whether the bridge could withstand the pressure to which ~
it must have been subjected upwards and sideways, after the arches —
became insufficient for the passage of the water. ‘
The water, although in appearance extremely muddy, contains but ~
little silt, the quantity from a large portion being exceeding small in ©
bulk, and not likely to weigh, when dry, more than a few grains.* a
This river is navigable by the largest boats from about the end of ©
June to the end of November, and by those of smaller size to Jounpore, ©
and some distance beyond it; during the rest of the year also small J
boats, not too heavily laden, can I believe go up beyond Lukhnow, ~
but the passage is, except in the height of the rains, a most tedious ~
one, the distance by water being about three times that by land, for —
the river deserves its name of Goomtee, or winding. The traffic upwards ©
* Kighteen ounces by measure, gaye seven grains only.
South.
Seclion
of River
Coomtee.
Tr Dh eweht it simatse Lich Pras
2? March
Mi feet
greatest depth
S feet.
03 fee.
Greatest depth. 3 feat Vireker
E37
UTregoar
1839. | Note on the River Goomtee. 713
consists of stone-slabs and sugar mills from Chunar—saul wood from
Gorukhpore, and grain of all kinds from the latter place and Bengal ;—
downwards are sent sugar, and the indigo of numerous factories about
Jounpore.
I send for the Museum* some fragments of glazed earthenware,
found on a slightly elevated spot in this neighbourhood. Forty years
ago the place was covered with dense jungle, and large burr and
peepul trees—sufficient grounds for believing the absence of human
habitations for a very long period. The Hindoos have been denied the
knowledge of the art of porcelain manufacture and glazing, and I am
not aware of specimens like these having elsewhere been found. Asa
Hindoo can use earthen vessels but once, it is most probable that a
Moosulman village once stood where these pieces are found, and very
likely the art came with those for whose service such vessels would be
employed. It is, however, strange that the art should have been lost,
for I believe it is no where known to the natives. The fragments are
of a coarse fabric and rude workmanship, but the glaze is good, and the
colours very bright, considering the time they have been exposed—pro-
bably two or three hundred years ;—the blue is very bright, and seems
to have been the favourite colour—the designs are not very elegant, and
evidently neither Chinese nor imitations of it.
Agates and pebbles, cut and uncut, are also found, having been used
I imagine in the composition of the glaze; or it may be for beads only,
numbers of which are picked up. They must have been brought from
a distance, as no stream producing them is to be seen on this side the
Ganges, the nearest hills being opposite Benares. Could the common
clay now used have been employed for the body of the ware? I fancy
“not, for it vitrifies and swells at a low heat, losing its shape, and
adhering to whatever it touches. It is a great pity the art is lost.
head
* Many will doubtless laugh to see them there. I was surprised, when a boy, to see.
in the British Museum pieces of broken glass vessels, neither handsome nor well
_ made; but it was explained to me, that such things were valuable as specimens of the
manufacture in its early days, and not according to their price as mere glass.
-
714 Experiments on the communication of LSrpr.
Art. VI.— Memoranda relative to experiments on the communication
of Telegraphic Signals by induced Electricity. — ByW. B.O’Suaucu-
nessy, M.D. Assistant Surgeon ; Professor of Chemistry, Medical
College, Calcutta; and Officiating Joint-Secretary to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal.
There are few projects which at first sight appear so visionary as
those which promise practical benefit to mankind through the agency
of electrical operations. From the dawning of knowledge in this
science, pretenders of every grade have found it a free field for their
speculations: and hence perhaps it arises that the sober and practical
part of society generally regard with distrust, the multitudes of projects
which electricians are constantly advancing.
We nevertheless find that many eminent philosophers—whose habits
of cautious research, have been proved by their numerous contributions
to the mass of general science—such men as Brande, Faraday, Wheat-
stone, and Fox—are amongst the foremost, who predict many real
advantages to the community from the application of the mysterious,
though readily controllable forces which electricity places at our com-
mand.
I am aware that I am less entitled than many others to have my
inferences from electrical data attended to with confidence, having at
least on one occasion fallen into the error of indulging prematurely in
dreams of useful results, and of reasoning unguardedly from the model
to the machine. Still I believe that the experiments detailed in this
paper, will be found to admit fairly of the consequences to which they
seem to me to lead. They appear to me conclusive as to the perfect
practicability of establishing, at a cheap rate, telegraphical communi-
cations, acting through electrical agencies, certain and infallible in their
indications, perceptible alike by night and day, in all varieties of
weather and season, and, lastly, so swift in their nature, that the —
greatest distances concerned bear scarcely any appreciable proportion to
the inconceivably brief period in which the signal can be conveyed. |
I was induced to institute the experiments detailed in this paper,
by the statements I had read in several periodicals regarding similar
attempts in England and the continents of Europe and America, and
the actual patenting and adoption by the directors of the London and
Birmingham railway of a similar plan by Professor Wheatstone, of
the King’s College, London.
Before entering into details regarding my experiments, which were
carried on in the Botanical Gardens of Calcutta, during May of this
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 715
year, it will perhaps prove interesting to give a rapid historical outline
of the attempts which have been made to apply the various indications
of the electrical fluid as the medium of instantaneous communication
between distant places. For several of the following references I am
indebted to an article by Dr. Steinheils of Munich, translated in the
May number of Sturgeon’s Annals of Electricity.
Hisroricau Notice.
1.—Telegraphs by common electricity.
The first electrical telegraph on record was proposed by Winkler of
Leipzic, in 1746. He employed a Leyden jar which was discharged
through a single wire, a reach of the river Pleiss being included in
the circuit. Le Monnier afterwards made a similar experiment in
Paris, using a wire 12,789 feet long. In 1798, Betancourt laid a
wire between Madrid and Aranjuez, 26 miles distant, to serve for the
transmission of shocks by the Leyden phial. The pith ball electro-
meter was used by Lomand ; and the sparks from tin-foil on glass sur-
faces by Reiser about the same period.
In 1826, Francis Ronalds, of Hammersmith, published a description
of a plan in which two clocks were employed, one at each terminal
station. Each clock had a moveable dial with twenty signals on its
circumference. As the required signal letter presented itself, a spark
passed at each station by the discharge of a Leyden phial. This plan,
though comprising, asI will point out in the sequel, the true principle
of a good system, was found useless in practice, as each sign was given
but once in each revolution.
Such are the principal attempts hitherto made to effect the object in
view, by means of frictional electricity. At the Meeting of the Asi-
atic Society of Bengal, of June 1839, M. Adolphe Bazin presented a
project for effecting telegraphic correspondence by means of thirty
insulated conductors passing between the terminal stations, each
conductor representing a letter or number, so that by the rapid
succession of sparks correspondence could be effectually carried on.
With this M. Bazin connected an hydraulic apparatus for the convey-
ance of intelligence across rivers, and in other situations where frictional
electricity might not be suitable.
M. Bazin’s plans, although very ingenious, were altogether impracti-
cable, and as we shall afterwards establish, demanded thirty conductors,
where only one is actually requisite; moreover the impediments to
the use of common electricity are absolutely insuperable in all coun-
tries (Bengal for example) visited by periodical rains or inundations.
716 Experiments on the communication of [ Sept.
M. Bazin indeed admitted this freely, when he found that not one
of the electrical machines I placed at his disposal could by ordinary
manipulation be made to evolve the least sign of excitement. - But
even effecting the excitement, which I have done by enclosing the
machines within a glass case hermetically sealed, and supplied with
air artificially dried, still it is impossible so to insulate the external
conductors, as to prevent the dispersion of the excitement outside the
apparatus.
GP OL LPPL ILO LOD
§ 2.—Telegraphs by Chemical decomposition.
In Steinheils’ historical sketch we find that Soémmering, in 1807, em-
ployed a voltaic battery provided with thirty-five conductors, each termi-
nating in a gold pin set in a tube; on completing the connexions the
water is decomposed and the ascent of bubbles of gas indicates the
signal. This system is, however, only available for very short dis-
tances, as the decomposing power of the termination of any pair of
conductors, the diameter being the same, diminishes rapidly by
lengthening the wire. The law of the diminution, Ritchie has attempted
to establish, but his experiments are not considered to be conclusive ;
its rapidity may be shewn by an experiment I performed in 1839.
A voltaic battery, the conductors of which were sz feet long, decom-
posed water to the rate of forty cubic inches of oxygen and hydrogen gases
in three minutes. Conductors of the same diameter, but ¢hzrty-siz feet
long were next employed; the battery then only evolved twenty-five
cubic inches of the gases; with wires of 200 feet only eleven inches
were obtained ; still the battery was constant in its action, for with the
original conductors at the close of the experiments it still gave forty
cubic inches. Again in the experiments at the Botanical Garden in
1839, no chemical decomposition—even of the most yielding of all
compounds, the ioduret of potassium—could be performed at the
termination of one and a half miles, whereas other manifestations of
electrical action were readily procurable at the termination of twenty-
one miles of wires.
§ 3.—Telegraphs by volta-magnetic deflection.
The next method employed is the deflection of the magnetic needle
by voltaic or magnetic electricity. I may remind the general reader that
whenever electrical vibrations occur in exceedingly rapid intervals in an
insulated wire surrounding and in the same direction with a ba-
Janced magnetic needle, the needle is deflected, either east or west
according to the order in which the ends of the surrounding coil are
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 117
connected with the source of electrical excitement. As I am now writ-
ing for popular readers I may be pardoned by the adept for illustrating
this interesting fact by an explanatory diagram.
In this diagram, 1 represents the voltaic couple; 2 zine; and c
copper ; 2 shews the magnetic needle on its stand in the magnetic
meridian, with the surrounding coil of wire, with its terminations a
and 6. In the first the wires cross; or that from z proceeds to 0, that
from c toa, and the deflection accordingly is from north to west. In
the second the wire from 2 proceeds to a, that from c to 6, and deflec-
tion of the needle is from north to east.
Thus with two wires we can obtain two signals only, but one wire
may belong, or be common to any number of galvanometers, so that
from three wires we can obtain four signals ; from four wires six signals ;
from five wires eight signals; from six wires ten signals ; eight wires
fourteen signals ; ten wires eighteen signals ; twelve wires twenty-two
signals ; fourteen wires twenty-six signals, or the alphabet.
In the following diagram six galvanometers are represented connected
- with seven wires, one being common to all. The six wires run any
distance in a bundle, and are best insulated by silk or resin from each
other. The ends of the wires then proceed to little cisterns of mercury,
disposed in a circle. From the centre of the circle a moveable wire
proceeds as a radius, which may be moved to any of the cisterns 1, 2,
3, 4,5, 6. To this centre proceeds one of the poles (z) of the voltaic
couple—and to the termination of the common wire, proceeds the
second pole of the couple c.
718 Experiments on the communication of —- — [Sxpr.
In the diagram the connexion is made with No. 2, and the dotted
line shews the deflection of the needle—and this deflection may be
reversed by crossing the course of the battery wires, as shewn at R.
The five parallel lines at D shew the conductors, which may be in-
definitely prolonged. :
Thus by a move of the radius mire to any of the cisterns we can
deflect the needle at the corresponding galvanometer ; and by a move of q
the cross wires we can reverse the deflection at our pleasure. |
We have here a combination which affords sufficient numbers for
spelling, numbering, dictionary and cypher signals. Even four gal-
vanometers which can be worked by five wires, will afford the
necessary combinations for every description of signals.* |
* This telegraph has been actually laid down between London and Drayton, and iv —
to be carried on to Bristol. Though extremely ingenious, I shall presently prove that
the railway itself without any special conductors, or at most with one wire, is a perfect
telegraphic line, 4
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 719
In Davy’s telegraph the needles carry slight screens which conceal
illuminated letters or numbers—on deflecting the needle the signal is
disclosed.
Soon after the discovery of the deflection of the needle, several
attempts were made to establish by its use, the laws of action of the
battery. Ritchie attempted to prove that the deflection was in the
direct ratio to the surface of zine acted on in the battery. Thus
supposing the conductors unchanged, and that by the corrosion of one
superficial inch of zinc a deflection, say of 5° be obtainable, the corro-
sion of two superficial inches will give a deflection of 10°. Were this
assertion supported, a single galvanometer would give us all the signals
we could require. It is now however proved that the supposed law
by no means holds good. It is quite true that we may double or
treble a given deflection, or that we may by direct experiment propor-
tion the voltaic force to the deflection required, but such experiments
are only fit for performance in the closet or laboratory,—require such
careful adjustment and observation—and are, moreover, so exceedingly
delicate, and take so much time in recording, that they become quite
unsuitable for the rapid transmission of telegraphic signals.
In the preceding arrangements in which several galvanometers
were used, we have manifestly all that we require within the distances
to which experiment has yet reached. But the expense of wire next
presents itself as a motive for endeavouring to improve the system by
diminishing the number of the wires. To render this intelligible, of
the copper bell wire best suited for these experiments, each mile costs
276 rupees.
Steinheils of Munich, the most recent writer on this subject, pro-
poses either of two very ingenious methods. The first is causing the
galvanometrical needle to terminate in a fountain pen, the tip of which
touches and marks a strip of paper revolving by clockwork ;—according
to the number of dots a letter or numerical signal can be obtained. The
second plan is the employment of the tip of the needle to strike a bell,
when the number of strokes in a given time afford the requisite signal.
The galvanometer moreover has been rendered so exceedingly
delicate in its indications, that very feeble electrical forces will succeed
in producing deflections. The electricity evolved by holding up the
hand before a disk composed of bismuth and antimony, caused in an
instrument contrived by Dr. Page, of Baltimore, a deviation of fifty
degrees. In a galvanometer in my possession, constructed by Messrs.
Watkins and Hill, the action of a drop of acidulated water on a zinc
wire the size of a pin, and opposed to a copper element of equal size,
. urges the needle through a quarter of a circle. Moreover the differen-
720 Experiments on the communication of [Sepr.
tial principle so successfully applied by Hiauy to the discovery of
magnetism in minerals containing traces of iron, can be had recourse ~
to here so as to enhance still further the delicacy of these beautiful —
instruments.
Having thus siticienle exposed the construction and mode of action
of the galvanometer, I must reserve for another place, the results of my
experiments in testing the value of the different methods described. |
§ 4.—Henry’s Magnetic Telegraph. ,
I have still however to notice another proposal which has attracted ~
great attention, and is said, on good authority, to be in course of prac-
tical application in the United States.
Professor Henry proposes to employ the sudden development of —
magnetism, occasioned in a horse shoe bar of soft iron while surrounded —
by a spiral of insulated wire, the extremities of which are in-contact —
with a voltaic couple. The magnet thus created attracts a light piece
ofiron which carries an arm. The arm when attracted marks dots on —
a revolving cylinder, or may strike a bell. The arrangement is shewn q
in the following figure. The spiral wire in the centre is a spring to —
lift up the arm on the cessation of each stroke.
Eleven miles of wire were employed in one of Henry’s experiments, ©
but the wire was coiled spirally round a drum, a circumstance —
which considerably invalidates the results. This will seem sufficiently —
intelligible by reference to the construction of the “ eoil electro-magnetic —
machine,” described in a subsequent page.
§ 5.—Experiments by the Author. .
I have now given an adequate sketch of the several methods of
communication hitherto proposed, and I proceed to the description of
the experiments I have carried on, in the view of testing the compar-
ative merits of the preceding plans and of another, which I have
myself devised.
1839.] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 721
My first object was to construct a line of wires of sufficient length to
afford practically valuable results. With Dr. Wallich’s liberal aid
a parallelogram of ground, 450 feet long by 240 in breadth, was
planted with forty-two lines of bamboos. Each line was formed of
three bamboos firmly driven into the ground, fifteen feet in height.
Each row was disposed so as to receive half a mile of wire in one
continuous line, thus,*
Sy
3 Sent
N
|
—
aS EER SSS a CS
SS
ate Ga? Sy
s&s
The strands of wire were one foot apart from each other. As each
row was laid down, it was carefully coated with tar varnish.
A tent was pitched in front of the entire line, and the connections
of the wires were so established that in the course of half an hour it
could be tested from centre to the extreme flank, so as to ascertain the
effects of lengths of wire, varying from one to eleven miles at either
side, forming a total circuit of twenty-two miles. This may be per-
haps more readily intelligible from the subjoined figure.
ai sg Tier iG
* Eleven lines should have been shewn in this drawing.
y22 Experiments on the communication of [Srpr.
The cross lines above the numbers exhibit the wires led from each
half mile of conductor. Thus by cutting through 1. 1. the next num-
bers to right and left became the conductors or nearest electrodes,
and the length of the circuit thus rose from one to three miles; cutting
2. 2. will make 3. 3. the electrodes, and increase the circuit to five
miles, and so on, each section added a mile to the circuit at either
side.
The wires employed were of iron (annealed), diameter one-twelfth
of an inch. It is almost needless to observe that iron was used not
from choice but necessity. A sufficient quantity of copper wire was
not procurable in Calcutta, no draw-bench was ready to manufacture
the necessary supply, moreover the rainy season was fast approaching
when such experiments could scarcely be attempted, constant exposure
in the open air being essentially requisite to success. The expense
again of copper would have amounted to much more than a private
individual could afford.
With iron wire however I considered that the results would be still
of much practical value. Being the worst of the metallic conductors
of electricity, it seemed a reasonable inference that whatever might be
found practicable with iron, would @ fortiorz be so with the copper,
or best conductor. |
On the completion of the line the following instruments were tried.
Ist. An electro-magnet of soft iron, 14 inch in diameter, poles
1 inch apart, length from centre to poles 12 inches, weight 14 Ibs.
surrounded by one hundred yards of insulated copper wire, the twelfth
of an inch in diameter. This electro-magnet, when excited by the
voltaic battery used in the subsequent experiments, with conductors
seven feet in length, supported 240ibs.
2nd. Anelectro-magnet of very small size, constructed by Watkins,
of London, capable of supporting 30ibs. with the battery now referred
to, and with the same length of conductors.
3rd. An astatic galvanometer by Watkins and Hill, already refer-
red to. |
Ath. An electro-magnetic induction machine, also by Watkins, of
which a brief description is desirable.
This instrument consists of a coil of thick wires insulated by silk,
and wound spirally round a wooden cylinder having a hollow axis one
inch in diameter. The ends of this coil are connected with metallic
screws, so that they can be joined to the poles of a voltaic battery.
hj
Ca he = biome
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 723
7
ne
Hl
=v
Around this primary coil is wound a second coil of extremely
thin wire, also insulated and 1000 yards long, totally unconnected,
though in close juxtaposition with the primary coil, the ends of the
wire being led to screws to which handles, directors, &c., can be at-
tached, thus,
Into the hollow axis at @ is introduced a bundle of insulated iron
Wires.
The action of the instrument may be very briefly described. While
the battery at 6 is in contact with the wires ¢ @ the primary coil
is excited. By interrupting the circuit at + or elsewhere, at the
instant of its interruption, the secondary or external coil becomes
excited by induction or proximity—and this excitement is augmented
by the influence of the magnetism simultaneously annihilated in the
central bundle of iron wire.
The electrical state thus momentarily generated in the secondary
wires, may be rendered evident by the production of a spark and
Shock, by effecting chemical decomposition and all the other signs of
electrical action, at the terminations of the secondary coil e, f¢
724 Experiments on the communication of [ Sept. —
In this cursory description I confine myself to facts alone, and
refrain from entering on any theoretical speculation as to the causes ©
of these singular and deeply interesting phenomena.
Experiments with the Electro-magnet No. 1.
The day being fine, the ground and bamboos perfectly dry, at —
9. a.m. the sustaining power of the electro-magnet No. 1. was tested —
with iron conducting wires ten feet long, and found toamount to 46 tbs.
With one mile of same wire, 4 mile at each side,
it supported, . . .. ~~ 40 lbs.
2 Miles of wire, .. we .. 8 lbs. with difficulty.
3 Miles of wire,.. the -. 24 Ibs.
4 Miles of wire, .. oe -- 23 ounces, with difficulty. .
41 Miles, “2 ve -. sustaining force ceased altogether. —
Electro-magnet No. 2.
With 10 feet wire, .. ae — «. 32-1bs:
—— 1 Mile, Sis . Er s~ > Jules
—— 2 Miles, we as Ss >. fo Tome
—— 3 Miles, .. a Ae: .. O23 Ib.
4 Miles, ae Sh -- no sustaining power.
Assuming iron to be inferior % copper in about the proportion of | to7, |
according to Sir Humphry Davy and Becquerel’s standard of conductors, _
this experiment shews that for equal diameters of wire, copper would —
convey the signal by Henry's method to about twenty-one miles in an |
imperceptible period of time. This distance might be extended byen- |
larging the diameter of the wires, but to what limit, is as yet unknown. —
OP PPO OL EL ODD
Experiments with Galvanometer. 4
The astatic galvanometer was arranged and levelled with much —
care, the needles retaining a very slight degree of directive force so as |
to cause them to swing in the magnetic meridian. |
At 1 Mile, deviation maximum or.. .. 90°
The needles being restrained ae pins at the quadrant :—
At 2 Miles. oe ea 90°
— 3. Miles, RRM i so: cape ‘a
— 4 Miles. saicipl.neiae ca te ae 4
— 6 Miles. ot ee AS pie 40°
— 10 Miles. a : ste ile
— 113 Miles at each ot to total cir-
cuit 23 miles. \ barely perceptible.
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 725
Up to the sixth mile the needles were deflected with great rapidity
on the connexion being made with the voltaic element. The reversal
of the order of connection also satisfactorily reversed the needle from
east to west, and the contrary. But when the deflection fell to below
40°, the movements were exceedingly sluggish, so that on an average
two seconds elapsed before each signal could be read off. ‘The change
of battery poles then often failed in reversing the direction of the
needles—and here, as before, at least two seconds were consumed in
each movement. Applying the same rule to this as to the preceding ex-
periment, the galvanometer would convey signals by a copper wire to a
distance of twenty-eight miles—and this might be increased by enlarging
the wire or the battery, or by adding to the delicacy of the galvanometer
—but in one essential point this system was deficient, namely, in rapi-
dity of movement. Two seconds or even one, on each telegraphic
movement, would be an extravagant waste of time compared with the
celerity with which signals can be conveyed by another method.
PPLE LEIP PDIP LO
Chemical decomposition.
One of the most delicate of all tests of voltaic electrical action is
the decomposition of ioduret of potassium and the production of a
blue colour which the free iodine strikes with starch. This effect
was produced in my experiments for a line of three miles of wire.
Beyond this no decomposition could be effected. From this fact we
are entitled to infer the impracticability of Soémmering’s method.
See § 2.
Induction machine, and mode of correspondence by Pulsations and
Chronometers.
The battery was connected with the primary coil see fig. 1. p. 723.
by very short wires ;—the ends of the secondary coil wires screwed
to the right and left wires of the great parallelogram. P. 721.
On breaking contact with the primary coil, a shock utterly intole-
rable passed at half a mile to an individual holding the metallic
handles in which the wires ended.
To avoid fatiguing details I may at once state, that by this secon-
dary coil, excited by but three small voltaic couples, the shocks up to
seven miles were exceedingly smart—at eleven and a half at each side,
they amounted to no more than strong, but not disagreeable, sensations.
I think these might be best termed ‘ pulsations,” for to the hand they
impart the same feeling proportionately, that a strong and full pulse
does to the finger.
oOo A
726 Experiments on the communication of [Sepr. —
Each pulsation is practically simultaneous with the breaking of 9
contact with the battery. To give a rude idea of the velocity of the 4
signal, the contact being broken by a clicking wheel, on a perfectly —
calm morning, at a distance of but sixty yards, the pulsation was —
invariably felt at a sensible interval before the click which preceded
it was heard. Thus sound travelling at the rate of 1090 feet in one —
second=to 12] feet in one-ninth of a second, the electrical impulse passes _
through a total circuit of twenty-two miles, in less than that practically
insignificant fraction of time. ‘This however conveys but an erroneous —
notion of the almost inconceivable velocity of the impulse. Professor —
Wheatstone has proved that the electrical accumulation of the Leyden ~
phial is discharged and circulates through copper conductors, one —
fifteenth of an inch in diameter, with greater velocity than the progress _
of light through the planetary spaces, and in the rate at least of 288,000 p
miles in a second. Now the discharges of the Leyden bottle and those
of induced coil electricity are in the closest circumstances analogous to
each other. .
Of the pulsations thus transmitted, it is perfectly easy to count six _
in one second—thus with a little practice any signal number can be _
made from one to six in one second.
Besides the simple repetition of the pulsations up to nine, beyond
which they become indistinct for each signal, there are at least two modes _
of conveying other sensations by this apparatus. If the connexion 3
between the battery of the primary coil be made and broken by a
ratchet-wheel of brass and silver, and the wheel be turned pretty rapidly, :
a sensation analogous to the ruffle ofa drum is so distinct as to render —
mistake impossible. A third set is obtained by interposing a flat file
in the battery circuit, and interrupting this by drawing one wire along b
the surface of the file ; here instead of the ruffle, the feeling is thatofa
blunt saw drawn lightly across the palms of the observer’s hands. —
It is difficult to express in words the differences in these distinguishing —
signals, but the practice of a quarter of an hour will make the observer
so familiar with them, that he can without the slightest difficulty carry _
on a communication by numbering or spelling with his distant corres.
pondent. With a tithe of the practice of a pianist or harpist, the most
perfect sympathy is practicable between the signalists, and that as fast ei
as the signal can be spelt. In short, with but little less velocity than —
the articulations of language or the writing of stenographic characters,
this silent, but thoroughly intelligible, and still most secret of all cor-
respondence can take place. |
It is almost unnecessary for me to remind the reader of the admitted
1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 727
fact, that the exquisite delicacy of the impressions of the touch transcends,
in some respects, the evidence of all the other senses. ‘The eye and
ear are liable to distraction by casual sounds or phenomena, while the
attentive touch knows no interruption. The eye must close momentarily
and thus lose the observance of many rapid phenomena. Dazzled by
too vivid lights, and confused by too constant watching, vision soon
ceases to be accurate, while the frequent repetition of similar sounds
either becomes absolute silence to the ear, or like the murmuring of
a rivulet or the humming of insects, gradually narcotizes the observer.
Let the experimentalist attempt to count but 200 rapid strokes of a
faint bell, and he will at once acknowledge the imperfections of any
acoustic method.
Thus with copper conductors equal in diameter to the iron wires
I employed, signals by pulsation are proved, to be communicable by
the method above described, in less than any appreciable period of
time, to the distance of 154 miles.
Besides the method of telegraphing by pulsations and other signals
recognized by touch alone, there is another of which I have made
extensive trial, and which is capable of affording still more accurate
and intelligible and equally rapid results.
Without any knowledge of the experiments quoted by Steinheils—
many months indeed before the paper by that author was published
in England—lI attempted, and with success, to effect the transmission of
signals by using time-keepers at each terminus, and causing the
pulsation to be felt as the hands simultaneously passed a certain
number or letter on the dial.
In these experiments I first employed a pair of watches modified for
my use by that ingenious artist Mr. Grant, of this city. All the move-
ments were taken out but those connected with the second-hand, and
a long lever was so constructed as to check the balance-wheel at
pleasure during the recoil. Round the second-hand was placed a
eard dial laid off with three concentric circles divided each inte twenty
parts. Omitting vowels and superfluous letters, the alphabet was laid
down in each circle so that the hand would during each revolution
point to any letter three times; the compartments were moreover
numbered on the same principle, so that each figure from one to
ten would be pointed to six times in a revolution.
_ The hand is passing each compartment during three seconds. The
Observer receives say two pulsations, and is thereby referred to the
second circle, and reads the letter or cypher, according as the signal
be for spelling or numbering.
728 Laxperimenis on the communication of [Sepr.
Although the watches were of the very cheapest kind, and would
not keep time together for more than five minutes, still they were —
quite sufficient to enable a correspondence to be carried on. Thus a —
_ signal seldom lasted longer than three minutes; both watches were
then allowed to run to No. 1 or zero, and stopped. To renew corres-
pondence a prolonged roll was communicated. If but one roll, it in-
dicated spelling ; if two, numbering. On the roll ceasing, three pulsa-
tions at intervals of one second were passed, and at the third the
correspondents started their watches.
The pendulum was also tried, and with decided advantage. Two —
German clocks sufficed to demonstrate the practicability of the system. —
The striking parts were removed, and also the hour and minute hands
and dial.—To the axis of the escapement wheel a needle was attached, —
carrying a light hand which indicated on a dial the signals above ~
described. ‘The German clocks (which cost but 16 rupees the pair,) —
in numerous experiments beat together for several hours, and could —
always be relied on for one hour at least. It is almost needless to add, —
that by shortening or lengthening the pendulum the rate was readily
varied from 40 to 80 seconds for each revolution.
I did not omit chronometers, although I could not of course so alter ;
these costly instruments as to adjust them perfectly tomy experiments. —
It is obvious however that chronometers will on my method give —
an unerring and constant mode of telegraphic correspondence. In a —
recent trial at Greenwich the mean error of several instruments in
one year was but two seconds!* Here then are two movers con- —
stantly and simultaneously pointing to one and the same signal, be it
letter, figure, or cypher. Theelectric pulsations which “ take no note
of time” or distance, supply us with the means of converting this
synchronism to the unexpected and invaluable end to which it is now
proposed to be applied.
Even employing inferior chronometers, the addition of a moveable —
dial which could be adjusted daily on a method too simple to need
description, would secure the perfection of the correspondence ; or the
daily difference of the instruments being known, a tabular correction —
could we made; or, lastly, by an occasional astronomical observation
of true time at each station, the object in view could be as certainly
obtained.
* In 1831, the first three prize chronometers only differed io of a second in one —
year.
*,
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asnoYysYIX)PPAL Lt
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1839. ] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 729
§ 6.—Water a conductor of Pulsation Signals.
During the preceding series of experiments, I had ample proof
of the great conducting power of water for this form of electrical
impulse. Shocks or strange thrilling sensations were perceptible
at every step while proceeding through the ground, as long as the
morning continued damp. When, however, the sun became suf-
ficiently powerful to dry up the dew, and remove the film of water from
the wires, bamboos, and grass, then the wires alone conveyed the elec-
tricity. My experiments convince me that dry wood, earth, and
masonry are perfect non-conductors of this kind of excitement. Even
the bark of living trees seems a perfect insulator.
Some months previous to the experiments now described, I accident-
ally found too (by the falling of a wire into the large tank at the Medi-
cal College) that when water was available, only one insulated wire
was requisite for completing communications. I did not omit the op-
portunity afforded by my experiments at the Gardens of following up
this curious result, and although I find the fact has also attracted the
attention of Professors Henry and Steinheils, these philosophers will, I
feel convinced, learn with interest the simultaneous pursuit of the like
object, in my humble investigations.
In one experiment the electro-magnetic machine was stationed at the
ghat of Bishop’s College, and one of its wires, but twenty-five feet
long, dipped in the Hooghly at the ghat. The second wire ran along
the dry path round through the Botanic Gardens, and terminated
in Dr. Wallich’s library. A wire led from the river at the ghat before
Dr. Wallich’s house, also into the library. The assistant stationed at
the machine was directed to make the signals in the usual manner.
Every signal told in the library without any notable diminution of
effect.
It made no perceptible difference whether the tide was ebbing or
flowing ;—in several trials the damp mud even conveyed the signal un-
altered in force or character.
The distance by water in the above experiment was 7,000 feet. Ina
second set of trials the machine was placed at Sir John Royd’s garden,
the water distance intervening being 9,700 feet, and with the same
results as before. (See lithographed pian No. 1.)
In a third trial, seven miles of wire were disposed round the
trees of the Garden, taking in its entire boundary—starting from
Dr. Wallich’s house and terminating in the river at Howrah ; a second
Wire was carried from the river, at the west end of the Garden (two miles
730 Experiments on the communication of [Serr.
of the Hooghly being interposed ) and proceeded to the north extremity 3
of a nullah 3,000 feet in length ; from the south end of the nullah a wire
returned to the library. Thus we had altogether eleven miles of me-
tallic and 13,256 feet of water circuit, the latter in two interruptions.
The signal still passed as intelligibly and strongly as before. A litho-
graphic plan is annexed in illustration of these details.
POPP LO IP DILL OP
§ 7.—General remarks on the applicability of the preceding facts.
I reserve for another occasion the description of several experiments
which these facts led to, regarding the possibility of dispensing alto-
gether with metallic conductors; and I now proceed to shew some
practical circumstances, expenses, and other details regarding the ap-
plication of these facts to the actual accomplishment of telegraphic
correspondence.
To effect a perfect system of telegraphic communication for a dis-
tance, say of 500 miles, two wires are at most required ; where a river
passes between the termini, but one wire is necessary. If the water
communication be the sea, the distance for which one wire will suffice
will be at least quadrupled. Insulation of one wire is necessary. The
wire may touch dry substances of any kind, but it must not come in
contact with water or damp earth communicating with the second
Wire or with the river course.
Insulation according to my experiments is best accomplished by
enclosing the wire (previously pitched) in a split ratan, and then paying
the ratan round with tarred yarn—or the wire may, as in some ex-
periments recently made by Colonel Pasley in Chatham, be sur-
rounded by strands of tarred rope, and this by pitched yarn.
An insulated rope of this kind may be spread along a wet field,
nay, even led through a river, and will still conduct without any
appreciable loss the electrical signals above described.
In establishing a communication it would be advisable to bury
the wire about two feet below the surface of the ground, in a narrow
trench well rammed with pounded brick and mortar. At every ten
miles the wire should rise through the ground in a masonry pillar, to
allow of verification or of the discovery of the situation of accident. In
India the Police Thannah houses might be conveniently used for this
purpose. :
‘The expense of copper wire per mile would be 272 rupees; of
insulation 20; of trenching and masonry I can form no accurate
estimate.
1839.] Telegraphic Signals by induced electricity. 731
As no intermediate stations would be required, the expenses of esta-
blishment would be very trivial.
The cost of a magneto-electric machine of the maximum power
would not exceed 20/7. The galvanic apparatus, constructed on the
principle I described in 1837, would not at most cost 10/. and would
probably cost 5/. per month for its constant support.
In Europe or America there exists no difficulty whatever to the
adoption of this system of correspondence. In India unquestionably the
obstacles are greater. Perhaps, however, on the other hand the very
wildness of our jungle tracts would rather protect than endanger the
buried wire. If properly Jaid down, in a few months none but those
instructed, could find it. But wherever a railroad exists, there this
method can be at once adopted. Indeed its applicability is so certain and
infallible, its principles so simple, that I often wonder it has not been
previously employed or even announced, and that the justly celebrated
Mr. Wheatstone should have taken out a patent for a five-wired
telegraph when every railroad in England already gives the required
conductors.
The progress of science is hourly adding to the catalogue of tri-
umphs effected by the sagacity of man over the seeming impossibili-
ties of nature. Our own day has witnessed the miracle of gas illumi-
nation—the discovery of precious metals in potashes and in common
salt—the extrication of the electric spark through the influence of mag-
netism—the solidification of carbonic acid—the fixing by the sun’s light
of the pictures it forms whether by shadow, reflection, or refraction.
A conquest still greater than all which I have quoted would be the
annihilation of time and space in the accomplishment of correspond-
ence. Thata signal can be passed between places 1,000 miles apart in
less time than the motion of solar light through the firmament, is no
less startling to assert than it is demonstrably and practically true.
732 On the preparation of the Indian Hemp, or Guijah. [Supv.
Art. VII.—Extract from a Memoir on the Preparations of the Indian
:
Nt
Hemp, or Gunjah, (Cannabis Indica) their effects on the Animal —
system in Health, and their utility in the Treatment of Tetanus and
other Convulsive Diseases—By W. B. O’Suaucunessy, M. D. Pro-
fessor in the Medical College of Calcutta, 3c. &c.*
The narcotic effects of Hemp are popularly known in the south of —
Africa, South America, Turkey, Egypt, Asia Minor, India, and the
adjacent territories of the Malays, Burmese, and Siamese. In all these
countries Hemp is used in various forms, by the dissipated and depra-
ved, as the ready agent of a pleasing intoxication. In the popular me-
dicine of these nations, we find it extensively employed for a multitude
of affections. But in western Europe its use either as a stimulant or —
as a remedy, is equally unknown. With the exception of the trial, as
a frolic, of the Egyptian ‘“‘ Hasheesh,” by a few youths in Marseilles,
and of the clinical use of the wine of Hemp by Hahneman, as shewn in
a subsequent extract, I have been unable to trace any notice of the em-
ployment of this drug in Europe.
Much difference of opinion exists on the question, whether the
Hemp so abundant in Europe, even in high northern latitudes, is iden-
tical in specific characters with the Hemp of Asia Minor and India.
The extraordinary symptoms produced by the latter depend on a
resinous secretion with which it abounds, and which seems totally
absent in the European kind. The closest physical resemblance or
even identity exists between both plants—difference of climate seems
to me more than sufficient to account for the absence of the resinous
* Read before the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta, on the 2d October,
1839.
We have extracted from this paper the sections relative to the popular uses and the
effects on the animal system of these singular and valuable narcotics—for the professional
details of cases, which we considered unsuited to our pages, we have to refer the reader
to the Transactions of the Medical and Physical a cL current yolume, fasciculus,
for November, 1839.—Eps.
Cannabis Indica.
( Cunjah )
T Block, static, Lith Pours
\;
omer daghs
Oragena (plates .
1839. ] On the preparation of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 733
secretion, and consequent want of narcotic power in that indigenous in
colder countries.
In the subsequent article I first endeavour to present an adequate
view of what has been recorded of the early history, the popular uses,
and employment in medicine of this powerful and valuable substance ; I
then proceed to notice several experiments which I have instituted on
animals, with the view to ascertain its effects on the healthy system ;
and, lastly, I submit an abstract of the clinical details of the treatment
_ of several patients afflicted with hydrophobia, tetanus, and other con-
vulsive disorders, in which a preparation of Hemp was employed with
results, which seem to me to warrant our anticipating from its more
extensive and impartial use no inconsiderable addition to the resources
of the physician.
In the historical and statistical department of the subject, I owe my
cordial thanks for most valuable assistance to the distinguished travel-
ler the Syed Keramut Ali, Mootawulee of the Hooghly Imambarrah,
and also to the Hakim Mirza Abdul Razes of Teheran, who have fur-
nished me with interesting details regarding the consumption of Hemp —
in Candahar, Cabul, and the countries between the Indus and Herat.
The Pandit Moodoosudun Gooptu has favoured me with notices of the
statements regarding Hemp in the early Sanscrit authors on Materia
Medica ;—to the celebrated Kamalakantha Vidyalanka, the Pandit of
the Asiatic Society, I have also to record my acknowledgments ;—
_ Mr. DaCosta has obligingly supplied me with copious notes from the
*Mukzun-ul-Udwieh’ and other Persian and Hindee systems of Materia
Medica. For information relative to the varieties of the drug, and its
consumption in Bengal, Mr. McCann, the Deputy Superintendent of
Police, deserves my thanks ;—and, lastly, to Dr. Goodeve, to Mr.
Richard O’Shaughnessy, to the late Dr. Bain, to Mr. O’Brien of the
Native Hospital, and Nobinchunder Mitter, Sub-Assistant Surgeon,
I feel deeply indebted for the clinical details with which they have
enriched the subject.
POPP EE IOLO LO IE LE DESY
734 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. (Serv. |
Section I.
Botanical characters Chemical Properties— Production.
BoranicaL Descriprion.—Assuming with Lindley and other emi- |
nent writers that the Cannabis sativa and Indica are identical, we find
‘that the plant is dioecious, annual, about three feet high, covered over —
with a fine pubescence; the stem is erect, branched, bright green,
angular ; leaves, alternate or opposite, on long weak petioles; digitate,
scabrous, with linear, lanceolate, sharply serrated leaflets, tapering into
a long smooth entire point ; stipules subulate ; clusters of flowers axil-
lary with subulate bractes; males lax and drooping, branched and
leafless at base ; females erect, simple and leafy at the base. ¢ Calyx
downy, five parted, imbricated. Stamens five ; anthers large and
pendulous. 9 Calyx covered with brown glands. Ovary roundish with
pendulous ovule, and two long filiform glandular stigmas ; achenium
— ovate, one seeded.—v. Lindley’s Flora Medica, p. 299.*
The fibres of the stems are long and extremely tenacious, so as to
afford the best tissue for cordage, thus constituting the material for —
one of the most important branches of European manufactures.
The seed is simply albuminous and oily, and is devoid of all
narcotic properties.
CHEMICAL PropertiEs.—In certain seasons and in warm countries —
a resinous juice exudes and concretes on the leaves, slender stems, and
flowers ;—the mode of removing this juice will be subsequently de- |
tailed. Separated and in masses it constitutes the Churrust of Nipal
and Hindostan, and to this the type, or basis of all the Hemp prepara-
tions, are the powers of these drugs attributable.
The resin of the Hemp is very soluble in alcohol and ether ; |
partially soluble in alkaline; insoluble in acid solutions; when pure, of
a blackish grey colour; hard at 90°; softens at higher temperatures, |
and fuses readily ;—soluble in the fixed and in several volatile oils. Its
* The drawing which illustrates this paper has been copied by my accomplished |
friend Dr. George Wallich, from Roxburgh’s unpublished plate.
+ For very fine specimens of Churrus, I have to express my thanks to Dr. Campbell, |
late assistant Resident at Nipal.
|
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 735
edour is fragrant and narcotic; taste slightly warm, bitterish, and
acrid. |
The dried Hemp plant which has flowered and from which the resin
has not been removed is called Gunjah. It sells for twelve annas to one
rupee the seer, in the Calcutta bazars, and yields to alcohol twenty per
100 of resinous extract, composed of the resin (churrus), and green
colouring matter (chlorophylle). Distilled with a large quantity of
water, traces of essential oil pass over, and the distilled liquor has the
powerful narcotic odour of the plant. The Gunjah is sold for smoking
chiefly. The bundles of Gunjah are about two feet long and three
inches in diameter, and contain twenty-four plants. The colour is
dusky green—the odour agreeably narcotic—the whole plant resinous
and adhesive to the touch.
The larger leaves and capsules without the stalks, are called
“ Bang, Subjee or Stdhee.’ They are used for making an intoxica-
ting drink, for smoking, and in the conserve or confection termed
Majoon. Bang is cheaper than Gunjah, and though less powerful, is
sold at such a low price that for one pice enough can be purchased
to intoxicate an ‘‘ experienced” person.
According to Mr. McCann’s notes, the Gunjah consumed in Bengal
is chiefly brought from Mirzapur and Ghazeepore, being extensively
cultivated near Gwalior and in Tirhoot. The natives cut the plant
when in flower, allow it to dry for three days, and then lay itin bundles
averaging one seer weight each, which are distributed to the licensed
dealers. The best kinds are brought from Gwalior and Bhurtpore,
and it is also cultivated, of good quality, in a few gardens round
Calcutta. In Jessore, I am informed, the drug is produced of excel-
lent quality, and to a very considerable extent of cultivation.
In Central India and the Saugor territory and in Nipal, Churrus is
collected during the hot season in the following singular manner.
Men clad in leathern dresses run through the Hemp-fields brushing
through the plant with all possible violence ; the soft resin adheres to the
leather, and is subsequently scraped off and kneaded into balls, which
sell from five to six rupees the seer. A still finer kind, the Momeea or
: waxen Churrus, is collected by the hand in Nipal, and sells for nearly
double the price of the ordinary kind. In Nipal, Dr. McKinnon informs
‘Mme, the leathern attire is dispensed with, and the resin is gathered on
736 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. [Srpr.
the skins of naked coolies. Iy Persia, it is stated by Mirza Abdul 7
Razes that the Churrus is prepared by pressing the resinous plant on
coarse cloths, and then scraping it from these and melting it in a pot —
with a little warm water. He considers the Churrus of Herat as the
best and most powerful of all the varieties of the drug.
Secrion II.
Popular uses.
The preparations of Hemp are used for the purpose of intoxication as
follows. p
Sidhee, Subjee, and Bang (synonymous) are used with water as a :
drink, which is thus prepared. About three tola weight, 540 troy — ;
grains, are well washed with cold water, then rubbed to powder, mixed _
with black pepper, cucumber and melon seeds, sugar, half a pint of
milk, and an equal quantity of water. This is considered sufficient to
intoxicate an habituated person. Half the quantity is enough for .
novice. This composition is chiefly used by the Mahomedans of the —
better classes. @
Another recipe is as follows. |
The same quantity of Szdhee is washed and ground, mixed with q
black pepper, and a quart of cold water added. This is drank at one
sitting. This is the favorite beverage of the Hindus who practice this
vice, especially the Birjobassies and many of the Rajpootana soldiery.
From either of these beverages intoxication will ensue in half an |
hour. Almost invariably the inebriation is of the most cheerful kind, —
causing the person to sing and dance, to eat food with great relish, and |
to seek aphrodisiac enjoyments. In persons of a quarrelsome disposition —
it occasions, as might be expected, an exasperation of their natural |
tendency. The intoxication lasts about three hours, when sleep |
supervenes. No nausea or sickness of stomach succeeds, nor are the |
bowels at all affected ; next day there is slight giddiness and vascularity |
of the eyes, but no other symptom worth recording. |
Gunjah is used for smoking alone—one rupee weight, 180 grain |
and a little dried tobacco are rubbed together in the palm of the hand |
with a few drops of water. This suffices for three persons. A little |
®
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 437
tobacco is placed in the pipe first, then a layer of the prepared Gunjah,
then more tobacco, and the fire above all.
Four or five persons usually join in this debauch. The hookah is
passed round, and each person takes a single draught. Intoxication
ensues almost instantly; and from one draught to the unaccustomed,
within half an hour ; and after four or five inspirations to those more
practised in the vice. The effects differ from those occasioned by the
Sidhee. WHeaviness, laziness, and agreeable reveries ensue, but the
person can be readily roused, and is able to discharge routine occupa-
tions, such as pulling the punkah, waiting at table, &c.
The Majoon, or Hemp confection, is a compound of sugar, butter,
flour, milk, and Szdhee or Bang. ‘The process has been repeatedly
performed before me by Ameer, the proprietor of a celebrated place
of resort for Hemp devotees in Calcutta, and who is considered the
best artist in his profession. Four ounces of Szdhee and an equal
quantity of Ghee are placed in an earthen or well-tinned vessel, a pint
of water added, and the whole warmed over a charcoal fire. The
mixture is constantly stirred unti] the water all boils away, which is
known by the crackling noise of the melted butter on the sides of the
vessel ; the mixture is then removed from the fire, squeezed through
cloth while hot—by which an oleaginous solution of the active princi-
ples and colouring matter of the Hemp is obtained—and the leaves,
fibres, &c., remaining on the cloth are thrown away.
The green oily solution soon concretes into a buttery mass, and is
then well washed by the hand with soft water so long as the water
becomes coloured. The colouring matter and an extractive substance
are thus removed, and a very pale green mass, of the corisistence of
simple ointment, remains. The washings are thrown away ;—Ameer
says that these are intoxicating, and produce constriction of the throat,
great pain, and very disagreeable and dangerous symptoms.
The operator then takes two pounds of sugar, and adding a little water
places it in a pipkin over the fire. When the sugar dissolves and froths,
two ounces of milk are added ; a thick scum rises and is removed—more
milk and a little water are added from time to time, and the boiling
continued about an hour, the solution being carefully stirred until it
becomes an adhesive clear syrup, ready to solidify on a cold surface ;
four ounces of tyre (new milk dried before the sun) in fine powder are
733 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. (Serr.
now stirred in, and lastly the prepared butter of Hemp is introduced,
brisk stirring being continued for a few minutes. A few drops of
uttur of roses are then quickly sprinkled in, and the mixture poured
from the pipkin on a flat cold dish or slab. The mass concretes im-
mediately into a thin cake, which is divided into small lozenge-shaped
pieces. A seer thus prepared sells for four rupees: one drachm by weight
will intoxicate a beginner ; three drachms one experienced in its use.
The taste is sweet, and the odour very agreeable.
; Ameer states that there are seven or eight Majoon makers in
Calcutta ; —that sometimes by special order of customers he introduces
stramonium seeds, but never nux-vomica ;—that all classes of persons,
including the lower Portuguese or “‘ Kala Feringhees,” and especially
their females, consume the drug ;—that it is most fascinating in its
effects, producing extatic happiness, a persuasion of high rank, a
sensation of flying, voracious appetite, and intense aphrodisiac desire.
He denies that its continued use leads to madness, impotence, or to the
numerous evil consequences described by the Arabic and Persian
physicians. Although I disbelieve Ameer’s statements on this point,
his description of the immediate effects of Majoon is strictly and ac-
curately correct. oS |
Most carnivorous animals eat it greedily, and very soon experience
its narcotic effects, becoming ludicrously drunk, but seldom suffering
any worse consequences.
Szction III.
Historical details—Notices of Hemp, and tts popular uses, by the
Sanscrit, Arabic, and Persian writers.
The preceding notice suffices to explain the subsequent historical
and medicinal details. I premise the historical, in order to shew the
exact state of our knowledge of the subject, when I attempted its
investigation.
Although the most eminent of the Arabic and Persian authors
concur in referring the origin of the practice of Hemp intoxication to
the natives of Hindoostan, it is remarkable that few traces can be
detected of the prevalence of the vice at any early period in India.
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gurjah. 739
The Pandit Moodoosudun Gooptu finds that the “ Rajniguntu,” a
standard treatise on Materia Medica, which he estimates vaguely at 600
years date, gives a clear account of this agent. Its synonymes are
* Bijoya,” “ Ujoya,” and “ Joya,’—names which mean, promoters of
success; “ Brapuita,” or the strengthener, or the strong-leaved ;
““Chapola,” the causer of a reeling gait; “‘Ununda,’ or the laughter-
moving ; “Hursinz,” the exciter of sexual desire. Its effects on man are
described as excitant, heating, astringent. It is added that it ‘‘ destroys
phlegm, expels flatulence, induces costiveness, sharpens the memory,
increases eloquence, excites the appetite, and acts as a general tonic.”
The “ Rajbulubha,” a Sanscrit treatise of rather later date, alludes
to the use of Hemp in gonorrhea, and repeats the statements of the
‘**Rajniguntu.” In the Hindu Tantra, or a religious treatise, teaching
peculiar and mystical formule and rites for the worship of the deities,
it is said, moreover, that Szdhee is more intoxicating than wine.
In the celebrated “ Susruta,” which is perhaps the most ancient of all
Hindu medical works, it is written, that persons labouring under
catarrh should, with other remedies, use internally the Bzjoya or
Sidhee. The effects however are not described.
The learned Kamalakantha Vidyalanka has* traced a notice of
Hemp in the 5th chapter of Menu, where Brahmins are prohibited
to use the following substances, Palandoo or onions, Gunjara or
Gunjah, and such condiments as have strong and pungent scents.
The Arabic and Persian writers are however far more voluminous
and precise in their accounts of these fascinating preparations. In the
Ist vol. of De Sacy’s “ Crestomathie Arabe” we find an extremely in-
teresting summary of the writings of Takim Eddin Makrizi on this
subject. Lane has noticed it too with his usual ability in his admirable
work “the Modern Egyptians.” From these two sources, the MS.
_notes of the Syed Keramut Ali and Mr. DaCosta, and a curious paper
communicated by our friend Mirza Abdul Razes, a most intelligent
_ Persian physician, the following epitome is compiled.
Makrizi treats of the Hemp in his glowing description of the cele-
brated Canton de la Timbaliere, or ancient pleasure grounds, in the
vicinity of Cairo. This quarter, after many vicissitudes, is now a
heap of ruins. In it was situated a cultivated valley named Djoneina,
which we are informed was the theatre of all conceivable abomina-
740 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. (Serr.
tions. It was famous above all for the sale of the Hasheeha, which
is still greedily consumed by the dregs of the populace, and from the
consumption of which sprung the excesses which led to the name of
* Assassin” being given to the Saracens in the Holy Wars. The history
of the drug the author treats of thus:—The oldest work in which
Hemp is noticed isa treatise by Hasan, who states that in the year
658, m. £. the Sheikh Djafar Shirazi, a monk of the order of Haider,
learned from his master the history of the discovery of Hemp. Haider,
the chief of ascetics and self-chasteners, lived in rigid privation on a
mountain between Nishabor and Ramah, where he established a monas-
tery of Fakirs. Ten years he had spent in this retreat without leaving it
for a moment, till one burning summer’s day when he departed alone
to the fields. On his return an air of joy and gaiety was imprinted on
his countenance ; he received the visits of his brethren and encouraged
their conversation. On being questioned, he stated that struck by the
aspect of a plant which danced in the heat as if with joy, while all the
rest of the vegetable creation was torpid, he had gathered and eaten of
its leaves. He led his companions to the spot,—all ate and all were
similarly excited. A tincture of the Hemp leaf in wine or spirit
seems to have been the favorite formula in which the Sheikh Haider
indulged himself. An Arab poet sings of Haider’s emerald cup—an
evident allusion to the rich green colour of the tincture of the drug.
The Sheikh survived the discovery ten years, and subsisted chiefly
on this herb, and on his death his i by his desire planted it in
an arbour about his tomb.
From this saintly sepulchre the knowledge of the effects of Hemp is
stated to have spread into Khorasan. In Chaldea it was unknown
until 728 m. E. during the reign of the Khalif Mostansir Billah: the
kings of Ormus and Bahrein then introduced it into Chaldea, Syria,
Egypt, and Turkey.
In Khorasan however, it seems that the date of the use of Hemp is
considered to be far prior to Haider’s era. Biraslan, an Indian pilgrim, —
the contemporary of Cosrdes,* is believed to have introduced and
* By this term is probably meant the first of the Sassanian dynasty, to whom the
epithet ‘‘of Khusrow’’ or Cosrées, equivalent to Kaiser, Cesar, or Czar, has been
applied in many generations. This dynasty endured from a. p. 202 to a. p. 636—
Vide note 50 to Lane’s transtation of the Arabian Nights, vol. ii. p. 226.
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 741
diffused the custom through Khorasan and Yemen. In proof of the
great antiquity of the practice, certain passages in the works of Hippo-
crates may be cited, in which some of its properties are clearly des-
cribed—but the difficulty of deciding whether the passages be spurious
or genuine, renders the fact of little value. Dioscorides (lib. ij. cap. 169, )
describes Hemp, but merely notices the emollient properties of its
seeds—its intoxicating effects must consequently be regarded as un-
known to the Greeks prior to his era, which is generally agreed to be
about the second century of the Christian epoch, and somewhat subse-
quent to the lifetime of Pliny.
In the narrative of Makrizi we also learn that oxymel and acids
are the most powerful antidotes to the effects of this narcotic; next
to these, emetics, cold bathing, and sleep ; and we are further told that
it possesses diuretic, astringent, and especially aphrodisiac properties.
Ibn Beitar was the first to record its tendency to produce mental
derangement, and he even states that it occasionally proves fatal.
In 780 m. E. very severe ordinances were passed in Egypt against the
practice: the Djoneina garden was rooted up, and all those convicted
of the use of the drug were subjected to the extraction of their teeth ;
but in 799 the custom re-established itself with more than original
_ vigour. Makrizi draws an expressive picture of the evils this vice then
inflicted on its votaries—‘ As its consequence, general corruption of
sentiments and manners ensued, modesty disappeared, every base and
evil passion was openly indulged in, and nobility of external form alone
remained to these infatuated beings.”
SEcTIoNn IV.
Medicinal properties assigned to Hemp by the ancient Arabian and
Persian writers, and by modern European authors.
In the preceding notice of Makrizi’s writings on this subject we
have confined ourselves chiefly to historical details, excluding descrip-
tions of supposed medicinal effects. The Mukzun-ul-Udwieh and the
Persian MS. in our possession, inform us as to the properties which the
ancient physicians attributed to this powerful narcotic.
He
‘
—_—
742 On the preparations of the Indiam Hemp, or Gunjah. [Srpv.
In Mr. DaCosta’s MS. version of the chapter on Hemp in the Mukzun-
ul-Udwieh, Churrus, we are informed, if smoked through a pipe causes
torpor and intoxication, and often proves fatal to the smoker. - Three
kinds are noticed, the garden, wild, and mountain, of which the last
is deemed the strongest;—the seeds are called sheadana or shaldaneh
in Persia. ‘These are said to be “a compound of opposite qualities,
cold and dry in the third degree, that is to say, stimulant and sedative,
imparting at first a gentle reviving heat, and then a considerable
refrigerant effect.”
The contrary qualities of the plant, its stimulant and sedative effects,
are prominently dwelt on. ‘‘ They at first exhilarate the spirits, cause
cheerfulness, give colour to the complexion, bring on intoxication,
excite the imagination into the most rapturous ideas, produce thirst,
increase appetite, excite concupiscence. Afterwards the sedative effects
begin to preside, the spirits sink, the vision darkens and weakens ;
and madness, melancholy, fearfulness, dropsy, and such like distempers, —
are the sequel—and the seminal secretions dry up. . These effects are
increased by sweets, and combated by acids.” S,
The author of the Mukzun-ul-Udwieh further informs us— |
“The leaves make a good snuff for deterging the brain; the juice of ©
the leaves applied to the head as a wash, removes dandriff and
vermin ; drops of the juice thrown into the ear allay pain and des. —
troy worms or insects. It checks diarrhcea, is useful in gonorrhea, ‘3
restrains seminal secretions, and is diuretic. The bark has a similar 4
effect.” | |
““The powder is recommended as an external application to fresh —
wounds and sores, and for causing granulations ; a poultice of the 4
boiled root and leaves for discussing inflammations, and cure of erysi- (
pelas, and for allaying neuralgic pains. The dried leaves bruised and
spread on a castor oil leaf cure hydrocele and swelled testes. The dose pr
internally is one dévem, or 48 sinha The antidotes are emetics, cow’s :
milk, hot water, and sorrel wine.’ }
Alluding to its popular uses, the author dwells on the eventual evil
consequences of the indulgence ;—weakness of the digestive organs first —
ensues, followed by flatulency, indigestion, swelling of the limbs and —
face, change of complexion, diminution of sexual vigor, loss of teeth, —
heaviness, cowardice, depraved and wicked ideas, scepticism in religi-
1839.] On the preparaiions of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 743
ous tenets ;—licentiousness and ungodliness are also enumerated in the
catalogue of deplorable results.
The medicinal properties of Hemp, in various forms, are the sub-
ject of some interesting notes by Mirza Abdul Razes. “‘ It produces
a ravenous appetite and constipation, arrests the secretions except
that of the liver, excites wild imagining, especially a sensation of
ascending, forgetfulness of all that happens during its use, and such
mental exaltation, that the beholders attribute it to supernatural
énspiration.”
Mirza Abdul considers Hemp to be a powerful exciter of the flow of
bile, and relates cases of its efficacy in restoring appetite—of its utility
as an external application as a poultice with milk, in relieving hemor-
rhoids—and internally in gonorrheea to the extent of a quarter drachm
of bangh. He states also that the habitual smokers of Gunjah generally
die of diseases of the lungs, dropsy, and anasarca—“ so do the eaters
of Majoon and smokers of Sidhee, but at a later period. The inexpe-
rienced on first taking it are often senseless for a day, some go mad,
others are known to die.” °
In the 35th chapter of the 5th volume of Rumphius’ Herbarium
Amboinense, p. 208, Ed. Amsterd. a. p. 1695, we find a long and very
good account of this drug, illustrated by two excellent plates. The
subjoined is an epitome of Rumphius’ article.
Rumphius first describes botanically the male and female Hemp
plants, of which he gives two admirable drawings. He assigns the
upper provinces of India as its hadzaé, and states it to be cultivated in
Java and Amboyna. He then notices very briefly the exciting effects
ascribed to the leaf, and to mixtures thereof with spices, camphor, and
opium. He alludes doubtingly to its alleged aphrodisiac powers, and
states that the kind of mental excitement it produces depends on the
temperament of the consumer. He quotes a passage from Galen, lib. 1.
(de aliment, facult) in which it is asserted that in that great writer’s
time it was customary to give Hemp seed to the guests at banquets
as promoters of hilarity and enjoyment. Rumphius adds, that the
Mahomedans in his neighbourhood frequently sought for the male
plant from his garden to be given to persons afflicted with virulent
gonorrheea and with asthma, or the affection which is popularly called
“stitches in the side.” He tells us, moreover, that the powdered
744 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Guiyah. (Srpr.
leaves check diarrhoea, are stomachic, cure the malady named pitao,
and moderate excessive secretion of bile. He mentions the use of
Hemp smoke as an enema in strangulated hernia, and of the leaves as
an antidote to poisoning by orpiment. Lastly, he notices in the two
subsequent chapters varieties of Hemp which he terms the Gunjah
sativa and Gunjah agrestis. In the Hortus Malabaricus Rheedes’
article on the Hemp is a mere outline of Rumphius’ statements.
Among modern European writers the only information I could
trace on the medicinal use of Hemp zz Europe, is in the recent work
of Ness v. Esenbeck, from which the following is an extract kindly
supplied by Dr. Wallich :—
‘* The fresh herb of the Hemp has a very powerful and unpleasant
narcotic smell, and is used in the East in combination with opium, in
the preparation of intoxicating potions, &c. It is probable that the
mepenthe of the ancients was prepared from the leaves of this plant.
Many physicians, Hahnemann among them, prescribe the vinous
extract in various nervous disorders, where opium and hyoscyamus
used to be employed, being less heating and devoid of bitterness.”*
No information as to the medicinal effects of Hemp exists in
the standard works on Materia Medica, to which I have access.
Soubeiran, Feé, Merat, and de Lens in their admirable dictionary ;
Chevalier and Richard, Roques (Phytographie Medicale) ; Ratier and
Henry (Pharmacopeé Francaise); and the Dictionnaire des Sciences
Medicales—are all equally silent on the subject.
In Ainslie’s Materia Indica, 2nd vol. we find three notices of the
plant'and its preparations.
At page 39 “ Banghie,” (Tamu) with the Persian and Hindee syno-
nymes of “ Beng” and “ Subjee,” is described as an intoxicating liquor
prepared with the leaves of the Gunjah, or Hemp plant.
Under the head Gunjah, Ainslie gives numerous synonymes, and
tells that the leaves are sometimes prescribed in cases of diarrhoea; and
in conjunction with turmeric, onions, and warm gingilie oil are made
into an unction for painful protruded piles. Dr. Ainslie also gives
a brief view of the popular uses and botanical peculiarities of the
plant.
* Handbuch der Medicin : und Pharmac: Botanik, von F. Ness von Esenbeck et —
Dr. Carl Ebermaier, vol, 1, p. 338.
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 745
Majoon, lastly, is described by Dr. Ainslie, page 176, as a preparation
of sugar, milk, ghee, poppy seeds, flowers of the datura, powder of
nux-vomica, and sugar. The true Majoon however as prepared in
Bengal contains neither datura nor nux-vomica. I have already
described the process by which it has been manufactured before me.
In the Journal de Pharmacie, the most complete Magazine in
existence on all pharmaceutical subjects, we find Hemp noticed in
several volumes. Inthe Bulletin de Pharmacie t. v. a. 1810, p. 400, we
find it briefly described by M. Rouyer, apothecary to Napoleon, and
member of the Egyptian scientific commission, in a paper on the po-
pular remedies of Egypt. With the leaves and tops, he tells us, collected
before ripening, the Egyptians prepare a conserve, which serves as the
base of the berch, the diasmouk, and the bernaouy. Hemp leaves re-
duced to powder and incorporated with honey or stirred with water
constitute the derch of the poor classes.
The same work also, (Bulletin, vol. i. p. 523, a. 1809,) contains a
very brief notice on the intoxicating preparations of Hemp, read by
M. De Sacy before the Institute of France in July, 1809. M. De
Sacy’s subsequent analysis of Makrizi, of which I have given an
outline, is however much more rich in details than the article in the
Bulletin.
(To be continued. )
Art. VII.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce and Husbandry of
Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries—By Lieut. Inw1n.
It gives us great pleasure to be the means of rescuing from undeser-
‘ved oblivion, the admirable Memoir on Afghanistan, of which we now
present to our readers the first part. The author (then) Lieut. Irwin
accompanied Mr. E:puinsrons in his Mission to Cabul, and is honorably
mentioned in the preface to Mr. E’s justly celebrated work. The
Memoir we now publish exists in the Library of the Asiatic Society,
and was first brought to our notice by Captain Cunnincuam of the
Bengal Engineers. Subsequently Dr. Spry struck by the value of
its details on rural economy, proposed its publication to the Agri-
746 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Surr.
cultural Society. We were unwilling to concede even to that most use-
ful public body, the honor of discharging a duty we felt to be peculiarly
our own; our readers will doubtless be gratified at our thus enriching
our pages.
In the next number we hope to communicate some information regard-
ing the accomplished author ; who, we understand is now a resident in
Van Dieman’s Land.—Eps.
PPOOOPLEDELL ICID
Plan and Division of the Memoir.
The first 47 paragraphs compose an Introduction which treats
of the natural division of the countries under view, their chief
ranges of mountains and rivers. I here assign the extent in which
I understand the various names for countries, provinces, and districts ;
without this precaution the matter which follows would have been
obscure or prolix, perhaps both. This is divided into four parts. The
first part treats of Climate, and is divided into four sections, in which
are discussed in their order, the temperature, the winds, the rains,
and the salubrity. The second part treats of the Soil, and has no
division. The third part treats of Natural History, and is divided
into three sections ;—in the first, are mentioned the mines and mine-
ral products of these kingdoms ; in the second, the most remarkable
vegetables ; in the third, the animals and carriage. In this part of
the memoir some matter has found a place which will scarcely be
reckoned interesting in a public view, but which was naturally intro-
duced from the desire of completing the plan originally proposed.
The fourth part is an attempt to give some idea of the husbandry.
The second, which I entitle “a review of the districts,” details what
are the chief occupations and means of subsistence, the chief live stock
and kinds of grain, the plenty.or scarcity of supplies, and some parti-
culars of a miscellaneous nature; it concludes with an estimate of
the population.
The following is a briefer sketch of the contents of this memoir:
Introduction, ! ,
I. Climate.—1 Temperature, —2 Winds,—3 Rains,—4 Salubrity.
II. Soil.
III. Natural History—1 Minerals,—2 Vegetables,—3 Animals. .
IV. Husbandry and Cultivation.—1 Husbandry,—2 Review of
the Districts.
1839. } Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 747
Of the Climate, Soil, Products, and Husbandry of Afghanistan and
the Neighbouring Countries.
In the following pages I treat of a wide extent of country, being
nearly the whole of the space of which a map has lately been con-
structed by Lieut. Macartney. In a more particular manner will
be treated Afghanistan, which is centrical in it. Such is the extent
and diversity of this last country alone, that were our attention
confined to it, still could a brief treatise contain but cursory notices
even of the important parts of a subject so extensive; much more
must it be so, when the neighbouring tracts are to be in some measure
included in the survey. With respect to the accuracy also of the
matter here offered, although it be hoped that there is a considerable
preponderance of truth, it must be supposed that in the circumstances
under which it has been collected and digested, the errors too must
be numerous.
2. Afghanistan is bounded on the north by mountains which divide
it from Kashkar and Budukhshan; other mountains divide it on the
north-west from that part of Toorkistan which lies on this side of
the Oxus, and that part of Khoorasan which extends north nearly to
that river; on the west it includes a part of that famous geographical
division ; while beyond in this direction is the Persian Khoorasan ;
to the south it has deserts and Bulochistan. The Indus from its
exit from the lofty mountains in about the latitude of 45° N. some-
times constitutes its eastern boundary, and sometimes is comprehended
in it, as will be in the sequel more fully explained. MDiscarding the
provinces of Sindh and Kushmeer, as if parts of India, and also the
provinces lately belonging to the monarchy in the south-east of
Toorkistan, with the contiguous ones in the north-east of Khoorasan,
the Afghan people and government may be considered as included
within the 35th and 29th degrees of north latitude and the 62nd and
73rd of east longitude. .
3. Without discussing the nature of the political connection between
Bulochistan and the Afghan monarchy, it seems sufficient for us that
there is a practical convenience in naming and considering them
separately. Bulochistan, so called from two nations called Bulochis,
who compose the bulk of its population, has Afghanistan to the north,
a desert dividing it in that quarter from Seestan, (Seestan on the
-_ whole lies north-west of Bulochistan) ; to the west, deserts or very ill-
peopled tracts divide it from the Persian province Kirman; to the
south is the sea; and to the east Sindh. The government of Sindh
748 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. (Serr.
possesses the port of Kirachee, which may be considered as locally
within Bulochistan. The country is thus included within the 25th
and 31st degrees of north latitude, and the 60th and 70th of east
longitude. .
4. We have already seen that Afghanistan embraces a part of
Khoorasan, an ancient geographical division which has been re-
cognized downwards from the earliest times, not merely in books but
in common conversation, and that with little variation, notwithstanding
the frequent changes of dominion and even of population in the
country. We are not concerned with its southern or western boun-
daries. To the east it extends in one point to Mookr, and in that
‘neighbourhood may be considered as ending where considerable
heights begin ; it thus includes the whole of the Dooranee country.
Seestan too is but a division of it. In more northern latitudes its
extent is more difficult to fix. The western part of the Paraparnisan
range of hills with the valleys contained and the neighbouring plains—
forming together the country of the Ymaks—both was and is considered
as part of Khoorasan ; but the eastern part of the same tract which
the Huzaras possess may more properly be stiled a broad boundary
between it and Hindoostan, in its largest sense, which includes Cabul
and even Ghuznee. Still more to the north Khoorasan in ancient
times extended to the confines of Budukhshan, thus including My-
muna, Undkho, Bulkh, Koonduz, Khoollum, Ghoree, and Talikan.
Perhaps Budukhshan itself, and whatever lies on the left of the Punj
or Upper Oxus, was formerly part of Khoorasan, while the country on
the right was coarsely distinguished as that lying beyond the river
(Mawaroolnahr.) But the usage of modern times is contrary to such
an extension of the term, and restricts Khoorasan in this quarter nearly
by the river Marghab. In Asia rivers seldom form boundaries, but
rather are themselves considered as included in certain countries on
both their banks, and thus Khoorasan may be allowed to comprehend
a certain distance to its right, especially during its upper course.
From where that stream empties itself into the Oxus, the Oxus is
perhaps for a certain distance the boundary of Toorkistan to the north
and Khoorasan to the south. In truth both banks of that great river,
but especially the left, are here so barren, that limits are little regarded
or understood. ‘Towards the mouth of the river, Toorkistan extends
considerably to the left of it, unless we consider Khwaruzm as distinct
from either division.
5. The term Toorkistan in its present sense is but modern, and liable
tosomeambiguity. It may be said to contain the following provinces—
1839.] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 749
Ist, The ancient Khwaruzm, lying towards the mouth of the Oxus
chiefly, if not entirely to its left, and the Toorkman deserts extending
from it towards the Caspian. 2nd, The tract we have just excluded
from the modern Khoorasan, but not including Budukhshan. The
natives having no appropriate name for it, I propose to distinguish it by
its ancient one of Bactria. 3rd, The tract lying between the Oxus and
Jaxartes, with a small territory beyond the latter river. 4th, The
country beyond the Jaxartes inhabited by the Kuzzkas to the west
and Kirghizes to the east ;—tribes but little advanced in society, or
acquainted with agriculture. Beyond them to the north we come to
the Russian dominions, and on the east the Chinese. <A fifth tract to
be called Chinese Toorkistan, and not to be included under the term of
Toorkistan simply, is to be afterwards mentioned. ‘These general
terms will in the sequel be less used than others more particularly
applicable to countries of far inferior extent; but preparatory to the
enumeration of these, let us sketch the course of -the mountains and
hills, which chiefly mark out their boundaries and give them their
character.
6. The first and greatest ridge is that which forms the boundary to
the north of Afghanistan. It originates however near the right of the
Burmhpootr river, and running thence in a westerly and northerly
direction, forms a boundary of the plains of Hindoostan and the Pun-
_ jub, which are watered by the streams that either originate in it or the
lofty lands beyond it. Within it is contained the fertile valley of
Kushmeer, and beyond Kushmeer it forms the lofty tract called Little
Tibet, and bounds to the north Pukhlee, into which it seems to send a
branch. Crossing the Indus it has no longer the same tendency to the
north of west, but running in nearly 35° 25’ north latitude separates
Bhooner, Swad, and Punjkora, small districts now occupied by the
Yoosufzyes, and into which its branches extend from Kashkar to the
north. Arrived at the river commonly called from this last country,
"as originating in it, its greatest ridge appears to stretch in a direction
to the south of west to a termination in the mountain Hindookoosh,
but one minor ridge is detached along the left of the Kashkar river,
_ which it divides from Bajaur to the Punjkora, while others on the right
of that river form in their course the cragged country of the Kafeis,
(but the Kafeis have some other portions of those mountains, and over-
hang the low valley of Lughuran. This grand chain has as a whole no
acknowledged name among the natives, nor have the European authors
yet agreed in one denomination to be given it. It isundoubtedly very
| lofty, not merely in its central ridge but in most of its lateral branches ;
5D
750 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
towards Afghanistan this height is usually gained very rapidly, so
that not unfrequently low and hot valleys and plains lie at the foot of
mountains white with perennial snow.
7. In the opposite quarter they do not preserve one character;
Hindookoosh has a rapid descent into Budukhshan, which it divides
from the valley of Cabul ; more to the east there issues from the
great northern ridge another, by geographers named Belur, a term
corrupted from the Toorkee word Beloot, signifying a cloud, and
which runs perhaps due north and divides Budukhshan, Durwaz, and
Kuralegin on the west, from Kashkar on the east. Into all those
countries, and beyond them into Toorkistan between the Oxus and
Jaxartes, it sends branches generally of considerable height; but ac-
cording to Lieut. Macartney it cannot be considered as extending
beyond the river Jaxartes, which rises in its northern extremity not —
far from the farthest sources of the Oxus. The Kashkar river too
seems to originate in the same neighbourhood but to the east of this
range, along the foot of which it generally runs, and by which it is
prevented running westwards towards the Caspian. To the left
chiefly, or to the east of this river, is the country of Kashkar, which
has on the south the great northern chain, so called as lying to the —
north of Afghanistan. This chain has here a moderate descent, and
Kashkar appears to be generally speaking an high plain, which is as
it were, supported by it. Many points however remain very obscure.
Lieut. Macartney is of opinion that this high plain of Kashkar is sur-
mounted to the north or north-east by another chain of mountains
nearly parallel to the first, and in which originate, or partly originate,
the Indus and the Kashkar river ; and that these mountains in their —
north-western extremity join the northern extremity of the Belur |
chain. With respect to this other range which meets the Belur, it seems
rather a slight height of land than a lofty ridge, and there is no ab-
surdity in supposing it lower than the ridge first mentioned, though
the streams generated in it pierce that ridge. In short, it seems
probable that the table land is continued from Tibet as well as the a
mountains, and this table land naturally has a ridge from which the |
waters are turned contrary ways, but which need not be supposed |
lofty above its base. Certain it is that after entering Kashkar travel-
lers from Peshawur to Yarkund, whose course is not very different 4
from due north, have no very high mountains to pass. It is true
Kashkar is not destitute of other mountains besides those bounding it
to the south and west, but they do not appear to give a character to the
country. The north-west part of this table land which lies north of
1839.3 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. Jol
Kashkar is remarkable for its uniformity and levelness. It is named
Pamer, which in the Toorkee of Yarkund signifies “the plain.” It
appears to be drained west, and probably into the Jaxartes chiefly.
The road to Yarkund extends across it for about 60 miles or less, but
in length it is said to be double. It is bounded to the south-west
by the mountains above Keerategin, and to the north-west by those
near the heads of the Jaxartes. Both are of the Belur-chain, which is
in fact to be considered as the steep termination of that: broad upland
tract which extends from the longitude of 69° to that of 93° east.
&. In this view of the subject Hindookoosh would: be considered
as a branch sent from this broad tract still further west. This lofty
mountain has also its inferior branches spreading in many directions.
A very considerable branch appears to extend from the Belur where
in its greatest height it gives source to the Oxus-and Jaxartes, and
proceeding first west and afterwards south-west, separates Keerategin,
Wukheeka, and Durwuza, which are drained into the upper Oxus, from
Kohun and other places drained into the Jaxartes, as.also from some
part of the middle-of ‘Poorkistan, the waters of which hold: their course
to the Oxus in its inferior progress. I presume that all the hills of
Toorkistan between those great rivers are to be traced to the Belur.
That inferior range only called Aktaw, and which lies between Sa-
markand and the Jaxartes, seems distinct and insulated. With res-
pect to the hills in the Kuzzak and Kirghiz countries beyond the
Jaxartes, I know not what is their exact situation or direction. The
former peoplesindeed inhabit a tract generally level on the right of
the lower Jaxartes. The Kirghizes pasture the Pamer, but have lower
and morehilly grounds to the north-west. Geographers mention under
the name of Alak, a range which joins to the Belur and continues in
the same direction, that is towards the north, dividing the great and
little Bucharias of some authors, here called: independent and. Chinese
Toorkistan. Between Hokun, a city to the left of the Jaxartes in its
upper course, and Yarkund in Chinese Toorkistan, one route at least
leads over a high mountain, and in the latter country all the waters
run to easterly instead of westerly points. The Alak range contains
some of the sources of the Jaxartes, and in a higher latitude is said to
originate the Neelum which, like the Jaxartes, runs to a westerly
point. On the other side arises the Kizlsoo, or river of Kashghur and
Yarkund, which, however, seems to be fed also from the grand tract of
uplands already mentioned to the south, and from a chain of moun-
tains far to the north, which geographers lay down from east to west
and call the Altaian chain. ‘Their latitude may be supposed to be 46°,
752 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sxpr.
and that of Yarkund being by Lieutenant Macartney’s construction
40° 30’, the medium breadth of Chinese Toorkistan will be at least
400 English miles. Beyond the Altaian chain the waters run north
into Siberia and the Frozen ocean. All those of Chinese Toorkistan
are lost in itself or in the country immediately to the east (which is
also subject to China); to this quarter alone does it slope, while in
all others it is bounded by land much higher. Thus false is the eom-
mon opinion of its forming part of what has been called the table land
of Asia; the climate alone is sufficient to convince us of the contrary.
Though in a higher latitude than any part of Tibet, the elimate is
much warmer, a fact we need not be surprized at, since we are inform-
ed by merchants who have travelled through great Tibet from Kush-
meer to Yarkund that at a certain distance beyond Ludakh begins a
descent to Yarkund.
9. There prevails in Europe, or did prevail, an opinion that the Cau-
casian mountains extend uninterruptedly on the south of Geelan and
Mazunduran, and through Khoorasan to a junetion with the Hindoo-
koosh. It is highly probable the continuity is not broken until we
reach a certain distance into the last country, but afterwards we find
for a considerable distance only detached hills, seldom of very consi-
derable altitude ; or if there be any chain, or chain of hillocks dividing
the rain water and the spring torrents, giving source to no rivers.
To treat such as a continuation of Caucasus and Hindookoosh is a
manifest abuse of terms. It is moreover aiming at a simplicity of
arrangement which is excessive, and tends to darken thegubject, not to
elucidate it; for by such modes of reasoning ranges might be easily
traced from any point, and all the hills and mountains of a continent —
proved to form parts of one range or of its branches. When genera.
lizations so forced are made, nothing can be affirmed or denied of
the whole which shall not be untrue of a considerable number of
the facts; and recourse must at length be had to sub-divisions of
moderate comprehension, which alone conduce to brevity, perspicuity,
and the easy development of facts.
10. There even occur cases where though a connection must be
allowed to exist, such is the dissimilarity of character in mountains,
that they cannot conveniently be made to pass under one name, or
treated of except separately ; such is that of a chain which though
it have no connection with Caucasus, has an undoubted one with
Hindookoosh. We have seen that this famous mountain hes nearly
hi Ni ee gee il el
due north of Cabul; but in a west or north-west direction from the
valley, the roads to Toorkistan lead over a mountain which the natives
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 753
frequently call by the same name, and which is undoubtedly connected
with it. The course of the mountains thus appears to change from
west to south-west, and thence to almost due south, giving rise in
that quarter to the Helbund, the greatest river of Khoorasan. The
future course of the central and chief ridge it is difficult to ascertain
with much minuteness, but its general course seems to be almost due
west to the longitude of Hirat. The branches are numerous and
extend to considerable distances, being visible from Candahar, and
approaching still nearer to Mimuna, Undkho, and Bulkh in the nor-
thern directions. These are the mountains which the ancients seem
generally to have distinguished by the name Paraparnisan. I say
generally, because doubtless quotations might be brought forward in
which the term is applied to others. Disregarding such instances,
I propose to restrict the term to this range. The Paraparnisan is
not so lofty as the great northern chain. Except the mountain called
Shadeean, from a village of that name at its foot in the environs of
Bulkh, I know no well.ascertained instance of continued snow on
any one of them, though it is possible several such exist. They also
rise more gradually from their bases than the other chain. Their
abruptest descent seems towards Bactria. At their commencement,
where they form the tract inhabited by the Gavee Huzaras, they have
on the east a gradual descent to the high valley of Cabul, but towards
Bactria so rapid, that we soon arrive at climates,considerably warmer
than Cabul. The table land of Ghuznee, still more elevated than
Cabul, bounds to the east the main body of the Paraparnisan which
gradually rise from it; to the south-west and north-west the descent
into Khoorasan is also in general gradual.
1]. Within Afghanistan we have first to notice that range which
runs for the most part in latitude 34°. It is difficult to name with
much accuracy its commencement to the west. The road from Cabul
to south-west passes over no hill ; to the eastward, however, of that line
we find the valley of Cabul divided from the country to the south by
the low ridge of Logur, which still more to the east rises into lofty
mountains; these continue to the Indus, holding their course some-
what to the south of east. They even cross the Indus into the dis-
trict of Attoc and divide (though not accurately) Chhuchh from the
Khatirs. Even the hill of Husunubdal from its position and its
composition almost seems a detached part of this range, which is of
Various altitude from the hills of the Khuttuks, seldom sprinkled
with snow, to the white mountain, south of Jellalabad, ever crowned
with it. The greatest altitude is about the middle, the least to the
704 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Supr.
east in this range, which is far narrower than the great northern one,
is generally much lower, and supports no considerable table land; one
corner it is true of the table land of Ghuznee rests on it. From this
quarter (the west) the acclivity is gradual, but in most others it is rapid.
The white mountain high in itself, appears still higher from its
vicinity to the low lands of Jellalabad, whence it rapidly rises. The
eastern hills also though so much inferior in height are usually steep,
and not easily practicable. The valleys within this range are in
general narrow. From its southern side, and east of Jellalabad, it
sends off one or more branches to the north-east, in the direction of
Swad. This minor range which though low is difficult, forms the
boundary to the north-west part of the valley of Peshawur, and all
the roads leading thence to Cabul pass through it; where it unites
with the great range, it is called Khybur, and the constant inhabitants
are chiefly of the Upper Mihmund tribe. To the north-east, in its
further progress, succeeds the Ootman-Khel tribe, and here seems to be
the greatest height.
12. None of its other branches deserve notice except what may be
called the salt range, which proceeds from its southern side in nearly
the longitude where commences the preceding, and holds a course to
the south-east. At its junction it is inhabited by the Oorukzyes.
At a short distance further it forms the country of Upper Bungush, ~
and afterwards continues to Kalabagh on the Indus, and beyond that
river to the vicinity of Pind-Dadun Khan, on the right of the Vehut.
Its greatest height is at its commencement, but even there it is not very
great. In some places it is easily practicable, in others not.
13. Another range runs nearly parallel to that of 34° inthe medium
latitude of 323°. Eastward it may be said to begin at the Pezoo
pass, and westward it seems to end near Mookr. It supports. the south-
east corner of the table land of Ghuznee, and in that quarter is of
gradual acclivity and a tame character, although the absolute height be
considerable. To the east it is more rugged. In height this range
on the whole yield to that of 34°, for it contains no mountain which
bears snow throughout the summer ; the eastern part however does not
diminish to that lowness which the eastern part does of the range of 34°.
I know of no considerable height it sends off, but we are not to forget
that short range which appears to unite its western extremity with
that of the range of 34°. It is the eastern buttress of the table land
of Ghuznee to which it has a gradual declivity, while to the east it
descends with the utmost abruptness, forming a very difficult country,
in which live some tribes who quite set at naught the royal authority;
1.) ad
ae ee eRe ee Ge en ee eae ee eee
oe ee Se ee ee ee
ee 5 ‘
Ce oe So Fe Ors
Se eae ee A cig SR a ee
1839. j Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 759
the Jadrans are the chief, and from them those mountains may with
propriety be named. They are of a height on the whole not superior
to the range of 323°, unless the lofty mountain Bunseekun be con-
sidered as part of them. It lies towards their northern extremity,
and is covered with perpetual snow. The longitude of the Jadran
range is, by Lieut. Macartney’s calculation, about 693°.
14. The southern part of Afghanistan is in all things far more
obscure to us than the northern, but chiefly we are ill informed re-
specting the conformation of the country. It is neither well peopled
nor much civilized, nor frequently traversed. It appears to be neither
mountainous nor plain, but diversified with numerous small and
tame-featured hills. Such a country is naturally in a warm climate
but little productive. It certainly contains no mountain on which
the snow does not melt before midsummer. The highest is the
famous Tukhti Sooleman, called by the Afghans Kuseghur, which rising
boldly from the low plain, right of the Indus, appears to the stranger
a most conspicuous object, but is certainly far less elevated than the
white mountain. From it proceeds a range of mountains in a direc-
tion parallel to the Indus, even somewhat beyond the most southern
limits of Afghanistan. Their height is but moderate. I know not
whether we can trace hills proceeding northwards from the Tukhti
Sooleman and bounding Mukulwad and the Daman to the west,
or whether the hills which appear from Dera Ismael Khan in that
quarter be merely the ends of ridges running east and west, and
among others of that of 324°. Somewhat more to the north, however,
begin some hills which extend for about 30 miles nearly parallel to
the Indus, ending at the right bank of the Koorm. Those hills form a
double range, and between is a sandy and barren valley known in the
neighbourhood under the name of Largee. It is plainly formed from
the ruins of these hills which are low and friable. The most eastern
range closely hems in the Indus, and little arable land is left be-
tween, yet here live the Khusor tribe of Afghans, while the western
range belongs to the Murwuts. The Khusor and Murwut hills are
‘not properly comprehended in the southern Afghanistan, which
may be considered as having for its northern boundary the range
of 322° or the river Gomul, or the 32nd degree of north latitude.
The other hills of this tract need be but little expatiated on. The
country slopes east towards the Indus, south into Bulochistan,
and west into the Afghan Khoorasan, or country of the Dooranees.
but it is difficult to assign the boundaries of those natural divisions,
The western part, inhabited chiefly by the Kakur tribe of Afghans,
756 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Skpr.
is more elevated than the eastern, where live the Sheeranees, Lohanees,
Oosturanees, and others, but these hills do not rise to a great height.
We need not except even the hill Toba, lying 90 miles to the south-
east of Candahar, which is now famous from having been during the last
years of Ahmed Shah’s life the cool summer retreat of that monarch.
15. Bulochistan is in general a flat and arid country, yet is not
destitute of hills. We may trace a low range from near Sihwan, in a
direction somewhat to the west of south and parallel to the Indus,
almost to the sea-shore. At Sihwan it appears to change its direction,
and instead of proceeding north to a junction with the Soolemanee*
range, as represented in former maps, passes north-west, and ends some
stage short of Jellalabad of Seestan. On this range is situated Kilat,
nearly where it is highest. The mountain called Maran, which lies
two days north of that place, is the only one in the range which bears
perpetual snow. By this range Seeweestan is separated from that
tract to the south-west inhabited by roving tribes of the Rinds in which
Kirachee is situated, and the roads are said to be difficult. Towards
its termination to the north-west this range seems to connect itself with
the hills of the Kakurs; there are other hills in Bulochistan which
however seem irreducible to any chain. Kilat and whatever lies west
of Seeweestan is commonly reckoned part of the geographical division
of Khoorasan. Kirachee is perhaps part of Hindoostan, and Seeweestan
certainly is. Sindh is a champaign country. Bhukhur however is
situated on a low hill or rock insulated by the Indus, but which must
be considered as a prolongation of a low range which runs from the
left bank of the river in a south direction diagonally into the desert,
ending in the space of 30 miles. Jesulmer in the centre of the Indian
desert, is built on an insulated low hill. The country of Kuchh which
lies between the desert and the Indian ocean is a hilly one.
16. We have seen that the range of 34° and the salt range cross the
Indus into the Doab of the Vehut and Indus. This Doab has also
branches from the great northern range which run in directions very
far from parallel to the preceding. ‘The most remarkable is that
which separates Chhuchh Hazara, the Khatirs, and other districts on the
west and north-west, from Pothwar on the east and south-east. To-
wards the commencement of the range live the Gukhurs, a tribe which
has been famous in history. Here is the chief elevation, which is but
|
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moderate. This Doab has also solitary hills or small ranges, not —
clearly derivable from any of the above-mentioned chains. The shape
* I use the term as our geographers seem to do, the natives employ it seldom, and
give it a wider application.
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 7O7
and conformation of the country is thus very irregular, and the
natural character of the portions very various. The hills and ranges
(if indeed any there be) of Seestan and of all parts of Khoorasan are
equally irregularly disposed, and cannot in writing be brought clearly
before the mind. Few indeed rise to a considerable height.
17. Having concluded our sketch of the ranges of mountains, we
now proceed to enumerate the various natural divisions thus formed
and marked out. Some have been already mentioned, Kashkar
lies north of the great northern range and east of the Belur; to
its east is the country of little Tibet. Both are lofty and cold coun-
tries, and both seem to be more plain to the north and more mountainous
to the south. The Upper Indus is perhaps the boundary. Little
Tibet, or a part of it, is by some called Balteestan, from Baltee a
Moosulman tribe inhabiting it, but the majority of the people seem to
be in little Tibet of. the system of religion known in the great Tibet
lying to the east of Kushmeer. Little Tibet and Kashkar are as
yet independent of the Emperor of China, who never entered them
or sent his troops thither, still less has he ever threatened Budukh-
shan ; but part at least of the Pamer is annexed to the Chinese Toor-
kistan. This extensive country is formed by the northern slope of the
great upland track already mentioned (7, 8.) and by the tracts to
the north ‘as far as the Altaian chain (8,). Its eastern boundary is
unascertained, and probably very uncertain, or marked by desert
tracts. Although the whole be firmly attached to the Chinese empire,
of which it forms the most western province, it is not under one
governor, but many, who seem to be dependent only on the court
of Pekin. We may distinguish Kashghur and Yarkund in the south-
western angle, Aksoo to the NNE., Ela and Toorfan in the NE.
‘and Khootun (which is not a city, but a country containing seven,
towns) in the centre. The great majority of the people are of
the Toork race, and hence I have called it Chinese Toorkistan. To the
north, however, are tribes of pasturing Calmucs; and perhaps this vast
province contains some part of the Kobee nation, which although its
chief seat be to the east, in the wastes called the desert of Kobee
or Sham, yet spreads west into Kashkar, and constitutes the chief
population on the banks of the Kashkar river. On the course of this
river we find four principalities, and in all, the chiefs are of this race ;
the highest is the most powerful, and extends his dominion to the right
of the Indus, and the mountains north of Swad. These particulars
are here the less misplaced, that the countries in question have ever
been among the obscurest in Asia, and even the latest inquiries have
5K
758 Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
but little elucidated them. In future they will be but seldom men-
tioned.
18. We have already seen that the Belur and Alak chains divide .
the Chinese from the independent Toorkistan, which stretches thence
west to the Caspian, and its three natural divisions into Toorkistan ;
this side the Oxus. Toorkistan, between the Oxus and Jaxartes, has
been mentioned. The boundaries of the last division to the north,
where it touches the Russian empire, are supposed to be defined
by no great river or mountainous chain or other naturalline. Geogra-
phers name minor ranges of hills in this division, but it is certain
the far greater part is occupied by plains. This is still more true |
of its western than its eastern parts, and the former in consequence
is scarcely an agricultural country, while in the latter we find the
greater part of the dominions of the civilized state of Tashkund, and
part of that of Kokun, but the capital of that principality and the
greater part of the dominions lie in the middle division of Toorkistan.
The east of this division contains in addition to Kokun, Keerategen,
Wukheet a part of Durwaz, and nearly the whole of Hissar, with some
other petty states. All these are hilly countries, and with the excep.
tion of the last, they may all be called mountainous; the valleys are
of various widths, but generally narrow, and the road from one to
another difficult. Durwaz is particularly narrow and impracticable ;
it lies on the Punj or Upper Oxus, and its princes were of a race
which claimed descent from Alexander the Great. By late accounts,
the living representative has been expelled by the Keerategenees.* In
the west of this middle division we find Shuhr Subz, an ineonsiderable
state, and the dominions of Bokhara, which is the most powerful
state in Toorkistan. ‘The mountains of the east enter this tract, but
diminish in their progress, and at length disappear. The west is
therefore an open plain with the exception of the district of Nooruta,
in which we find the Akhtan hills. These are of moderate height,
although the name would lead us to judge otherwise. The highest
of the whole has no snow beyond the middle of April. The extent
of the range is not great, and no stream originates in it. The parts of
this division of Toorkistan which border on the Aral lake, or sea to
the west, are flat, sandy, and uncultivated ; and the like is true of
the opposite tracts beyond the Jaxartes and of those beyond the Oxus,
with the exception of Khwaruzm. This was in ancient times the
centre of a powerful kingdom, but now its weight is but small; its
* Not expelled, but deprived of part of his dominions (December 12th).
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. 799
foreign dependencies have passed into other hands; the blowing of
the sands have submerged part of its territory, and the productiveness
of the remainder been lessened by the change artificially made in
the course of the river Oxus. Mr. Pinkerton has expressed his
scepticism in regard to the fact, and it may well be questioned
whether the whole of this river was on that occasion turned; but the
learned in the history of Toorkistan assure us that in the — century,
the Calmucs did divert a great stream which passed west through the
kingdom of Khwaruzm, and made it to run where now runs the
Oxus into the lake of Aral. Khwaruzm still has its stream artificially
drawn from the Oxus, and which is indispensable to its cultivation and
existence. At no great distance from the river commence deserts,
which extend to the Caspian, and are traversed by the pasturing tribes
of Toorkmans (who moreover possess the sandy banks of the Oxus
from Kelif downwards) and some other tribes. The chief city of
Khwaruzm is Oorgun}.
19. Bactria, the only remaining part of Toorkistan, lies on the left
of the Oxus during its middle course. It is now distinguished into
several sub-divisions according to the remarkable cities and the exist-
ing distribution of dominion. ‘ Beginning from the quarter of Khoora-
gan, first occurs on this side the Murghab Kuburmach of the Jum-
sheedees, which tribe however living chiefly on the left of the Murghab
for this and other reasons (4) we must assign it to Khoorasan. From
Kuburmach proceeding in a direction not much different from
ENE. we come at the distance of 30, 56, 20, 24, miles to My-
muna, Undkho, Shibirghan, and Bulkh, capitals of little states now
independent. The traveller has to his right branches of the Parapar-
nisan, which are generally visible ; he pursues his journey in a cul-
tivated or cultivatable country, but beyond it to his left begin sands
which continue to the Oxus. That river here holding a course to the
north of west while his course is to the north of east, and the culti-
vatable country being usually of an equal breadth, the tract of sands
beyond it is necessarily widest to the west. With Bulkh begins a
country of a different character ; the Paraparnisan still lies to the south,
but the Gavee Paraparnisan, moreover, to the south-east, intervenes
between this country and Cabul; and to the east, towards Budukhshan,
are branches from the Hindookoosh. Hence is this tract very diversified,
and while the south and east are generally hilly or mountainous, the
north and west are generally level. Bulkh is itself level, but has depen-
dencies among the valleys of the Paraparnisan tothesouth. From Bulkh,
one very long day’s journey of that quarter to the east or south-east,
760 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
lies Khoolium, which to the east rises into hills and mountains ; this
place is subject to Bulkh, the chief of which extends his dominion
to within two days of Bamian, where begins the government of the
Afghans. The intermediate country is hilly and poor. The chief of
Bulkh has influence in the remaining part of Bactria, which lies to —
the east. Talikan alone is a hostile state, and is independent. Its hills
are however less lofty and difficult than those of Ghoree and Khost to
the south. Between Ghoree and Khost is Undurab, which is also
mountainous. Koonduz lies to the north-west of those places, being in ;
the road between Bulkh and Talikan, four days from the former and
one from the latter. It is a level and fertile tract. If to these we add
Huzrut Imam, situated thirty-five miles below the junction of the
river Koocha with the Oxus and under Hissar, already mentioned as
a state beyond the Oxus, we have enumerated the chief remarkable
districts in Bactria.
20. The river Koocha in its upper course intersects Budukhshan
in its lower boundary, the eastern and southern boundaries have been
already mentioned. Its northern limits are more difficult to assign.
The natives seem at present to restrict it to the country politically
under the chief of Fyzabad (who is a Syyud and is stiled Shah)
which many consider as a convertible term for Budukhshan ; it is
situated on the left of the Koocha, five days east of Talikan. It is not
easy to discover what extent the majority of European geographers
wish to give to Budukhshan, but there seems little or no authority for
extending it beyond the river Oxus, and it seems convenient to have
a general term for the tract of country which the upper course of that
river bounds. It is a diversified country, but its general character is
ruggedness and poverty. ‘The valleys are narrow, the mountains
steep, the streams rapid ;—by far the greater part is subject to Fyzabad.
To the north beyond the river are Durwaz, Wukheeha and Keerategin
already mentioned, and whose natural character is very similar.
21. The Gavee mountains which have been shewn to connect the
Hindookoosh with the great body of the Paraparnisan, divide Bactria
on the north-west, from Cabul on the south-east. One of the most fre- —
quented roads passes through Bamian and Goorbund, which are narrow
tracts. ‘The delightful valley of Cabul is open only to the south,
a. a
DE We. Cat
where some inconsiderable heights divide it from the table land of
Ghuznee, which here inclines to it. Cabul is politically divided into
four tuppas or districts, Logur to the south, Kodamun to the north-west —
Pughman to the west, and Bhootkhah to the east. To the north and
north-west is what is called the Kohistan or highlands of Cabul, in
- 1839.] Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. 761
which the chief valley is that of Punjsher ; Ghoshund and Bamian
are not included in this term, and lie more to the west within the
skirts of the Paraparnisan. ast of the valley of Cabul, after a con-
siderable descent, we arrive at the country of Lughman, lying low,
under lofty branches of the great northern chain. It is situated to
the north or left of the Cabul river, is on the right in the most
frequented roads from Peshawur to Cabul, and is of an extent far
inferior to that of the valley of Cabul. To the south-east it borders
on Jellalabad, a city and district on the right of the Cabul river,
diversified with mountains, hills, and plains; its plain is somewhat less
spacious than that of Lughman. The city of Jellalabad is passed in all
the roads from Peshawur to Cabul, between which places it is nearly
intermediate. To the south is the White mountain, the loftiest of the
range of 34° north, and north-east of Jellalabad beyond the Cabul
river is the narrow valley of Koonur, lying on the left of the Kashkar
‘river, which joins that of Cabul opposite Jellalabad. To the west of
Koonur lies Lughman. |
22. In the enumeration of the chains of mountains, have been
already mentioned a branch proceeding from the great northern
mountains along the left of the Kashkar river (6) and a branch or
branches leaving the range of 34° to the east of Jellalabad, and run-
ning in a north-east direction (11). The detached branches of these
appear to unite, and together they divide the various districts already
mentioned, from the greatest of the plains, which are situated between
the great northern and the 34° chain of mountains. This great plain
lies from the foregoing in easterly directions. Although there be no
complete interruption to the continuity of this plain, yet do the strait
roads between its detached portions sometimes pass over branches
from the mountains which bound the whole; that between Peshawur
and Bajour conducts north-west, through the Mikmund or Ootman
hills (11); we may therefore distinguish Bajour, with the adjoining
districts of Punjkera, from the remainder of this great plain which
may be called from Peshawur the greatest city it contains. Bajour
is peopled by the Purkulanee tribe of Afghans, who are not a part of
the Yoosufzyes as supposed by Major Rennel. The chief inhabitants of
Koonur are the Degans, who here speak a peculiar tongue. Punjkora
is so called as being peopled by five houses or branches of a sub-
division of the Yoosufzyes. The plain of Peshawur after those reductions
is still comparatively spacious in a country so mountainous as Afgha-
nistan. To the north it has the great northern range, which sends
branches into it, forming the upper parts of Swad and Bhooner, while
762 Lieut. Irnin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
the lower are level ; to the south it has the range of 34°; and to the
east the Indus. Its western boundary has been already detailed.
The Yoosufzyes are a numerous tribe, who disregard the royal autho-
rity.
23. South of Cabul is the table land of Ghuznee, the boundaries
of which to the east, north, and west, have been already mentioned.
To the south or south-west it slopes into Khoorasan. It is far from
being a perfect plain, having many slight inequalities. Proceeding
eastward, we find the Jajee valley, that of the Torees, and others
proceeding from the south side of the range of 34°, and some. of less
note which penetrate into that of 32° and the Jadran range. Ata
considerable distance to the south-east is the valley of Bunnoo,
situated between the salt range, and the range of 323° towards its
eastern extremity. It is of an extent far inferior to that of Peshawur.
A branch of the salt range divides it from the narrow territory
peopled by the Eesa Khel tribe and others to the north-east. It lies
on the right of the Indus, and terminates to the north, where that river
is closely hemmed in at Kalabagh by the hills. These hills divide it
to the north-west from Malgeen, as they divide Malgeen on the north
from Bunnoo on the south. Kohat lies still more to the north under
the range of 34°, and to the west it has Upper Bungeish, a hilly tract.
Both Malgeen and Kohat are diversified moreover with very low —
hills, which seem generally to be from east to west. Neither are spa-
cious.
24. The Eesa Khel plain is bounded to the south by the river
Koorm. Beyond that river seems to begin what is by the natives
called Daman, a term strictly meaning the lands at the foot of a range
of mountains or hills; in this instance it has perhaps a more general
meaning, and includes even some low hills of this quarter. It ends to
the south at Sunghur, where begins Sindh. Like most other terms
partly descriptive partly arbitrary, it is not by all used in the same la-
titude, and it seems doubtful whether we are to include in it that
tract in which is situated Dera Ismael Khan, and which the natives
call Mukulwad. It lies on the right of the Indus, which bounds it to ~ i
the east. The hills are here at a considerable distance from the river, |
but both to north and south they approach nearer it. The Dawan |
most strictly so called, lies west from Mukulwad. I know not whe-
ther it be considered as extending to the south, between Upper Sindh
and the Sooleemanee hills (see Para. 14.)
25. There being little to add respecting the southern parts of Af-
ghanistan not comprehended in Khoorasan, we may proceed to Sindh
ee ee ee
ee is ee 2 ae
a as
1839.) Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 763
beginning as before mentioned at Sunghur, a place lying in north lati-
tude 30° 40’, and east longitude 70° 45’. The term Sindh seems to
have been originally descriptive ; Sindh in the ancient Hinduwee sig-
nified ocean, or great river. The people inhabiting the borders of the
Indus in process of time applied it to that river as being the greatest
and most important; they knew rivers are in all countries great fea-
tures ofa country, but chiefly where it is low and champaign ; we need
not therefore be surprized if in such cases the tracts lying along the
various rivers be named after them. ‘This practice has probably been
more general in former times, before foreign conquest introduced new
and arbitrary terms, and fiscal or political divisions were adopted,
little coincident with natural ones; the last, however, are those chiefly
recognized by the cultivators, and various instances still remain, to ex.
emplify the principle just mentioned. Were it applied in strictness,
Sindh would include all the country at a moderate distance from the
river Indus, from its exit from the great northern mountains to the
sea. In modern times at least other distinctions have quite superseded
the term, if ever applied to the upper course of the Indus. It still
remains applicable to the lower, during which it is that this great
river is of most importance to the subsistence and comforts of the in-
habitants. From Sunghur to the sea, the low fertile country to the
right of the Indus is named Sindh; whether on the left bank of the
river it ascends to the same latitude seems doubtful. On the one hand
Buhawulpoor on the Ghara, at a considerable distance from the Indus,
is considered as comprised in Sindh; on the other, Mooltan cannot be
denied to lie in the Punjab. Leaving this in uncertainty, we may
remark, that from Sunghur to the sea are three natural divisions. Ist.
The most northerly in which lies Dera Ghazee Khan, and which may
be called Upper Sindh, it may be said to end with the Sooleema-
nee hills. 2nd. The middle division, comprizing the country of the
Muzarees, who are independent Beeloches, and south of them the
district of Shickarpoor. 3rd. The most southerly, now under the
government of chiefs of the T'alpoora tribe—this may be called Nether
Sindh. To this alone it is that in our maps is given the name of
Sindh or Sindhee, but all authority of native writers or native use is
against this restriction, which if persevered in, must give rise in our
dealings with the people of the country to frequent mistake. Sindh is
a narrow champaign country. Its greatest width is in the middle
division, and near the sea where the Indus forms a delta. The length
may be 400 English miles and the average breadth 50. To the
south is the Indian ocean, to the east is the great Indian desert, and
764 Lieut. Irwin’s Memotr of Afghanistan. (Serr.
beyond it the Rajpoot states. The country of Kuchh extends from the |
most southern part of Sindh, in an eastern direction, towards Goojrat.
It lies along the Indian ocean, and the name seems originally to have —
implied ‘ border or edge’, but as the lands bordering rivers are usually
low, Kuebh, Kuchhee, and other words from that root seem now in nu-
merous cases to mean low and moist lands near rivers. To the
- north, Sindh has Mukulwad, the Daman, and the Punjab.
26. West of Sindh lies Bulochistan, there is here however a tract —
of country which is to be distinguished from both; if included in Bu- .
lochistan, it would form its north-east corner, and it lies west of the
middle and of part of the upper Sindh; Aboolfuzl seems to have
called it Seeweestan—a general term now little in use, but very con-
venient for us to retain. It contains Seewee, Gunduwah, Dhadur,
Laree Bhag, Naree, perhaps Hurnd and Dhajul, and some other towns
and districts. It is itself a plain, but has in most quarters low hills for
boundaries. <A hilly but by no means mountainous tract intervenes
between it and Candahar, and in that tract live the Tureens and some
other Afghan tribes, while to the traveller's right hand are the
Hakurs. At Gunduwah begin hills, and the country is hilly to Kelat,
a distance of 120 miles in a direction about north-west. Kelat must be
considered as the capital of Bulochistan, though not the greatest city.
The surrounding country is but poor. In the western part of Bulo-
chistan are the cities, towns, or districts, of Keech Mikran, Punjgoor,
Dezuk, Bempoor, and others; this last is nearly SSW. of Jellalabad,
the capital of Seestan, from which it is distant 13 days journey. Of
these the three only nearest to Jellalabad are inhabited when the
direct road is chosen, but it is said there is a road more to the east
which conducts through a country generally inhabited. From Bem-—
poor to the sea it is said to be ten days, and to the first town in
Kirman five days. In both cases the country is reported to be in-
habited. On the coast of Bulochistan are some harbours of which the
most noted is Kirachee, the longitude of which is not very different-
from that of Kelat. Nearly intermediate between them is Belo.
The information is very scanty which is to be gained concerning
Bulochistan, a circumstance which perhaps evinces it to be a country —
little productive or practicable. The chief population of Seeweestan is
Indian, but the Beeloches are generally speaking the masters of the
country. They are themselves divided into two nations, which were —
probably distinct in early times. The Koorgal nation is the superior,
and its residence is chiefly in the west, and in the hilly tract wherein —
is situated Kelat. The Rind tribes dwell in the eastern quarters,
¥
~
iy,
4
eal)
BE
= i
+
2
1839. } Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 965
and are also the chief population of the south-west, so that in numbers
they exceed the other nation.
27. To the north of Seeweestan lie the countries of various Afghan
tribes ; to the north of the western part of Bulochistan lies the
country of the Bureches, that of the Dooranees, and Seestan ; but the
country of the Dooranees stretches a considerable distance beyond in a
north-westerly direction. All these are included in Khoorasan. From
Candahar to Hirat is a distance of 300 miles from ESE. to WNW.
On the traveller’s right is the Paraparnisan range, on his left Seestan,
of which the capital Jellalabad lies 150 miles west by south from
Candahar. From Jellalabad nearly due west, at the distance of 190
miles, is Nih, which though under a separate government is perhaps
to be considered as in Seestan. From Nih the country of Ghaeen and
Birjund lies north, and is of considerable extent. It lies from Hirat
south-west, and from Furah (a considerable place on the left of the road
between Candahar and Hirat) west. From Ghaeen, north-west, are
Toorshish and Mushhud, which last place lies from Hirat more in a
westerly than northerly direction. The country of Khaf lies west of
Hirat, and north-west of it, towards Mushhud, is that of Toorbut. Jam
and Murv lie to the north. The Afghan dominions end a short
distance to the west of Hirat. These divisions which have been enu-
merated are political ones. The face of the country is too little known,
and even if known, is probably too irregular and diversified to be dis-
tributed into natural divisions of well marked characters. But the
country of the Ymaks, lying to the east of Hirat, is distinguished
from all the others as being decidedly hilly, though indeed it possesses
some wide valleys and some plains contiguous to the hilly tracts. Of
| these last the chief is that which lies north from the hilly tracts, but
forms part of the north-east boundary of Khoorasan, and in which is
| situated Huburmach, a place already mentioned. To prevent mistakes
it may be observed, that though this tract in general may justly be
called the country of the Ymaks, part of that nation is found at some
distance from it.
28. We have now rapidly sketched the countries lying west of
the Indus, or north of its sources, and proceed to those lying eastward
of it. Little Tibet has been already mentioned. It seems to be a
country not easily practicable, for we are informed, that the trade from
Kushmeer to Yarkund once passed through it because of the road
by great Tibet having been forbidden, and that this was considered as
an inconvenience. It is certain, a strait line between Kushmeer
and Yarkund would pass through the little rather than the great
3 ms
766 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
Tibet, and hence the objections to the former road must have been to _
its difficulty rather than its circuitousness. Little knowledge is to be
gained of either country, but they are known to be poor. Great Tibet
extends far to the east from Kushmeer, while the little lies west
of that country. Little Tibet is as yet quite independent, except
that a few of the low situated villages are now subject to the
governor of Kushmeer. South-west of little Tibet, on the banks of
the upper Kishengunga, is the independent territory of the Durds,
which is very little known.
29. The delightful valley of Kushmeer has already been accurately —
described by Forster. West of it lies the district of Moozufferabad,
abounding in low hills, and beyond it is Pukhlee, which consists
partly in hills of considerable height, and partly in a plain or valley —
lying on the left bank of the Indus. South of it is Chhuchh, ©
and south-east Huzara, of which both are plains. The former
lies opposite the lower part of the plain of Peshawur, while Pukhlee
is opposite to Bhooner. South of Chhuchh is the country of the
Khatirs, and beyond them that of the Uwans, Dhuns, Gheps, and
other tribes. The eastern part of this Doab of the Indus and Vehut ~
is chiefly occupied by Pothwar, a country now in subjection to the
Sikhs, but the exact limits of which are not easily assigned. A é
range of hills divide it from Huzara and the Khatirs. This Doab,
as before observed, has numerous hills, and though low, they are —
sometimes very difficult. Where they end to the south begins the
country of Mohummud Khan of Lya, which is here sandy and ap- —
proaching to a desert. This and the other tracts as far as the mouth
of the Indus are sometimes known by the name of Lumha, which ~
means in the local dialect, ‘south.’ The territories of Mohummud on
this side the Indus consist of high sands more remote from the river, —
and a lower and more fertile tract by its banks. The former is —
named Thul, the latter Kuchhee, both descriptive terms. Of the —
Kuchhee the southern part at least must be considered as in Sindh. —
Towards the angle of this Doab to the south the Thul is lost, and _
the lands are low, Moist, and fertile.
30. The whole of this Doab of the Vehut and Indus has now ~
no name in general use. That of Sindhsagur given it by Akbar, is
known only to the readers of the Ayeen Akbery, nor are any of the
names given by him to the Doabs of the Punjab in common use. It —
seems doubtful whether that of the Vehut and Indus is to be
considered as part of the Punjab, which many consider as restricted to |
the space included between the Vehutand Sutluj. To the south-west it”
1839. ] Lieut. lrvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 707
draws toa point where the five rivers are assembled in one stream, and
to the north-east it is bounded by the great northern mountains.
Within these mountains are many independent states, and also some
of the dependencies on Kushmeer, for instance Poonuch and Rajwer.
From Jelum on the Vehut to Lodhiana on the Sutluj is about 250
miles of road distance. The Punjab thus restricted is a country
universally plain. From Lodhiana to Delhi is 220 miles of road
distance, through a flat country; at some distance to the traveller’s
left, or to the south-west, begins the great Indian desert, which extends
to near the sea, dividing the lower Punjab and Sindh from the Rajpoot
states. Of these we may mention Jodhpoor to the south, and Beekaneer
more to the north. Bhutner lies at the northern extremity of the
desert, in a country not naturally unfertile.
Rivers.
31. Of the rivers in these countries the greatest is the Indus, some
have considered it as the boundary of Hindoostan to the west. Both
now however, and formerly, we find the Hindee race and language far to
the west of the Indus from its first exit from the great northern range
to its falling into the sea. It must be considered an unnatural arrange-
ment which should assign the eastern part of the narrow country of
Sindh to India, and the western to Persia or Bulochistan. Other
boundaries less simple and marked must therefore be sought for. By
the inhabitants of Sindh this great stream seems best known under the
name of the river. The Punjabees and people in general of the
Hindee race distinguish it as the river Sindh; Persians and Khoora-
sanees either soften this into Sind, or name the river by the addition
of some conspicuous town on its banks, a practice not unknown even
to the inhabitants themselves, hence it is best known to many as the
river of Attoc. The Afghans have called it ‘ Ubaseen,’ that is father or
venerable river ; seen in their language signifying river. Butif we trace
upwards the stream thus distinguished by them, we shall find they
have selected the lesser, instead of the greater and more remote branch.
The Ubaseen of the Afghans rises in the southern face of the great
northern chain only 120 miles in a NNE. direction from Attoc. About
ninety miles from that place it falls into the true Indus, which comes
more from the east. The course of the true Indus is but conjectural, but
may be safely said to be long and its source remote, in the table land
(see para. 7.) From where it leaves the lofty mountains to the sea it
runs in a direction 24° west of south, and though it have many
768 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. — [Sepr.
windings, it takes few great sweeps. As far as Attoc it is a rapid river, —
but at Kalabagh, distant thence 80 miles, it is very slow and still ; it is
no longer confined on both sides by hills, though to its right are some-
times found hills, and assumes all the well known characters of a river
flowing through a champaign country and yielding soil. At Kuheree
after having been joined by all the waters of Afghanistan, it is in the
ebb season about 1000 yards broad, and where deepest twenty-one
feet deep, with a current of two anda half milesan hour. Not far from
‘Mithundakot it receives from the left the Punjnud, in which are col-
lected all the waters of the Punjab, but which is yet much inferior to
the Indus. After this junction, that river probably exceeds the Oxus
in quantity of water.
32. The Hydaspes is the most westerly of the five rivers of the
Punjab. This name originally imposed by the Greeks, is an evident
corruption from Vidusta or Velusta, its ancient name in the country,
and which the natives of Kushmeer still retain ; by the Punjabees it is
called Vehut, which the people of our provinces change into Behut ;
strangers in general usually name it the river of Jelum, from a town
of that name built on its left bank in north latitude 33°. Here isa
famous ferry, and in the ebb season it may be forded, though with
some difficulty. Here too the Punjab may be said to begin, for in the
northerly directions are mountainous tracts. The Hydaspes rises in
the valley of Kushmeer, and having a slow current in deep muddy
banks, soon becomes navigable. Before leaving the valley it joins from
the north the Lar river, so called as intersecting the district of that
name. After leaving Kushmeer the Hydaspes becomes rapid and unna-
vigable. At Moozufferabad it receives from the right the Kishengunga,
a far inferior stream rising in little Tibet. Various mountain torrents
now add their waters, and arriving at Jelum it has gained almost its —
utmost size. Until it reaches Pind-Dadun Khan, it is at intervals con-
fined by hills on its right ; at Rusheed poor it falls into the Acesines, and
near Ahmedpoor the joint river receives the Hydraotes. The Acesines —
as being the largest and centrical gives its name to the three, which
thus united in one stream pass Mooltan, lying about six miles from the —
left bank ; and at Sheenee Bhukhuree, fifty-six miles from that place,
is their conflux with the Ghura, which contains the two eastern rivers
of the Punjab. The five rivers thus assembled are called Punjnud.
The Punjnud had formerly but a short course before it joined the
Indus, and perhaps the term was not then used; but in consequence
of an extraordinary rise of the rivers about twenty years ago, their —
channels were changed, and the Punjnud now runs for about fifty-one
.
|
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.
1839.) Lieut. Irnins's Memoir of Afghanistan. 769
miles parallel with the Indus, which at length it joins opposite to
Mithundakot.
33. The Acesines is certainly the largest river of the Punjab. In
ancient times, as we are informed by Aboolfuzl, it was called Chunder-
bhaga, from its being formed of two mountain streams, Chunder and
Bhaga. The name Sandabilis used by the latter writers on India among
the ancients, seem derivable from Chunderbhaga, but the etymology of
Acesines is now obscure. The inhabitants of its bank at this day
though not ignorant of the ancient appellation use not it, but Chunka,
which we and the Persians have changed toChunab. This great river
rises in Kishtwar, a dependency of Kushmeer. There is little reason to
think that any of the rivers of the Punjab rises beyond the great moun-
tains in the table land. The Acesines is forded with difficulty even in
the ebb season. The Hydraotes was formerly, in the country, called
Irawutee, and now Ravee. It is by far the least of the five rivers.
34. To it succeeds the Hyphasis, anciently called by the natives
Bypasha, and now Beak or Beas, and lastly the Sutluj. The Sutluj
was by the Greeks called Hesudrus. Its ancient name was Shutoodr,
and in Peshawur it is to this day usually called Sutloodr ; it is inferior
to the Acesines, but seems equal to the Hydaspes; yet did the Greeks
call the joint stream of the Hyphasis and Hesudrus by the name of the
former, a much inferior stream. At present both names are lost, and the
river formed of them near Feerozpoor is first called Neelee, and after-
wards Ghara, or Ghuloo Ghara ; it is no where fordable even in the
ebb season, but both its branches are. We are informed by Aboolfuzl
that in his time it separated into a number of branches at some dis-
tance below its formation. At present, although it have like other
__.rivers of a champaign country small nullahs or branches, it no were
sends off a considerable part of its waters. As before mentioned, it falls
into the Acesines, nor is there any reason to think that when Major
Rennell composed his map and memoir, it held a different course;
yet has that excellent geographer rejected Arrian’s authority for this
fact, without assigning any reason.
35. Between the Jumna and Sutluj are various small streams, very
important in a military point of view. The Kughur and some others
fall into the Sursootee, a river the course of which has long been a
problem. The late inquiries entirely confirm that account which is
given in Franklin’s life of George Thomas, by which it appears to be
lost near Bhutner. There is however a tradition that in former times
it passed to the south, and spread itself over the wide expanse of level
hard clay in the centre and west of the great Indian desert.
770 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sepr.
36. By far the greatest tributary of the Indus from the right is the
river running under Ukora and Noushuhra in the plain of Peshawur.
Captain Wilford has called it the Lundkee Sindh, or little Sindh, a
term partially used in the country; but it is to beregretted that in this
asin very many other cases, rivers have no proper names as such, and
distinct from the towns which may be on their banks. This river joins
the Indus less than a mile above Attoc, but on the opposite side. It
does not appear probable that it has ever passed under the name of
the river of Attoc. Before the junction both rivers are fordable, but
after it no longer so. ‘The Indus is the larger in quantity of water as
being more rapid, but the channels seem equal. The Ukora river
drains a very extensive and various country. Its sources may be di- —
vided into western and northern. The most remote of the western
are in the mountains which bound the valley of Cabul, which is
watered by three principal streams. The least which rises to the south
or south-western runs through the capital ; there afterwards joins it an-
other from Ghorbund, and still lower that of Punjsher, the largest
of the three, and which rises in Hindookoosh ; other small streams con-
tribute their waters from the right and left, but the rapidity is such
that with all these additions the river is not navigable even by rafts
until it join the stream of Lughman, which rises in the Kaper moun-
tains to the north, and intersects that province. Although probably
inferior in quantity of water, a gentler current admits of navigation
on it by rafts before the junction.
37. Five miles east of Jellalabad joins from the north the Kashkar
river, which is a rapid stream, and supposed to contribute three times
the quantity of water brought by the united rivers of Cabul and ~
Lughman ; for about fifty-four miles the navigation of the river formed-
of these three streams is interrupted by no obstacle, yet are boats
used in one place only (Dhukka) and there for ferrying merely ; for
about thirty-two miles further, to Micknee, occur at intervals, rocks,
whirlpools, and cataracts, which are reckoned up to the number of
thirty-two. The river in this space pierces the secondary range of By
hills already mentioned (see para.]1.) A passage down the river is at
no season impracticable on rafts, but it is safest in the flood season, for
although the violence of the stream be then increased, greater depth of
water removes all danger arising from many of the rocks. The upper
Mihmunds who live chiefly on the left of the river along this dangerous
tract, take advantage of the difficulties of the traveller to rob him or
extort a ransom. |
38. From Micknee to the Indus the river flows with a moderate
i
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Oe aR ea
5 epee St eee
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1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. Five
eurrent through the valley of Peshawur, which it fertilizes. A short
distance below Micknee it divides into two branches ; the lesser, usually
ealled the Shuhalum river from a village of that name, passes only
four miles to the north of Peshawur. It unites twenty-five miles in
a straight line from the point of division with the Hadezy or other
branch, which had previously received from the north-east the river of
Swad, inferior to itself. The river is now completely formed, and pro-
ceeds to the Indus a distance of thirty-five miles. It divides (though
not exactly) the Yoosufzyes to the north from the Khutuks and other
obedient tribes to the south. The Mihmudzy tribe inhabit chiefly the
district of Hushtungur, lying on the left bank of the Swad river. In
the Doab between it and the Hadezy live the Gugeeanees, and the
upper Mihmunds and Ootman-Khel tribe bound them to the north
and west. In the island of Hadezy and Shuhalum live the Daoodzyes ;
south of them and the Shuhalum are the Khuleels, who live chiefly to
the west of Peshawur, and the lower Mihmunds who live chiefly to
the east of it; to the east of them are the northern Khutuks. The
people of the south of the plain draw but little water for irrigation
from the river; their neighbourhood to Peshawur and the great
road exposes them to oppression and military rapine. The canals
which formerly existed are now in a state of complete or partial decay.
The Boodhunee however which rises from springs in the plain is
increased to twice its natural size by the introduction of water from
the Shuhalum. The Bara is a more important stream, though in size
very inconsiderable. It rises to the south-west in Teera, a well peopled
district, situated high on the range of 34°, and diversified with hill
and plain; whatever is suffered by the Afreedees, or people of that
country, to flow to the plain, is by the government appropriated in the
following manner—A certain quantity reckoned by the number of
mills it can (if required) turn is taken for the use of the city and
gardens of Peshawur. The remainder is to be equally divided be-
tween the lower Mihmunds and the Khuleels, but no rule has been
established which does not give rise to unceasing jealousies and sus-
picions between these two parties, which often break forth into open
war.
39. If computed from its western sources to its mouth, the general
course of the Ukora river is a little to the south of east, according
_to the direction of the range of 34°, and in length, in a strait line,
about 200 miles ; but its greatest streams come from the north. The
Kashkar river rises remote in the table land. Before piercing the
great northern range it receives from the east the Sheesa, which rises
qi2 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sert.
behind them, contrary to the Ubaseen. After crossing the line of the
great northern range it still remains hemmed in by its branches
(see para. 6) and continues to its mouth a rapid stream. It is navi-
gable for rafts only as far as Asmar, seventy-five miles from its mouth ;
thence upwards it is exceedingly rocky. In the ebb season it is
fordable by horsemen in various places, and in some, a party of men on
foot, by joining hands, can with difficulty cross it. At Chughsuraee it ©
receives from the right the stream of Pech, running in a valley of
that name, through which leads a road north-west to Budukhshan.
The other northern stream is that of Swad, which has a general
course from the north-east. Arrived in the plains it is joined in |
the north-west by the inferior stream of Punjkora. They unite
near Khizree Khel, forty miles from Peshawur.
4). The other additions to the Indus are but inconsiderable.
Pukhlee and Bhooner have their rivulets and torrents, and in the
former may be noticed the fern much used in agriculture. The
Huro rising in the territory of the Gakhurs (see para. 16) intersects
Huzara and part of Chhuchh, but leaving it falls into the Indus
between Attoec and Neelab, in the country of the Khutuks. The
Swan, a much superior stream, rises in the district of Moozufferabad,
and passing through Pothwar and some other districts of that
Doab joins the Indus some miles above Kalabagh. The To rising
in upper Bungush and Teera, waters Kohat and falls into the Indus
after a short course. Malgeen has its rivulet. Bunnoo is well watered
by the Koorm. ‘This river has very numerous sources draining the
left of the salt range, part of the left of that of 34°, the Jadran
range, and the right of that of 324°. Perhaps the chief is that which
is traced to the White mountain, in which case the Koorm has a course
from north-west to south-east. Its greatest tributary is the Gum-
beela, rising in the western part of the range of 323°; even at its
mouth the Koorm is but a small river, and probably discharges not
more than a tenth of the water discharged by the Ukora river. Still
less is the Gomul, whose course is near the south or right of the
range of 323°. It does not in ordinary times reach the Indus, but
is expended in the agriculture of the Daman. After heavy rains
however it exceeds the demands made on it, and spreads itself over
the Daman and Mukulwad on its way to the Indus.
41. In Afghanistan, south of the Gomul, and in the whole of
Bulochistan is no stream of magnitude or whose waters reach the sea ;
it is in like manner with the Persian Khoorasan; but in the Afghan
Khoorasan are some considerable ones. The greatest is the Kelbund
*
4
1839. } Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. Tio
which rises contrary to the Ghorbund stream. After running a con-
siderable distance in the Huzara country it enters that of the
Dooranees, and passes to the west of Girishk. It finally discharges
itself into the Jake of Seestan. It is a rapid river, especially during
the first part of its course, and the quantity is certainly considerable
in the summer, but Mr. Forster who passed it at Girishk on the 17th
November, 1783, describes it, without naming it, as a small stream of
good water. In the ebb season it is fordable in certain places, but in
that of the floods must be passed by means of boats or by means
of pumpkins. Except towards Seestan, where the bottom is composed
_ of sand only, the channel has a mixture of stone and sand. The
_ banks are generally high, and the river never sends natural branches
to a considerable distance. Art however has drawn out some canals.
The most famous is that made by the late Payenda Khan Barukzy,
and lately repaired in the midst of civil broils by his son and successor
Futteh Khan. It is drawn from the right of theriver. The general
course of the Helbund is about south-west. .
42. Not far below Girishk it receives the Urghundab from the left.
_ This stream is of far inferior magnitude, and in the ebb season is
_ easily fordable in all places. It rises in the south-eastern extremities
of the Paraparnisan, not far from Sooltan Safee, and has Candahar not
far distant from its left bank. It is afterwards joined by the Turnuk,
or rather by a part of that little stream, for another part is lost in
sands. The Turnuk drains part of the Kakur country and of the
table land of Ghuznee, and is reckoned to have its principal source
near Mookr. Equal to the Urghundab is the Khashrood, that stream
_ which runs under Dilaram to its right. It rises in the Paraparnisan
_ chain, and after a course nearly south falls into the Helbund near
_ Kohinsheen, three days journey below Girishk. The Furahrood, so
_ ¢alled from Furah, which is situated on its left bank, also rises in the
_ Paraparnisan, but from parts of it more westerly; it never joins the
Helbund, but pursues a separate course into Seestan, where according to
“some accounts it gains the lake; but according to others, is in the ebb
season at least lost in the sands. It is twice as large as the Khash-
rood, and its course seems to be south-east.
43. Such are the streams which take their rise in the south side of
the Paraparnisan. From the west rises the river of Hirat, called by
the people of Khoorasan ‘ Pool-i-Malan,’ and by those of Toorkistan
‘Tejun’ ; it is the Ochus of the ancients; and is said formerly to have
reached the Caspian sea. At present it is lost in the desert south of
the Oxus in a direction north-west of Hirat. It is twice crossed in
5@
774 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Supre
a oe
the ordinary road from Candahar through Hirat to Persia. Except —
in the season of rain it is very small, and much of its waters are ex- —
pended in agriculture. The ancient Margus or modern Murghab, —
whose sources are not far distant from those of the Ochus, is perhaps of
an equal size. It runs nearly due north, and after passing Muro, at
some distance to its left, pursues a solitary course through sands to the _
Oxus, which it barely reaches. A considerable rivulet from the Para. —
parnisan, waters successively the districts of Mymuna and Undkho, but 4
never gains the Oxus. Bulkh has eighteen streams, but of those some ms
are canals drawn by art from natural ones, rising in the mountains to
the south. None of them can aspire to the name of a river. That
called the Bulkhab is the chief. Advancing eastward we come to the _
stream of Khoollum, and after it, that of Koonduz, which is more consi- f
derable, and composed of three principal branches draining Talikan, —
Ishkumish, and Ghoree. This last is the most to the west or left of the —
three. The middle one it is which is sometimes known by the name —
of Bungee. The river composed of these three streams is equal to the —
Swad, and pursues a north-westerly course to the Oxus.
44. That great river, according to information received by Lieut. —
Macartney, rises from a glacier of the Poosht-i-Khur, a lofty mountain —
of the Belur. The natives of the country content themselves with tra- —
cing it to Durwaz, and usually confess their ignorance of its earlier pro-—
gress. The first considerable stream it receives is the Soorkhab, or —
river of Keerategin, it afterwards joins the Koocha from Budukhshan, ~
and the Oxus now ceases to be fordable. From being very rapid and —
precipitous, it now gradually assumes the character of stillness, and e
gently glides over a sandy bed to the Aral lake, where it is lost. Be-
sides the tributaries already mentioned, the Zurufshan, or river of Boll
khara, joins it when flooded ; it has a south-westerly course. That of —
Keerategin runs nearly south, the Koocha north-west. The Zuruf- |
shan is but an inconsiderable stream in quantity of water, but is indis- — .
pensible to the agriculture of Samarkand and Bokhara. The Oxus |
is by the natives of Toorkistan called Umoo, a name which strangers |
change to Hamoo; but during its upper course among the mountains
it is called Punj. Its course is not much to the north of west.
45. The extreme sources of the Jaxartes are not far distant from |
those of the Oxus, but it holds a more northerly course. Towards its |
mouth however it is said again to approach the Oxus, and according to
some it actually joins it before it falls into the Aral. In size it is |
much inferior, although a considerable river. Its chief tributary is the |
Chilchik, which falls into it from the north-east, a few miles above |
1839.) Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 775
Tashkund. The Jaxartes is now called Sir or Seer, but the Arabian
geographers name it Syhoon, and the Oxus, Jyhoon. In the winter it
is to be crossed in some places on the ice, but in summer rafts are
used. In the Oxus both rafts and boats are used. The practice with
respect to both, and on both rivers, is to yoke to them the passenger’s
horses and cause them to transport them across by swimming. Of
the Neelum we know only that it falls into the lake of Aral, and comes
from an easterly point.
46. Nor is our knowledge much more detailed of the streams of
Chinese Toorkistan. All of them seem to be collected in one river, ulti-
mately lost in a lake beyond Toorfan. Even this river is not reported
to be of very great magnitude: this is another reason to disbelieve
the existence of a very high and snowy range in this quarter, for such
is ever found to give source to great streams (see para. 7.) The
Tukkus is laid down in the latest maps as running north into the Rus-
sian territory, but according to the information received by us, runs
south into the Chinese. The geography of this country seems destined
to remain long obscure. It is no longer the scene of important events, nor
does it lie in the line of traveller’s routes. The cities of Kashghur and
Yarkund are indeed visited by merchants of Kushmecr, Pushwar,
Budukhshan, and Toorkistan, and from them tea, silver, and some
other Chinese commodities are diffused over the neighbouring coun-
tries. Few however proceed further, and inquiry is scarcely safe
under the jealous and vigilant government of China.
Lakes.
47. Most of the lakes of note have been already alluded to. The
greatest is the Aral, which receives all the rivers of Toorkistan. Its
waters are salt. Those of the lake of Seestan are slightly brackish.
The whole of this last can be seen in one view by a spectator from the
shore. It is encompassed by a tract of marshy land overgrown
with reeds and aquatics, and a day’s journey in breadth. In the
middle is a little high island and on it a fort, this island is called
Koh-i-zoor, and is in north latitude 31° 35’ and east longitude 63° 25’.
The well known Dul and Oollur are situated in Kushmeer. The
latter is formed by the Uidusta; the former is unconnected with
it, except that when raised by rains it discharges its superfluous
waters into that river. No particulars are yet known of the lake
of Toorfan (see para. 46) which is perhaps fabulous. Neither the
776 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Sxpr.
——a sn lt | alec
Aral nor the Seestan lake are navigated except by fishers or fowlers.
The rivers too we have enumerated are more generally an obstruc- —
tion to intercourse than a facility. Wood is indeed floated on them —
from the mountains, and in some cases goods are conveyed on rafts —
from a higher to a lower place. We are also to except the Indus and
its eastern tributaries, which are navigated by trading boats as onthe ~
rivers of our own provinces. The trade thus carried on is indeed far
inferior in amount to what is anticipated, and that especially in the —
ease of the Indus. In lower Sindh and Kushmeer alone water car-
riage is the chief mode of transportation in the country. But these,
and the particulars of ferries and fords, and modes of crossing rivers,
need not be here mentioned in detail, since they are in the pro-
vince of Lieut. Macartney. I may have appeared to have already
greatly encroached on it, but this introductory matter seemed neces-
sary to the readily and correctly apprehending what follows.
(To be continued.)
Arr. 1X.—Meteorological Register, hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of October, 1839. 77
M t perati observed i
: Miovmum Teyaperature observe Maximum Pressure observed Olservations made at Apparent Noon.
2 | = 7 = -— = ———s
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ela] (81. | 2 5 lla] a Z ol
|= | 8 Pele led 2 Fa & |2..| 3 Fs] ¢ = 5 le .|/4 fg] ¢
>]2] 2 lgele Fel z | = B lee) s S| = = z stl eel 2
a see ele lea! eB | ES B [=*/2 |za] 2 z B [=2| 3 az] 2
2/45 /5(57) 4 | = als |s6 la Gi as js ]4
/59,674|$0,0] 76,0]74,9|Calm. |Clear ae 29,720| 85,3] 88,5/79,2/S. W.|Cl 67
|29,674| 80,0) 76,0} 74,9) 720] 85,3] 88,5] 79,28. W.|Clear 90,0) 79,5 Clear.
88 ae ee 138 (erate Clear: »730 a 0] 81,0). W.|Clear. 90,0} 83,0) Cumuli interspersed zen. Clear.
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| SELON. «.|Clear IN: .|Clear. 924] 82,6| 86,9] 77,0)n. b.e.|Clear.
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JOURNAL
OF
fat ASTATIC SOCIETY.
No. 94.—OCTOBER, 1839.
Art. I.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of
Afghanistan and the Neighbouring Countries.—By Lieut. Irwin.!
PILP PP PLPLE POPOL
PART I1.—OF CLIMATE.
Section I.—Of Temperature.
48. Even the most northerly parts of these countries lie in latitudes
considered warm in Europe. JBut it is sufficiently known that
latitude alone does not decide the temperature of countries. In
the same parallel of latitude in the Russian empire the heat is
less as the eastern longitude is greater. The causes of this dif-
ference seem yet unassigned, and until they be both assigned in
a Satisfactory manner, and shewn to be common to the southern
parts of Europe and Asia in the same longitudes, there is but
slight ground for concluding a priort the fact to be similar in
them. The influence of altitude however on the temperature of
place is undeniable, and exemplified in many familiar instances.
Nor can it be denied, that the greater or less frequency and severity of
rains must affect the heat of a place. Other causes might also be
mentioned, for instance, the course of the winds. Distinct also from
those which influence the annual heat of any place, there are causes
which affect the equability of heat during the succession of the seasons.
Maritime places have a temperature more uniform than inland. Even
| considerable inland lakes communicate a more equable temperature
to their banks. The effects are the same of moisture in the soil.
Countries whose surface is chiefly formed of sand or stones have more
1 Continued from p. 776.
Do i
780 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Ocr.
rigorous winters and more sultry summers than others in similar
circumstances. The periods of the rains, the course of the winds, and
perhaps some other circumstances, are to be weighed when a theory
is to be given of the phenomena. I here content myself with detail-
ing facts as far as known, with occasional reference to probable causes.
49. From Delhi to Peshawur, by the royal road which conducts
through Lodhiana, Umrutsir, and Rohtak, the heat of the climate as
estimated by that of all the seasons of the year, generally speaking,
gradually diminishes. Even at Lodhiana, it is said, few nights are
known in the season of greatest sultriness which have the oppressive
heat of those sometimes experienced in our provinces. Whenever the
road conducts near the great northern mountains, unusual coolness is
experienced ; but the neighbourhood of inferior hills seems in the sum-
mer at least to increase the heat. To this cause, and to the scantiness
of the summer rains, we may attribute the sultriness of Peshawur in
the midsummer. All the natives agreed in representing the summer
of 1809, which was partly passed there by the Embassy, as unusually
cool. Yet the heat by day, of the weather in May and part of
June was considerable, and was on the increase when we left that
place on the 12th of June. No relief is in ordinary years to be ex-
pected until the month of July, when either showers fall or the air is
cooled by winds from the east, in which quarter the rains have com-
menced. Hence June may be concluded a warmer, or at least as
warm a month as in Delhi. If the summer of 1809 be not supposed
altogether singular, the nights in Peshawur are seldom disagreeably
warm to those who avoid sleeping within the houses, and prefer the
terraces. The summer too is of later commencement, and declines
sooner than ours. The whole of the month of March may be exclud-
ed from it. The Hinduwee month Ussoo or Koonar, beginning on an
average on the 13th September, is there called the first-born of the
winter, an epithet it by no means deserves in our provinces, in which
September is often warmer than August ;—add to this, that the winter
season is severer in Peshawur than here. Old persons remember a
fall of snow, which, however, they acknowledge instantly melted.
Frost is very frequently experienced in every season. On the whole.
then, it cannot be doubted that the annual heat is less in Peshawur
than in any part of the Bengal provinces, except the skirts of the great
northern hills. In this and many other cases we should be deceived
were we to build conclusions on the proverbial expressions of the
country, without inquiring by whom, and on a comparison with what,
they are spoken. To the Afghans of the hills, Peshawur may seem
1839. | Lieut. Irvin's Memotr of Afghanistan. 781
the seat of the most intolerable heat, because situated not far from
temperate climates, and still the annual heat be under that of Delhi.
50. Bajour and Punjkora are considerably cooler in summer and
colder in winter than Peshawur ; a winter does not pass without a fall
of snow, which is perhaps not melted in less than two days, sometimes
amuch longer space. Hven in Koonar snow falls, though it soon melts
except in the shade. Lughman is warmer in a small degree than
Koonar, and Jellalabad than Lughman. ‘These positions are to be
understood of the plains only of these countries ; the hills and moun-
tains are cooler than they, and in a degree proportionate to their
height. But during the summer there is generated the most excessive
heat among the low hills of the Turnkzy tribe of the upper Mihmunds,
which from their bareness and dryness are commonly called the Be-
doulut hills. Kohat is supposed to bea little cooler than Peshawur,
and Malgeen is probably of a temperature the same as that of Kohat.
Bunnoo and Eesa-Khel cannot be very different. The plains of
Chhuchh-Huzara and Pukhlee are probably a little cooler than that
part of the plain of Peshawur in which the city is situated. Moozuf-
ferabad is cooler than they, but is still to be pronounced a warm
climate. Snow falls in Khanpoor of the Gukhurs. The more southern
parts of this Doab are warmer.
51. The nether part of the Punjab, which includes Mooltan, is far
warmer than the upper, and that for several reasons—a lower latitude,
rains much more scanty, and the greater distance of cold mountains.
The winter in Mooltan seems severer than in our provinces, and as in
Bengal is accompanied with mists. The summer-heat, on the other
hand, is probably greater. Mooltan, Seeweestan, and the Daman, are
proverbial for heat. The nether Sindh is perhaps cooler, although situ-
ated more to the south, because it has more abundant rains. Its sum-
mer is certainly far cooler, being moderated by the neighbourhood of
the sea; but, on the other hand, the same circumstance abates the
cold of its winter. Notwithstanding its lowness, and probably mois-
ture, the climate is much commended, especially in the southern parts.
The country of Kuchh and the coasts of Bulochistan have a similar
climate, neither hot in summer nor cold in winter. Kirachee is re-
presented as unhealthy. The interior of Bulochistan is in general a
hot country, but when the hills rise to a considerable height the
climate becomes temperate. In Kilat snow lies on the ground
during the greater part of winter; the summer however is warm.
There are some inhabited places even colder than this in Bulochistan,
on the whole however that country must be described as a warm one.
782 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
52. Cabul must be reckoned a temperate, perhaps a cold climate. In
the three signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricornus, and Aquarius, the
snow lies in the neighbourhood of the city. In Pisces it melts in the
low and frequented places, but remains in the higher and less fre-
quented. In this month are copious falls of rain, sleet, and snow.
The first day of the ensuing sign of Aries is the vernal equinox, by
the Persians and the people of these countries called Nouraz, because
with it the natural year is considered as commencing. In Persia
especially it is celebrated with much joy and festivity. In this
month whatever remains of the snow melts in the plains. The sum-
mer which now succeeds is so temperate that the heat in the shade is
never disagreeable, and no night is so warm as that a thick covering can
be dispensed with. But the heat of the summer’s day must be great-
er and steadier than in England, since rice and maize ripen in this
district. ‘The heat of the mid-day sun is indeed described as very
great, and equally disagreeable as in the warm climate of Peshawur,
where though the heat be unquestionably greater, its effects on the
feelings and constitution are moderated by a more copious perspiration.
The fact is to be accounted for, not by supposing the atmosphere
of Cabul a moist one, for on the contrary the air of high places is
usually dry, but by the difference of temperature. A temperature
uniformly high, both in the sun and shade, in Peshawur keeps
open the pores, which thus admit of a perspiration which relieves
the body, but in Cabul they are kept shut by the coolness of the air in
the shade. Cabul although warmer in the summer than England, is
probably colder in winter. This we are to attribute to a situation
more inland, and a sky less overcast ; for it is certain that clouds mode-
rate both heat and cold, as indicated by the thermometer. The climate
is on the whole good, but is more commended by the opulent than the
poor, of whom many leave the district in the winter for the warmer
ones to the east, induced by the severity of the cold, the scarcity of
fuel, and the difficulty of obtaining employment and wages in that
season.
53. The valley of Cabul itself is diversified with inequalities of —
surface and varieties of exposure, and the neighbouring districts still
more so. The temperature varies accordingly often within short dis-
tances, and it is impossible to give accounts more than generally true.
The Kohdamun is colder than the immediate vicinity of Cabul, or
the eastern part of the valley. The Kohistan and Ghorbund are
colder than the Kohdamun. The summer heat of Ghorbund is said
to be distressing to the Huzaras of the neighbouring hills. We have
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 783
seen that the Huzara mountains are not of the greatest height, but
the cultivated and inhabited valleys being little beneath the level of the
mountains are remarkable for their cold. In some of them the wheat
harvest is scarcely completed in September. Some of those which
open towards Bactria are warmer than Cabul, and the cotton plant is
cultivated with advantage. In Cabul it may be and is raised, but the
produce is little. Ghuznee and all the places situated on that high plain
are noted for cold. That city is said to have been buried in snow nine
days after the vernal equinox, yet I apprehend the real cold is not
very different from that of Cabul, since the operations of agriculture
and the harvest are but a few days later. To the feelings the
cold of Ghuznee is made more sensible because of the want of
shelter in the country. Mookr and Kura-Bagh are warmer than
Cabul, and from Ghuznee to Candahar the temperature increases every
Stage.
54. Kushmeer is like Cabul a high valley, and in latitude somewhat
more northerly. It is certain the winter is milder both in reality and
to the feelings. The same periods are indeed assigned to it, and
the snow lies during the same month, but it does not possess that cold
felt in Cabul. The natives with no other protection to their feet
than sandals of rice-straw travel in it without apprehension, and even
in the depth of winter pass the heights which separate their valley
from Kishtwar and its other dependencies to the south. Instances are
rare of their losing their toes or fingers by the frost, but this is no un-
common occurrence to travellers in the countries of Cabul and Ghuznee.
The wolf of Kushmeer has not that ferocity which he possesses
in the severer winter of the last mentioned quarters. It is true the
Vidusta is sometimes frozen over, whereas the river of Cabul after the
junction of the Ghorbund stream never is; but a sufficient cause of
this difference is seen in its greater rapidity. The summer of Kush-
meer is probably of the same temperature as that of Cabul, but it
is oftener cooled by showers. ‘The complexion of the natives, which is
usually a yellowish sallow, seems to indicate a climate on the whole
warmer than Cabul. The Cabulies descended of families long esta-
blished in their valley, are nearly as fair as Englishmen. To the
feelings it is certain Cabul has the colder air, by reason of its breezy
climate, while Kushmeer is a still climate.
53. It would be a tedious task (even were it possible) to particula-
rize the temperatures of the various inhabited places among the moun-
tains and hills already enumerated. They may often be conjectured
to a considerable degree of accuracy by adverting to some circumstan-
784 Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. | [Ocr.
ces formerly detailed—the height of the hills, their character, whether
steep or tame, and that of their valleys, whether deep and narrow, or
the contrary. Slopes and plains even of moderately high hills have a
cool and healthy air, but deep vales in the bosom of even the highest
mountains have a hot summer, rendered still more disagreeable by
stagnation of air, yet even they are warm only in comparison with
their immediate neighbourhood. Of this class is the valley of Chitrul,
so called from a town situated on the Kashkar river, and the capital
of one of the four principalities of that country, (see paragraph 17.)
The numerous valleys of Swad, Bhooner, and Pukhlee are warm, as is
that of Khost, comprehended in the revenue division of Bunnoo, from
which it lies in a westerly direction, in the bosom of the range of
324°. The valley of Jajee is as cold as Cabul, that of Toree is
warmer. Teera situated on the range of 34°, Oorgoon on that of 322°,
parts of upper Bungush, and the valleys in the Jadran range are some-
what warmer than Cabul. Zhob, in the Kakur country, is much
warmer than Cabul, but much colder than Candahar. Even Pushing,
or as the Afghans call it Psheen, the country of the Tureens, is some-
what cooler than Candahar ; but Shorabuk, or the country of the Bure-
ches, is of the same temperature.
56. The country of the Dooranees considered as a whole, is of
a temperature intermediate between Cabul and Peshawur, but exhi-
bits considerable diversities within its own extent. Teeree, inhabited
partly by Huzaras partly by Dooranees, is a cold place, falling
not much short of the warmer parts of Cabul. The country called
Zumeendawur, lying on the right of the Helbund in its further
progress (see para. 41) is a temperate one. No winter there passes
without snow, but to it succeeds the gurm seer (so called even in
Tamerlane’s time) in which there falls no snow. It lies WSW. of
Candahar, which is only a little cooler. In some winters snow falls
there, but it soon melts. The intensity of the summer heat is how-
ever moderated by western and northern breezes, and close nights are
quite unknown. Few towns are more healthy than Candahar. Furah,
although in a latitude somewhat higher, is warmer than Candahar ;
Subzwar, or Isfazar of the Zooree tribe, is much cooler, by reason
of its being situated on high land. Hirat is still cooler, and is proba-
bly not very different from Bokhara, to be afterwards men-_
tioned. Still colder are the vallies of the Ymaks, which are
yet far more temperate than those of the Huzaras, and generally
speaking similar to Cabul. In Muro snow lies but a short time after
falling. Toorshish is in a temperature perhaps the same as Hirat, and
ee EE EEO eee
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. 785
Mushhud is considerably colder than both. Mushhud and Kilat
of the Beeloches may be conjectured to have an animal heat not
very different. Ghaeen and Birjund are various in different places,
but generally may be pronounced intermediate between Hirat and
Candahar. Seestan is warmer than the gurm seer, yet contains
hills on which snow falls in the winter. ‘The great desert to the
south has a most sultry climate.
57. Snow falls every winter in the whole of Toorkistan, unless
indeed there be any exception in the deserts towards the Cas-
pian, of which our information is in most particulars very scanty.
This country sloping westward, the eastern quarters are the coldest ;
but in the distance of a few miles there is frequently great differ-
ences of climate. It also deserves remark, that the kingdom of
Bokhara and other parts west, being open countries, are also windy,
and their air sharper to the feelings in the winter than that of the
east. But no doubt exists of their real cold being fess, for their winter
is shorter, and the snow sooner melts. In Bokhara it seldom rains, but
snows in the sign Sagittarius, which begins the 20th November.
Snow falls knee deep in the course of the ensuing month Capricornus,
and that quantity melts in five days. In some years there happens
much greater falls, and it has been known to snow after the ver-
nal equinox. ‘The spring and autumn are generally temperate, and
two months only of the summer are hot, namely Cancer, which begins
the 20th of June, and Leo, but especially the former; the noon-
day winds then feel warm, but close nights are not known. The
natives are not so fair as the Cabulies. Khwaruzm is warmer than
Bokhara ; the kingdom of Kokur is colder, and has both a healthier and
pleasanter climate, though Bokhara cannot be said to be unhealthy.
Taskund is nearly similar. The Kinghuzes live in a colder country
than the Kuzzaks, whose country is yet colder than Bokhara, and
not much warmer than Taskund, which borders on it to the east.
Keerateginisa cold country, but some places are much colder than others.
The town of Durwaz is noted in its own neighbourhood for heat,
being situated in a deep and narrow valley.
58. Budukhshan being composed of vallies which take their origin in
mountains covered with perpetual snow, and whose months have nearly
the same level as the lower parts of Toorkistan, thus possesses great
diversity of climate. In many of the loftier parts the crops are in
Some seasons spoiled by the frosts before ripening. All the consider-
able places, however, lie in temperate climates. Fyzabad is warmer
than Cabul. The Koocha is not known to freeze at that town or
786 Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
below it. The river of Koonduz, in a far warmer country, freezes
every year so as to admit of horses passing it, but its current is more
sluggish. In Bactria there is considerable diversity of climate, arising
from circumstances already mentioned (see para. 19.) The climate of
Bulkh is perhaps the warmest ; summer and winter succeed one another
by a very rapid transition, and both are severe. These circumstances
coupled with the moisture of the air, render the place neither healthy
nor agreeable, and the natives of Cabul had the greatest aversion to
serving in Bulkh when that place was in reality, as now it is inname,
under their monarchy ; many of its villages, however, are healthy.
Koonduz though low, moist, and warm like Bulkh is yet more healthy.
The districts to the south and east are colder in various degrees. The
lower part of the valley of Khost is warm, and no placein Bactria is so
cold as Cabul. Shibirghan, Undukho, Mymuna, and Kuburmach are
healthy, and their temperature somewhat less than that of Bulkh.
59. Chinese Toorkistan although in general more northerly than in-
dependent Toorkistan, has not a colder climate, but rather the contrary,
for the inhabited places are for the most part in low plains. Kashghur
is colder than Yarkund. The temperature very gradually declines as
we proceed to the more northern parts. The Pamer is exceedingly cold,
yet may be crossed in autumn. With the exception of Chitrul,
already mentioned (see paragraph 55.) Kashkar is undoubtedly a cold
country, but to what degree we cannot yet tell. All the Tibets have
rigorous climates, considerably colder than Cabul, even in the cultiva-
ted vallies. Between the Tibets and Hindoostan, the Punjab and other
countries to the south and south-west, there is every degree of tempera-
ture, from mountains clad in never melting snow, to low and sultry
plains. |
Section II.—Of Winds.
60. In most countries it requires the observation of many years
to determine what winds on the whole are predominant, and in what
seasons of the year; we are otherwise in danger of stating local
and temporary phenomena as general and constant. In the total
want, in the present case, of such records, and under the necessity,
moreover, of relying on the testimony or rather opinion of others,
who may not have considered the subject with the patience it
requires, it must be expected that the present account shall be meagre,
perhaps in many points erroneous.
er
1839. | Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 787
61. Some facts however seem to be established on sufficient evidence.
It may be asserted that in the whole of Toorkistan, Budukhshan, and
the north in general, the prevailing wind is from the north. In
Bokhara it blows with considerable violence in the signs Cancer, Leo,
and Virgo ; after three months cessation, it reeommences, and blows,
though with less vehemence, during Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces.
These may with propriety be called midsummer and midwinter
winds. ‘The former are sometimes felt warm by day in Bokhara, the
latter, when strong, are felt piercingly cold. Both vary from time to
time in strength, blowing for seven to ten days with violence, and then
remitting for nearly an equal time. In the wide space in which this
northerly current prevails it may be supposed to have considerable
variations in its direction, (for it need not be supposed to be always due
north) strength, and other circumstances. It is not constant and strong
in the west of Toorkistan, but it has occasionally given melancholy
proofs of its power. It has submerged under sand the far greater part
of the kingdom of Khwaruzm, and yearly curtails the habitable lands
of Bokhara. The same evil consequences are not apprehended from
the north winds im the quarter of Bulkh, yet even there they
occasionally blow with great vehemence. In the war which Ty-
moor Shah waged in that country with the Oozbuks, there were six
successive days in which these winds suspended all hostile operations.
Budukhshan, except in some particular situations, has a still climate,
by reason of the shelter afforded by its lofty mountains, and is not
so breezy as even Cabul; the north winds however are there also
the prevalent ones, though much diminished in their strength. It
deserves remark, that the Persian word ‘Shimal,’ which properly
means ‘ the north,’ is in Toorkistan, Budukhshan, and the north in
general familiarly understood by the signification of wind. In the
Persian Gulph, the same denotes a blast. It is remarked in Bokhara
that the south-east wind there, called ‘ Kypung,’ is productive of great
warmth, and when it occurs in the spring, the snow rapidly disappears.
62. If we pass from Toorkistan to Khoorasan we still find the same
northern current to prevail in the western parts of that province—little
change takes place in its direction, and even at Hirat it seems to
be from nearly due north, but in longitudes more easterly its
direct progress is opposed by the Paraparnisan mountains, which shelter
that part of Khoorasan which lies to the south of them. At a mode-
rate distance however from these mountains the current seems to
recommence, though with diminished force and altered direction. It
now inclines to the east of south, or even blows due east, as if to reach
5 I
788 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
the Afghan Khoorasan, it had been compelled to travel round the
western end of the Paraparnisan range. In Candahar the direction of
the midsummer winds is perhaps from the north-west, but at a con-
siderable distance south from the Paraparnisan mountains the current
resumes its force, and perhaps nearly returns to its former direction.
In Seestan such is its force, that it has heaped up the sands of that
country into waves; not a season passes but whole villages are buried
under the sand, the inhabitants escaping with little beyond their lives,
yet do they deem these winds a blessing. ‘They moderate the heat,
relieve them at times from the musquitos, and they turn their wind-
mills. At Kilat of the Beeloches the midsummer winds are from the
north, for this place is situated too far to the south to be effected by the
Paraparnisan mountains.
63. Hirat lies open to the north, and if we except Seestan there is no
part of Khoorasan where these winds blow with such vehemence as in
its neighbourhood. It has a windy season of 120 days, which returns
with such certainty, that relying on it they here use no watermills, but
windmills only. These periodical winds seem to commence earlier
in Hirat than in Bokhara, and in Seestan earlierstill. In that part of
Khoorasan which lies west of Hirat the summer winds though of con-
siderable strength and regularity, are not relied on for grinding the
whole of the crops, on the contrary watermills are commoner than
windmills ; in former times the latter were more used than now, as is
proved by the ruins to be seen in the districts of Cabul, Muro, Zumun-
dawur, in certain parts of the table land of Ghuznee, and other
quarters where watermills only are now employed. This change of
practice may have arisen from a change of opinion, watermills
having been found more eligible in all but the most windy climates, as
being oftener at command than the others; or it may be considered
as one proof of what all the natives assert, that the seasons and weather
have altered from what they were in former times.
64. I know not how far southward we can trace these northern and
north-western winds, but in the eastern longitudes at Jeast they do
not extend to the Ocean. The wind there on the contrary, blows
from the south during the greater part of summer. We can trace this
wind as far as Buhawulpoor, in latitude 29° 22’, and perhaps a good
deal further. This southerly wind blowing from the ocean, communi-
cates to the climate of the nether Sindh an agreeable coolness. At
Mooltan it shews itself rather in occasional blasts, than a constant
current. By parity of reason these southerly winds may be supposed
to extend a certain distance (varying in different longitudes with cir-
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 789
cumstances) from the ocean into Bulochistan. But we have already
seen (paragraph 62) that it does not reach Kilat, the latitude of
which is not very different from that of Mooltan. In Jodhpoor it is
said the west or north-west wind is the commonest in the spring and
summer months, until the commencement of the periodical rains. In
the upper Punjab also the winds are represented as being in the
various seasons not very different from those of our Upper Provinces.
In both countries clouds seem to assemble from easterly points (espe-
cially in the rainy season) and winds from westerly points shed their
contents.
65. The winter of 1808-9 was spent by the Cabul Mission chiefly
at Beekaneer, between that place and the entrance into the hills be-
yond the Indus. It was remarked as being singularly still ; and gen-
erally it may be asserted, that in all these countries the winter is
calmer than the summer, the night also is usually calmer than the
day. Travellers tell us that such is the cold of the Pamer in the
autumn—the season in which it is most commonly passed—that did
not the wind die away by night, this route would not be practicable.
As before observed the mid winds of Toorkistan are not so strong as the
midsummer, and in Khoorasan they are not always traceable. In
Candahar, and some other situations, the month of October is more re-
marked as windy, than the depth of winter. The cold winds of that
month, or rather of the sign Scorpio, which begins the 20th of October,
strip the trees of their foliage. The same sign of the zodiac is windy
in our Upper Provinces and in Peshawur, and in both cases it blows
from a westerly point. In Cabul also this season is generally windy,
as also in the sign Pisces.
66. Cabul however though at most seasons breezy, is in none remark-
ably windy, the north and west winds chiefly prevail. The same posi-
tions are, I presume, true of Ghuznee, which, however, has less shelter.
Kushmeer has been already mentioned as possessing a still climate.
The stagnation of air is sometimes very disagreeable, especially to |
those who have been accustomed to the free circulation in Khoorasan.
Other places there are remarkable for continual wind, a circumstance
owing to their situation between hills, which by confining the current
of air accelerates it. Such is Jummoo, built not far from the left of
the Chunab, and some other places of less note. Jellalabad and
-Koonur have never-ceasing winds, chiefly from the west. These
threaten to bury under sand the good lands of the former. In Pesha-
wur and Bajour the prevailing wind during the whole of the summer
is said to be the east, and the observations made during the stay of
790 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
the embassy in that country correspond to this opinion. In the
winter the chief winds in Jellalabad, Koonur, Bajour, and Peshawur,
is the west, and next to it the north, which in Bajour is in that season
productive of great cold. In Peshawur and Bajour, as in our pro-
vinees, are occasional blasts during the spring and simmer months ; in
the former place they blow from the west and south-west.
67. Even in Bokhara hot winds are known, but they are confined
to a few weeks in the year, and a few hours in the day, and altogether
are little regarded. This is equally true of those in Hirat, but the hot
winds of Seestan are severe. Those of Peshawur have been already
mentioned (see paragraph 49.) Jellalabad, which on the whole has a
cooler climate, has severer hot winds than Peshawur, because of its
lying to the west, or leeward of the Bedoulut hills (see paragraph 50.)
The wind from them is moderated in its bad qualities before it reaches
the city of Jellalabad. Within the tract in which it is generated
it is a true Simoom or pestilential wind, and many instances are
given of its proving fatal to travellers. On the night of the 21st June,
the Cabul Mission experienced a wind of the most intolerable heat ; it
blew from the low hills on which Attock is situated, then bearing
south. The hottest winds appear to proceed from, or blow over, low
hills, whose rocks and stones acquire a higher temperature than the
soil of the plains. In the warm parts of Bulochistan, hot winds of very
great severity blow. Instances are few of their proving fatal, but not
unfrequently they scorch the shoulders and backs of travellers.
Section IIIl.—Of the Rains.
68. In India from the northern mountains to Cape Comorin, the
grand rains are those which beginning about midsummer, continue —
to the middle or end of autumn. The monsoon of the Coromandel
Coast forms an exception, caused by peculiar circumstances. The rains,
so called by way of eminence, on an average of seasons begin in Cal-
cutta in the first week of June, in Futthgurh about the 20th of that
month, and in the intermediate situations they are later, according
as the place is situated more or less to the west of Calcutta. This
rule is true in a majority of places and seasons. In our progress
westward, it is also found that the rains are more scanty. The annual
inches of water in Calcutta, are thrice those in Delhi. It is only in the
lower parts of Bengal, that in the same season rains fall in the four
successive Hinduwee months, Usarh, Sawun, Bhador, Koonar, of -
1839.] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. , 791
which the first begins about the 13th of June ; far less can four months
be counted in the Upper Provinces between the first and the last
shower. Yet is ‘Chowmasa’ a term for the rains, in the whole of the
Bengal provinces. The rains of the first and fourth month are more
scanty and uncertain than of the second and third. The second
again is more rainy than the third, and its rains more seldom fail ;
it begins about the 18th of July. Places in the same longitude have
more or less rain, according to their proximity to the great northern
hills. This rule, however, does not extend to all places, for those
which are near hills of considerable height within India itself, receive
from that circumstance more copious rains. It is thus the province
of Kuttack is more rainy than even the neighbourhood of Calcutta.
Very many places in the Marhatta territories and the Dukhan are far
more rainy than those in corresponding longitudes within our Upper
Provinces. When other circumstances are equal, the number of inches
of water which fall in the year diminishes in proportion as we recede
from the sea. Hence Jodhpoor and Oodeepoor have more rains than
Beekaneer or Jypoor.
69. The rains of Hindoostan extend to certain points in these coun-
tries, and their periods and quantities are according to the laws just
mentioned. The rains of Lahour are later, and less than those of
Delhi. Those of Pothwar are still more so, and only the two middle
months are relied on. One heavy shower in the month of September
is of the utmost importance to their crops, but in some years is longed
for in vain. In Peshawur only the second month of the rains re-
‘Mains; nay, some seasons pass in which all are denied. The hus-
bandman, however, sows in expectation of the rain of Sawun. From
Peshawur we trace the rains to a termination in Lughman and Jella-
labad, where they dwindle to a few showers. It thus appears that
they diminish in our progress westward. But this rule is modified
by others. Pukhlee, upper Sward, Punjkora, and Bajour, of which the
two last are more west in longitude than Peshawur, have, as being hilly
or near hills, much more rain than that place. Kushmeer lying to the
east of all these has yet but a few showers, for the mountains to the south
shut out the rains in this quarter, though we find by Captain Turner’s
account, that they have not this effect in the part of Tibet he visited.
Barah-Moola, lying in the narrow pass leading to Kushmeer from the
west, not only has a portion of the great rains, but showers in all the
‘months in the year. Teera enjoys the four months of rain, but the
showers are light. It is even said that it rains every day of the year
in some part of the plains or the vallies of Tecra. To the north the
792 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. LOcr.
great chain of mountains does not allow the rains to fall in Kashkur,
but the country of the Kafeis has an equal share with Bajour.
70. We have thus traced the summer rains in the high fatitudes.
In the middle latitudes they extend to all the sources of the river
Koorm, being here diminished in duration to less than one month.
These showers are generally severe, and important to the agriculture
of the country. By the Afghans they are called, ‘ Vuse,’ a term plainly
of Indian origin. In latitudes still more southerly it is difficult to lay
down the limits. The ‘ Vuse’ certainly does not reach Candahar, but is
sufficiently regular at Zhob of the Kakurs. It is said to reach Kilat
of the Beeloches, but is not there the chief rain. Nay, it is by one
person asserted to be known as far west as Punjgoor. This is rendered
incredible by adverting that that place is not very distant from the
sea. Natives of Persia assure us that in most seasons there is a heavy
fall of rain in the month of August in the province of Laristan ; and
I presume this is equally true of the coast of Kirman. It is probably
the neighbourhood of the sea which gives to lower Sindh a rainy
season of greater length than the upper, and perhaps not greatly
inferior to that of the upper Punjab, yet has it been known in some
years to fail, but the circumstance is of little importance to agriculture.
Mooltan, distant at once from the sea and from the mountains, has
very little remaining of the rains, less than any part, it is probable,
of Sindh or Seeweestan, or the Daman and Makalwad, though lying to
the west. Buhwulpoor has more rain than Mooltan. The rains of
Beekaneer are somewhat uncertain and scanty, for a country situated
on this side the desert. Showers sometimes fall in Seestan during
the summer, but they are unconnected with the rains of India.
71. In the Bengal provinces next in importance to the grand summer
rains, are the showers which fall in the winter. By the natives this rain
is called ‘Muhawut,’ because the greater part fall in the Hinduwee
month Magh, which on an average of seasons begins on the 13th of
January. The farmers in what is called the Puharturee, or the tract
of country lying at the foot of the great northern mountains, do not
even water their rubbee crops, but trust to this rain, which however in
some years fails, even there and in many parts of the plains more dis-
tant from the hills) The Muhawut extends from our provinces as
far as Jodhpoor ; but with respect to many parts of India I do not
possess information as to whether it occurs or not. Part of the rainy
monsoon of the Coromandel Coast coincides in time with it, but far
exceeds it in quantity and importance. In the season 1808-9 it failed
in our Upper Provinces in general, a circumstance productive of great
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 798
loss to the former. Neither did it occur in or near any place where
the Mission was, that is between Beekaneer and Dera-Ismael Khan,
but in those latter countries the want of it is productive of little or no
_ inconvenience.
72. In the same season it fell abundantly in Peshawur, a province
where a great proportion of the rubbee depends upon it; and all the
countries now treated of, with the exception to be mentioned, enjoy it
with tolerable regularity. It falls according to circumstances in the
form of rain, sleet, or snow; and with respect to the time it may
be expected, the chief showers are (as in England) rather in the
second than the first half of winter. Although the time varies in dif-
ferent years, it is seldom that it fails altogether. The consequence of
such a failure is dearth, sometimes famine. Where it used to fall
as rain, the crops die from drought, or are killed by the severity of
the frost that usually accompanies dry winters; where it used to fall
as snow, the crops wanting this protection are exposed to the frost,
and the hopes of the spring which partly rested on the melting of the
snows in the hills are disappointed. There is a favorite proverb in
-Cabul, “let Cabul be filled with snow rather than gold.” The quan-
tity which falls is very various, according to season and places. The
highest and most mountainous places appear to receive most, but this
rule alone does not comprehend all cases. In Cabul the number
of snowy days in the three months of winter is computed at sixteen.
If we may form any judgment from the hints given us in Forster’s
Journal, this is more than occurs in Khoorasan. In the Punjab this
rain is certainly of much inferior importance, perhaps it is of inferior
amount, and less certain in its periodical return. But that quarter
where it is most uncertain and most insignificant, is the samein which
the summer rains are so scanty, and in which the Mission spent the
depth of the winter 1808-9 (see paragraphs 70 and 71) being Mooltan,
and a certain distance around it. In the Daman this rain is suffici-
ently regular, and of great importance. In nether Sindh, although of
very little importance, it falls in most years. It may be observed
that it extends far beyond the limits of the present field, to the Helles-
pont and the Russian frontier. The same is the chief rain in the
north-west of Arabia. In none of the intermediate countries, whether
cold or warm, is it lost. It is said to be but scanty in Yarkund, but
‘with respect to many other parts of Chinese Toorkistan we possess
little information on this, or most other partieulars.
73. The third rain we may distinguish, is that of the spring. It is
perhaps the most important of the whole in the countries lying west
794 Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
of the Indoor, north of its sources; in all of which it is confidently ©
expected, and fails only in the most calamitous seasons or peculiar
situations. In the neighbourhood of Candahar indeed, and the country
of the Tureens, it is said to be but scanty, and little rain is looked for
after the vernal equinox. ‘The falls of snow and rain in the winter
are in these places their chief dependance for the success of such crops
as are not artificially watered. The spring falls are not confined to
the countries under our view, but north and west, extend to the east
coast of Arabia, a part at least of Syria, the Hellespont and Euxine,
and the Russian frontiers; towards india we find them tolerably
regular in the middle and lower Sindh, but in the latter they are
the less regarded, as they are of little use to agriculture, and in
quantity inferior to those of the summer. In the upper Sindh and in
Ja. yh
Mooltan respectively, the summer and spring rains are perhaps equal. —
In the year 1809, some considerable spring showers fell in Mooltan,
but in ordinary seasons this, like the preceding rains, is there but scan-
ty and uncertain. In Peshawur, Kohat, Malgun, Fesakhel, and Bun-
noo the spring is the chief rain of the year, the same is true of
Chhuchh, Huzara, Kushmeer, and perhaps Bukhlee, but in Pothwar it
is exceeded by the summer rain. We have seen that the latter dimi-
nishes as we proceed westwards. The spring rains, on the contrary,
diminish as we proceed eastwards from Peshawur. This law how-
ever is modified by others; and those of Kushmeer, as being a country
embosomed in hills, are more abundant than those of Peshawur. It is
difficult to fix the eastern limits of this rain. Within the great northern
mountains, and toa certain distance from their foot, it seems to extend
in ordinary seasons even to the banks of the Burmphootr, but in the
plains of India nothing remains of it but some thunder-storms accom-
panied with showers.
74. Within the limits in which it is regular it is more or less copious,
according to the season and place. Cabul receives more than Peshawur
or most parts of Khoorasan, and Fyzabad more than Cabul. In
Budukhshan, Durwaz, Keerategin, and the east of Toorkistan it is very
abundant, but in Yarkund very scanty. In different places as well asin
different seasons, there is some diversity in the season of this rain, but
it would be tedious to enumerate instances. In general most rain falls
in the month of March, but in some cases the heaviest showers are
at the end of February or month of April; rain in the month of May
in most of these countrie§is not to be considered as part of the spring
rains, but rather as accidental, and indeed unwelcome. In May 1806,
there fell in Cabul a heavy rain which did much damage. Where
‘
ee ee en
1839. ] Lieut. Irmin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 195
fruits are cultivated to a great extent. Rain in the summer is much
deprecated, yet in some parts of Toorkistan showers are neither un-
common nor unwelcome even in the end of May. Generally speak-
ing, May is a dry month in the countries under our view. June too
is dry, and where the rains of Hindoostan extend, the hottest. The
heat declines in August in both descriptions of countries. August is
in Peshawur a cloudy month, not a rainy, and is dry in all the coun-
tries west of the Indus, as is September. October is a dry month both
in India and in these countries. In high and mountainous situations
snow begins to fall in November, but the chief showers are in Decem-
ber and January.
75. Dews and mists are often little less important to the husband-
man than rains. They do not here attract much attention. They
are commonest in the autumnal months, or the beginning of winter,
and in the warm countries especially, if well watered and of a humid
soil. Mooltan and Sindh to the south, and Peshawur to the north,
seem the most noted for mists. The dews of Peshawur in August,
September, and October, are said to be heavy. In September the
people are induced from fear of the effects of the dews, as well as from
the chilliness, to cease sleeping on the terraces. The spring there is
more dewy than in Hindoostan. With respect to clouds and over-
cast weather, the cold countries have more than the warm. ‘The
atmosphere of Kushmeer is cloudy during a considerable part of
the year; May and June are its most sunny months, but in July,
when it begins to rain in the Punjab, the clouds extend to Kushmeer.
In the cold countries in general, clouds are observed to gather from
the beginning of October, preparatory to the snows, which are to
follow.
76. On the whole the vast tract here surveyed must be pronounced
to have a dry climate, whether we regard the quantity of moisture
which falls in the year, or the number of rainy days. The districts
which can be called humid are comparatively few and unimportant ;
the rains even of our Upper Provinces astonish the natives of Afghan-
istan. The spring rains are the chief in Peshawur, and the season
1809 was a favorable one, yet were there but seven days of heavy rain,
and four of light. It would be difficult to form an accurate scale
of the dryness and humidity of the various districts already enume..
rated, but a conjecture may be formed from the data already
given. Khoorasan is on the whole drier than those parts of Afghanis-
an not included within it. or than Toorkistan. Bulochistan is un-
doubtedly a dry climate. The west of Toorkistan is far drier than
o K
796 Lieut. Irwin’s Memorr of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
the east or south-east. Budukhshan, Durwaz, and Keerategin Budukh-
shan are more humid than Cabul, as is Kushmeer. The humidity of
Kushmeer adapts it for the production of rice, which however is there
raised chiefly by artificial watering, and ripens in the drier part of the
year. The dry and sunny summer of Cabul is favorable to the
delicate fruits of the cold and temperate climates, which are here
cultivated to a great extent and with much success, but in Kushmeer
the apple only can be commended. Within the limits of India there
is no place perhaps where less rain falls, and that little so irregular,
as the neighbourhood of Mooltan. This however is little regarded by
the farmer, who waters his khuruf crop from wells or canals drawn
from the river, and raises a proportion of his rubbee on the moist lands
which in the cold season the river has abandoned. Nor does the
scantiness of the rains imply a dry air. Mists have been already
mentioned as common there in the winter.
77. Having now mentioned in succession the altitudes of the
mountains, and their course, the slope and conformation of the land,
the sources of the rivers, the heat of the climates, and the periods
and quantities of the rains and snow, we may proceed to deduce from
these facts in combination the periods of the rising and falling of
the streams and rivers. Few considerations are more important to
the farmer and the traveller, or to armies.
78. In perfect plains in a warm climate we rarely find constant
streams to originate. The rains of such countries though copious,
are violent and of short duration. During the greater part of the
year no moisture falls. The rains of the rainy season are drained
off with a rapidity corresponding to their violence and their short
duration. In their passage they cut deep channels which are dry
during other parts of the year; such are very numerous in India,
and are by us called dry nullahs. After rain they are always in-
convenient to travellers, sometimes dangerous. Where they afford
a level higher than the neighbouring ground under tillage, they are
not without their use in agriculture, for by a little pains the water
they discharge may be turned upon the fields. ‘The Afghans are very
from them next to those which can be watered from constant streams,
and superior to such as receive no water but what falls on their —
own surface. A dry nullah is in Pushtoo called ‘ Khevur, and in |
the Hindhee of Peshawur and the west of the Punjab, ‘Kus. |
Even low hills in a warm climate usually give out but temporary |
streams. The snow which may fall on them soon melts, and the
sensible of their value, and reckon lands situated so as to be watered |
|
|
1839. ] Lieut. Irnin’s Memotr o7 Afghanistan. 197
springs which are found in them do not generally give out water.
It is therefore plain that the periods of such streams as may originate
in them must be the same as those of the rains and snows of the
country ; such are often of the greatest importance to the husbandry
of a little neighbourhood, but their fame does not pass beyond those
bounds. The Swan and Huro alone of this class are deserving of
mention. They seem to have no periods distinct from the rains in
the country, but their springs are sufficient to preserve them running
streams at all seasons until they gain the Indus, whereas most others
lose themselves, or are expended on the fields, in all seasons but the
rainy, and some do not in any season reach the sea or a river.
79. We every day hear of mountains so lofty as to be covered
with never melting snow. The expression construed in strictness
would lead to an erroneous conclusion, for, that ice or snow can
only remain unmelted which lies in a place whose temperature is
never above the freezing point, and few such can be found within
the habitable climates. Snow gradually disappears even during
a hard frost. Part it is true, is carried off by evaporation, but
part also is melted by the heat of the earth. The rivers of Swit-
zerland rise from under glaciers of solid ice. As the inferior snows
are gradually melted away, part of the upper also deprived of this
support, either gradually slide down the declivities, or fall in ava-
lanches, themselves to be melted in lower and warmer regions. ‘The
snow and ice are therefore perennial only because they are sup-
plied from time to time as fast as they are consumed. It is also evi-
dent from the same principles, that the fall of snow in winter must
in all cases have some tendency to augment the streams, since part
is forthwith melted by the heat of the earth. But where these
streams originate in hills of considerable altitudes, a far greater part
is as it were stored up for a warmer season, and according to the
degree of that altitude, and the cold consequent upon it, the season
of its melting is later or earlier. While the snows of the low hills
are rapidly melting by the warmth and the rains of March, it is at
the same time snowing on the high mountains, whose previous stores
are as yet unaffected by the weather. The increasing heat at length
dissolves them in the order of their altitude, the highest of all melting
at midsummer. It is therefore evident that as far as depends on the
melting of the snow, streams rising in low hills must be highest in the
spring, and streams rising in high hills in the summer ; and the periods
of the streams would thus be an index of the altitude of their sources.
But when a river is fed by the snows of both high and low hills, we
793 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Ocr.
cannot thus decide without adverting to other circumstances. If the
low hills be.extensive, the flood they occasion may surpass that arising
from the melting of the high snows, under which are situated the up-
permost sources of the river. If the river be highest in summer, we
may decide that it has lofty mountains at its head. This conclusion
however is just only when we put out of view the periods of the
rains, and decide from those of the thaws only. Both considerations
must be combined in our judgment in particular instances, to which
we now proceed.
80. The periods of the Indusand the rivers of the Punjab are nearly
the same as those of the Ganges and its tributary branches, which are
lowest in the winter, rise somewhat in the spring, and are highest in
the middle of August. ‘The rise in the great Ganges is perhaps gra-
dual, certain, and nearly of the same quantity in different years ; for
being fed by many streams one chance and anomoly corrects another,
but the same is not true of its branches, including the upper Ganges
itself. Theannual rise at Hurdwar is six or seven feet ; in the lower
part of Bengal above the influence of the tide, it is thirty-one. This
difference, may I believe, be shewn to be a consequence from the ge-
neral principles of hydrostatics ; it must therefore be supposed to exist
in the case of the Indus and its branches, for they also run in a
champaign country and yielding soil. My inquiries tend to confirm
this opinion. After rains of uncommon severity the rivers of the
Punjab sometimes rise to a great height ; the effect however is tem-
porary, and many seasons pass in which no such extraordinary floods
occur. The great Indus after the junction of the Punjnud is from
various causes less affected by local and temporary circumstances, but
its regular and annual rise is greater than that of any of its branches.
The branches have diversities among themselves not reducible under
one general rule, but caused by special circumstances. The Ranee,
which is the least of all the rivers, had yet in 1809 a rise equal to any
of them. When other circumstances are the same, streams which run
in sand increase more in breadth in their flood season, and those
which run in clay increase more in depth. The annual rise of the
great Indus I reckon about sixteen feet ; that of the Ganges is thirty-
one ; and of the Nile twenty-four. The proportion in which their waters
are respectively increased it would be more difficult to estimate. ‘The
same causes combine in the raising the Indus and its branches, and
the rivers of our provinces—that it both thaws and rains. The effects
in this respect are different, in that there is no inundation in the Pun-
jab or Sindh, for we cannot apply that term where the tracts covered
1839. ] Lieut. lrwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. 799
are insignificant in proportion to the whole surface. The character of
the Punjab is different from that of Bengal or Egypt. Instead of the
banks of the river being higher than the remoter country, the various
Doabs usually slope from their interior towards the rivers which
bound them. Low tracts are sometimes found, which after hedvy rains
are covered to some depth with water; but there is no general inun-
dation derived either from rain or from rivers, as in Bengal. The
surface of the Punjab, however, after excluding the country beyond
the Hydaspes, is lower above the level of its rivers than that of our
Upper Provinces in general, with respect to the rivers which run
in them.
61. The periods of the Cabul river where it joins the Indus are
nearly the same as those of it. It is lowest in the winter, notwith-
standing the rains of that season in the valley of Peshawur. It is
sensibly affected by the spring rains in February and March. It falls
after they have passed over, yet not to its level in the winter, for now
the snow of the lesser hills begins to thaw. At the end of May the
middle snows begin to descend, and after them the upper, which bring
the river to its greatest height at the beginning of August. We are to
attribute the effect in part to the rains, which fall at that period at
some of its sources (see paragraph 69.) Such is the history of the grand
streams, but there is a diversity of circumstances with respect to the
branches composing it. The Pech river swells early in spring, and .
declines from about the 28th of May. ‘The Punjkora river follows
nearly the same laws, though indeed heavy rain in the months of July
or August will cause it to reach its greatest height in those months.
The three streams in the valley of Cabul (see paragraph 36), the Lugh-
man river, the Kashkar, and the Swad, with the rivulets of Jellalabad
are highest in the month of July or August. The Bara is on the
whole the greatest in the spring, but it rises and falls very suddenly,
and very often according to the occurrence or cessation of rain in
Teera. The To is probably greatest in spring; the Koorm is greatest
in July or August, when it is swelled both by the Vuse (see paragraph
70) and by the thawing of the upper snows. The Gomul is perhaps
the highest at the same time.
82. The diminutive streams of Bulochistan and Seeweestan are in
general highest in the spring. The same is true of those found in the
western Khoorasan, the Turmuk, and the little streams of the Kakna,
Tureen, and Burch countries. Even those rivers which taking their
rise in the Paraparnisan flow into Khoorasan, reach their greatest
height during the periodical spring rains. The Helbund only which
800 Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. [ Ocr.
rises in the most elevated part of that ridge continues to increase after
that period. It perhaps reaches its acme the first week of June,
but I have received contradictory information on the subject. The
Murghab, and whatever streams are found in the Jumsheedee country,
in Mymuna, and Undkho, may be presumed to be highest in the
spring.
83. The Oxus and Jaxartes, and all their remaining branches which —
have been enumerated in the introduction, including the streams of
Bulkh, rise in the spring, but are highest in the summer, notwith-
standing the draught of that season. Some of the subordinate streams
are higher in spring than in summer, but they are considerable
enough to impart the same character to the principal ones into which
they discharge themselves. With respect to the Neelum, and the
rivers of Chinese Toorkistan, we know little beyond their names.
From circumstances it may be conjectured that they are higher in
summer than in spring.
Section 1V.—Of Salubrity.
84. I am able to offer but a few detached observations on this
subject. Its importance induces me not to pass it altogether in silence, —
although my opportunities have been small, and its natural difficulties
are very great. There are few subjects on which opinions are so con-
tradictory, and so many regular prejudices prevail. Medicine is at
a low ebb in the country, and its professors entertain many absurd
opinions respecting the original causes of disease, most of which they
deduce from the qualities they attribute to different species of food,
paying little regard to the operation of other causes, which among us
are considered as the most palpable and powerful. The doctrines of
Avicena are much followed, especially in Toorkistan. Physicians in
these countries are not liberally rewarded, and many are obliged to
travel from place to place in pursuit of a livelihood. These are chiefly
natives of Peshawur and its neighbourhood, and their travels are prin-
cipally confined to Toorkistan, which they visit on the opening of the
spring. Few orno natives of Toorkistan or Khoorasan pass into other
countries with such views. Some of these itinerants add the practice
of the ruml, and other occult arts, to their accomplishments. They
traverse great spaces, and being everywhere welcome, have the best
SS SSS Sg
1839. ] Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 801
means of observing the manners of the people, as well as the nature
of the country. Accordingly there are found among them many who
are stored with curious and useful information. In their own pro-
fession they seem to be judicious, according as they have more or less
discarded the absurd theories of their books, and proceeded on their
own observations, and the practical remarks current in the quarters
they have visited. Although surgery be on the whole in a low state,
there are some operations which are here performed with great
judgment. There are parts of the country in which continual strife
prevails, and wounds are generally received, and yet scarcely one
professed surgeon is to be found.
85. The Cabul Mission left Delhi on the 12th of October, 1808,
and arrived at Beekaneer on the 5th of November. During its stay
there many natives of the escort and camp followers were buried.
This was not attributable to the unhealthiness of the place or season,
but to some preceding circumstances,—severe marching in sand, bad
or indifferent water on the route, and great vicissitudes of heat and cold
between day and night in the month of October; but, above all, the
incautiously eating water-melons and drinking water after heat and
fatigue. In passing the desert some individuals were affected with
Nyktolopia, but by proper treatment they speedily recovered. Diseases
in Buhawulpoor, Mooltan, and Dera, and Ismaul-Khan are generally
the same as those of our provinces, with the addition of eye com-
plaints, which are comparatively rare in them. Coughs and catarrhs
are common in Buhawulpoor. The natives of the detachment ex-
perienced during their stay in this country, a cold somewhat greater
than that of their own. In the march to Peshawur they were ex-
posed to severe rain, cold, and fatigue, combined. In Peshawur they
were but ill accommodated, and exposed to heat and closeness, yet
during all this time they were never unhealthy. They marched
through the Punjab during the rains, a circumstance which far from
being unfavorable, probably preserved them in greater health than
they would have enjoyed if halted ; there is therefore no reason to
conclude the countries they passed through to be unhealthy for
strangers.
86. The water of the upper Punjab indeed, is celebrated both by na-
tives and strangers, and the climate vaunted as remarkably salubrious.
This boast is not altogether unjust, for here we find but little of the
eye complaints so common in similar climates to the west and south.
The Sikhs seem a healthy race, and there are found among them some
fine persons and faces. They appear built, however, more for activity
802 Lieut. Lrwvin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
than strength. They do not accustom themselves to foot service, and
probably could not undergo great fatigue except on horseback. This
is still more true of the natives of Toorkistan. Such is the plenty of
horses in that country, and so much are they reckoned a necessary of
life, that even beggars travel on horseback. The natives of Khoora-
san have a great aversion to foot service, and do not excel in that spe-
cies of travelling, in which the natives of India are generally acknow- —
ledged to surpass all their western neighbours. This is absurdly
attributed to their foot, when it can be more naturally deduced from
the state of their country and their mode of life. Among them none ~
are equal to the Bhutties, or people of Bhutner, where there are said to
be some who will travel 30 kos, and after robbing a village ora caravan
return the same distance without halting. The people of Hurreeana
are in this respect somewhat inferior, but are a robust nation, and in ©
bravery surpass all their neighbours. Being now under our Govern. ©
ment, it behoves us to consider how we shall make use of these qua-
lities, or at least prevent them from being turned against us by an
enemy. The hill tribes among the Afghans, and others, excel in
climbing and in travelling among mountains. The Khyburees are —
employed in hill warfare as far east as Kot-Kangra, which is situated
near the right bank of the Hyphasis before it leaves the mountains ;
but the Kohistanees are reckoned to excel all others in such operations,
and have been known to fight well evenin the plain. It isa common
observation in the country, that the inhabitants of hills make little
figure in war when they venture into the plains, and during the late
broils more than one instance has occurred to confirm it. None is
more striking than the defeat of Shooja-ool- Moolk, when in the spring
of 1802 he brought a force of Khyburees against Peshawur. It is
said their inability to bear the heat of the climate was the chief
cause of their discomfiture, which terminated in many of them dy-
ing of thirst. Thenatives of the cold and temperate climates express the
utmost dislike to the summer heat of that of the warm, but their im-
patience under it is not always in proportion to the coldness of their
native places. The Cabulies support it better than the hill
Afghans, or even the Dooranees, whose climate is much warmer than
Cabul. This part of the Dooranee character has been very manifest in
their history, and productive of important effects. The Persians,
though inferior in courage, excel them in steadiness, another good qua-
lity of a soldier, and bear the extremities of heat and cold with equal
patience. The poverty, ingenuity, and enterprising disposition of the
Kushmeerees annually disperse considerable numbers of that nation
eo i See ee
a
i TT
1839. ] Lieut. Irwvin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. 803
over the greatest variety of climates ; and in pursuit of gain, they seem
little to regard the heat or cold to be endured.
87. The natives of the warm climates do not manifest the same im-
patience of the winter cold climates; on the contrary, Cabul and Kush-
meer are the theme of their praises. It seems doubtful whether this
quality of the warm climates, by which those born in them are
adapted to both species of climates, can be brought forward more
in their commendation, or as an argument of their being plainly
inferior to the others. It will be found generally true, that in cold
elimates there are more numerous diseases, perhaps more unhealthi-
ness; but the natives are more robust and enjoy longer life. In these
countries it is remarked that the hair sooner turns grey, and life
is shorter in the warmer districts ; eye complaints, moreover, are most
common in them. When known in the cold, they usually proceed
from travellers having exposed themselves to the glare of the snows ;
but the summer is the season of this complaint in the warm districts.
Even those patients in whom they have become chronic, feel a re-
mission of their pains in winter. ‘The natives have no rational theory
to account why they are more prevalent in some warm countries
than in others. Because they affect moist districts rather than dry,
these theorists maintain them to arise from the eating of rice, not
adverting that they are not peculiarly severe in Kushmeer, and that
there are places in which, though rice be the chief food, they are rare-
ly known. It is a singular fact that ophthalmia begins to be common
where the summer rains of India become scanty and uncertain. Iam
inclined to be of opinion with Volney, that it is caused by the dews
i and breezes to which those who sleep on the terraces expose them-
selves.
88. Fever is an universal complaint. Fevers are most common at
the equinoxes, but those of the spring are generally of the hot species,
where agues and low fevers prevail in the autumn—which, on the
whole, is the unhealthiest season of the year. The former species of fe-
vers are commoner in the cold than in the warm districts, and the re-
verse is true of the latter. The effusion of cold water in the paroxysms of
hot fevers, though practised in Persia for ages, is here unknown, except
to the Kafirs. It is a general practice to take purging medicines and
to draw blood in the spring. Under another subject (see para. 51 and
58) a few places have been mentioned as unhealthy ; there now remain
very few to be added. There are many diseases in Kushmeer, a fact less
_ Owing to an unhealthy air than to filthiness, poverty, and the degraded
| condition of the inhabitants. The Kashmeerees are at the same time
OL
804 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Ocr.
a robust race, and excelled by none in carrying burdens over moun-
tains. The Huzaras and Oozbucks, especially the former, are broad
in their persons, and strong. The water drawn in the interior of
Cabul disagrees with strangers, and there is a good deal of sickness
among the poor by reason of their being ill accommodated, and the
town too closely built, otherwise the climate is not unhealthy, and
Peshawur is not inferior to it. Scrofula, a complaint little known in
India, is not uncommon.among the Daoodzyes, and some other tribes.
89. Khoorasan is undoubtedly a healthy country ; and in Toorkistan
we can name only a few situations which deserve to be called un-
healthy. The most remarkable is Bulkh, which is afflicted with eye-
camplaints, all species of fevers, consumptions, the Guinea-worm, 4
dropsy, and many other diseases; yet some of its villages have a good
air. The most remarkable complaint of Bokhara is the Guinea-worm,
which appears in some other situations in the east of Toorkistan and
Bactria, in some villages of Candahar, in certain parts of Huzara and
of the Pahar-turee of our provinces (see paragraph 71), in Hureeana
Haroutee, and many other quarters of India. In all cases it is com-
monly ascribed to the quality of the water. In Toorkistan the inhabi-
tants of those cities in which it is most prevalent drink from tanks, the
water of which is only occasionally renewed. Where running water
is to be had the disease disappears; yet I have heard it pretended if
that there is something in the air of Bokhara which occasions it, and
a pleasing story is told of a certain Moolla who was sceptical in this
particular. Being persuaded the water only was to blame, he resolved
to use none but that of water-melons, and confidently expected to
escape ; but before he had passed a year in Bokhara he had a number
of worms extracted from his body. The only other local complaints
deserving of mention is the Goitre, which is now supposed to be the
consequence of drinking water impregnated with certain minerals;
it is not unknown in Bactria, but its chief seats are the banks of the |
Kishun Gunga, Sirn, and Pech. The waters of the Uba Seen have
somewhat of the same bad quality, and Goitres are common in certain |
parts of the Gukhur and Khatir countries. It is asserted, that on the
banks of the Pech even the dogs and tame birds are affected.
(To be continued. )
Bh.
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 5009
Art. Il.— March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838.
Many of the places visited in this journey, were unavoidably visit-
ed (it may be almost said) at a gallop; the descriptions are not
therefore offered as minute and faultless details, but rather as sketches
claiming every indulgence; whose aim is to stimulate the curiosity of
future travellers over the same ground, who may have more leisure
to pursue the inquiry. Some apology seems also necessary for the
digressive nature of the notes. Their best excuse will be their prov-
ing either interesting or instructive. Nothing was observed worth
noticing till the fourth march,—unless we except a warm spring* be-
tween Duttoda and Oouchade, known by the name of the “ Kiaura
Koond” from a few of the so-called trees, whose flowers perfume its
banks, and which give a title to a Ling temple near it, ‘““Kioureswar.”
Some time after leaving Akberpoor, the road crosses a range of low
wooded hills, issuing from which the small village of Kurnawud
is seen, half-hidden in foliage on the right. It boasts itself to derive its
name and origin from one who plays a conspicuous part in the
* Bharut,” the ear-born son of Kunti—the 6th Pandoo—the gallant and
generous Kurun. Not content with the wonderful adventures of
which he is the hero in ‘‘the great war,” the inhabitants of the vici-
- nity possess a goodly store of silly local cheritras regarding him, which
they eagerly recite, and believe with perhaps a more lively faith, than
will elicit from them the more orthodox, but less familiar, fables of
Vyasu. One of the legends they told us, was that which is found in
Conolly’s overland journey,t and the others were ofa like stamp. <A
Ling temple close to the village, honored by the name of the hero, ap-
pears—the lower part of it at least—to be of considerable antiquity ;
though a plastered roof now covers the Subha, and a modern brick
dome supplies the place of the doubtless once pyramidal Sikra; the
* Springs of this kind are not uncommon in the offsets of the Vindhya. They rarely
are of higher temperature than 8U°, and have no remarkable chemical properties.
+ Vol. ii. page 286, The story is however not in the Bhagawut. It may possibly
_ be found in the “‘ Kurun Upakian.’’ A Baslia poem, the ‘‘ Gurb Chintamani’”’ des-
cribing the inconstancy of human glory, thus speaks of Kurun’s charity, and his end,
In popular doggrel—
Raja Kurun bihoto Death has seized as his prey
Kunchun khatma deto Kurun, who lavished gold ;
He nur murgya chun me Like a spark he passed away ;
Dera kuryya bun me. His grave is in the world.
806 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [ Ocr.
fragments of which lie scattered around. Among the ruins may be ~
observed a mutilated horse and rider, which perhaps represented Raja
Kurun and his steed ; a large female bust with three faces; and a 4
head, the size of life, (we searched and inquired in vain for the trunk), _
having the thick lips and curly looking hair of a Budhist or Jain
saint. The latter we incline to believe, since the Jain faith, as will be
presently seen, was formerly very prevalent in this neighbourhood, —
and no traces of Budhism were observed; unless the trimukhi be ~
assigned to that sect,—as are by some,* the celebrated érzmurtis of *
Elephanta, &c. An Indian Budh too, may generally, (perhaps not
invariably,) be distinguishedt from that of a T7rthawkur by its more —
elaborate ornaments.{ There is usually on the crown of the first, —
a knot which resembles hair collected into a knob; but this knot is
often changed into an ornament, evidently attached to a cap,§ probably : :
in some cases made of hair; and which, fitted tight to the skull, cover-
ing the bald shaven head, with which Budh priests are so often
twitted by Hindoo dramatists.|| Thus in the “Prabodha Chandu Udaya’
(see Wilson’s Theatre) Soma Siddhanta calls the Budh, “thou un-
combed one.” The Budh head-dress is indeed most changeable; but —
the Jain twenty-four are almost invariably imaged, wearing only the _
non-increasing locks which forms one of their a/ésyas :{] these, they are
* Quar. Oriental Journ. No. 14, page 219. Several female trimurtis are figured
in Raffles’ Java.
+ There is seldom any difficulty in deciding whether a perfect image is Jain or a
Budh, though some of the tests recommended are of questionable value. Wilson says,
As. Rs. 16; 457, “It is more common to find Jain pontifis shaded by the snake.”’ 3
Now, though many Budhs, (T.R.A.S. 3; 481—As. Rs. 16; 458 plate—Crawford’s
Siam, 109—Davy’s Ceylon, 468, &c.) and inferior Jain deities, are thus sheltered—
Parusnath alone of the Tirthaukurs is shaded by the Nag; and even he is sometimes a
represented without the hood,—the snake being merely carved at his feet, as the San-
chun, or distinguishing mark. Perhaps one of the best tests is the ‘* Sri Butch,’’ which es
(here at least) is carved on the breast (butchus, the chest) of every Jain image. We Bs
have never remarked this symbol so placed on a Budh statue. i
{ Prinsep says the contrary (J.A.S. 5; 485), but the Budh head-dress is not Pe
certainly ‘ simple.’ =
§ See the drawings of the Dhyani Budhs, Bombay Trans. vol. 2; or As. Rs. vol. 16. :
|| The shaving of the head among the Hindoos was infamy, As. Rs. 17; 616. That
Budh was shaved, we may judge from the curious pantomime practised in Ceylon, “ |
Davy 125. Among the living representatives of the saint there would appear to be no hi.
fixed rule, as in Du Halde, vol. 2, one Sama is described as having the head shaved, |
another with curly locks.
4 A. R.17; 247, In the only list of atisyas at hand, that in the Sri Pal Cheritra,
the curling of the locks is not included. Wilson’s authority was probably different,
1839. | March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 807
often described in their Shastrus as pulling out by handsful: and some -
Jain pundits have even assured me, that what appears like hair on
their statues, is not intended to represent hair, but the naked scalp
thus forcibly deprived of it.* Jain saints, however, like the Budhs,
sometimes wear a mookhut.
On a pilaster to the right, as you enter the temple, is a rudely cut
inscription, from which it is to be feared but little light will be thrown
on the history of the place ; as it merely records, and that indistinctly,
the grant during the reign of the liberal and wise Deva Pal, of ground
for twenty temples to one Yusheek Pal. The date, a.p. 1158, isa
dark period in Malwa history : and Deva Pal, whose name is not to be
found in the list of kings, was probably some petty chief, who in those
days of anarchy and confusion, raised himself to temporary conse-
quence in this wild part of the country.
Peeplia, three miles from Kurnawud, contains no antiquities, and
but one place worth visiting—a Digumbir Jain temple ; which as the
place is under the tolerant rule of a Rajpoot, (the Raja of Baglee),
occupies a conspicuous position in the Bazar, instead of being concealed,
as in a Mahratta town, in some obscure alley. It may be here noticed
that from this to Saugor, the Jains are chiefly Digumbir, consisting,
for the most part, of Pudmavati Pwawurs; which Ginatt is entirely of
that class. Switumbirs, as elsewhere remarked, are more commonly
met with round Ougein.}
From Peeplia a road strikes off to Hoshungabad, and the report of
antiquities at the first march induced us to deviate so far. We found
* Modern Jain priests, as far as I can learn, have no fixed rule of wearing their
hair. They generally shave it in front, and allow it to grow long behind. But Dhoon-
dias, Soomegis, and a few Gooroos and Juttes eradicate the hair, though not in the
Panch Mooshti fashion of their ancestors, only plucking them out occasionally, as for
instance once a year, tenderly, and one by one. Budh priests have, if I mistake not, in
all countries always shaved their heads, Davy 296, 210, 219. Carous, Japan, Crawford,
Mandeus, M. Polo 253 and note. When a Jutti adopts achela he shaves all the hair off
the child’s head, except one lock, which it is the Gooroo’s part to pull out (dachun.)
The Digumbir sannyasis of the south never shave A. R. 9. 284.
; MVATA So vulgarly spelt and pronounced. Miles writes the word Nat: Tod,
Nyat : Sanscrit arfa.
} That is taking Ougein as a centre, and giving the circle a radius of forty miles: but
north of Ougein, Visnooi Buniahs outnumber the Jains. From Rutlam the Digumbirs
begin to increase ; and from Banswarra to the Aravulli, hardly any other tribe is to be
met with but Digumbir Hoomurs. Guzerat, Marwar, and north Mewar are the chief
seats of the Switumbirs.
808 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. | Ocr.
however, only some Jain statues, eight or ten feet high, a few lying in
the miserable village ; the best on the top of a hill, which overhangs
it. The temples which once sheltered them, of which there were the
ruins of three or four on the hill, have long been thrown down ; but we
could calculate their age with sufficient precision ; for, though the
weather-worn inscriptions on the plinths of the statues were illegible,
the date 11th or perhaps 12th could be traced. We made out but one
Sanchun, the deer of Santinath.*
Whether these images are Digumbir or Switumbir, it is impossible
to say, for all statues of the twenty-four are Digumbir, or at least 3
naked. Some Switumbirs indeed pretend that ¢hedr statues may be
detected by a string (Kundora) round the loins—a doubtful proof,
since the wrinkles of the belly are very likely to be mistaken for it.
All,t whether Digumbir, or Switumbir, have as before remarked, the
Sri butch,{ with which mark the future Tirthaukur is said to be
distinguished at his birth. In fact there is not any positive distinction
between the undressed images, as is proved by some of them—the cele-
brated Rikhabnath near Doongerpoor for instance—being claimed by
both sects. Tod’s remark (Raj. 2; 744) which seems to argue the
contrary, may be safely taken as a flourish.
Though the antiquities of Bijwar proved so little interesting, the
excursion was altogether pleasant enough. One of our party, a Jutti,
was in high delight as we neared his native place Baglee, which he
had not visited for twenty years, though he had been all that time
at Indore. It was amusing to watch the eagerness, with which
he recognized every old hut, mata, or tree, to most of which some a
* The Sanchun is frequently omitted on old Jain statues, and sometimes, but more
rarely, on modern ones. In such cases the saint represented must be guessed at.
+ It must be confessed, however, that the Digumbir figures As. Rs. vol. 9, are
without it.
t The Svi butch, which is generally painted as a flower, but carved on an image as
if a square C7 is one of the Jain Asht Mungliks, or eight auspicious symbols, which
slightly differ from those of the Budhs. As. R. 16, 460. They are represented in drawing
(A.) acopy from a small brass table, sometimes placed before a saint, as a kind of altar.
It was picked up by me ata fair, from the miscellaneous rubbish of a Bohra’s shop, and — 4
may have been plundered from some old temple. At the back is scratched the date 1167. _
The signs, according to the Jiva Bhagawut Sutra, 3rd Kund, are the,—Ist Swastica,—
2nd Sri Butch,—3rd Nandivertha,—4th Censer,—5th ‘Throne,—6th Kullus, (or water)
—or 7th the Fish,—8th Looking-glass. The Sri Butch occasionally carved on images
of Krishna seems somewhat different from the Jain mark,—if indeed I mistake not in
supposing the former to be synonymous with the Briguluta, As. R. 16, 461; Prem
Sagur 88,
|
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 809
tradition was attached, or a story of the bad old times of the Pindaries.
He shewed us, znvéer alia, after much searching, an old Mhowa tree
by the road side, the hollow trunk of which was full of water. This he
challenged us to empty. ‘“ Fill your lotas,” he cried out triumphantly,
(for we had often before received rather incredulously his tales of this
very tree) “ fill your lotas all day long, and there will still remain a cup-
ful for the next comer.” As the water is sweet, and the hole covered, a
spring perhaps rises under this new species of Arbre voyageur. A similar
reservoir is described in the Journal of the Bor Khampti expedition.
The Raja of Baglee honored us with a visit, and finding that we
were curious.in such matters, gave a short sketch of his history, and
desired the Kool Gooroo, to extract from his papers, any thing they
might contain regarding the family. The Raja would seem from his
putravali to be a Champawut* Rahtore. We could not learn the date
of the emigration of his ancestors: and indeed the history of the family
is but a barren list of names, till we come to Kakul Das; who, in the
middle of the last century, served with a few followers under the Bho-
pal Nawaubs.
The popular account, of how the strangers first obtained land,
appears more romantic than probable. The Nuwaub stuck some very
small object, (tradition says a peppercorn,) on the top of a pole, and
offered a reward, for whoever should knock it off, without hitting the
pole. All having failed, Suktawut Gee, the wife of Salim Sing, the
youngest son of Kokul Das’ four sons, stepped out, and at the first
shot performed the feat: for this, the village of Bamun Kheri was
given to her in enam. Baglee, three coss from Bamun Kheri, was at
this time in the possession of a Chohan Grassya, named Banki Rao ;
who instead of attending to his interests, amused himself daily with
boating on a tank, about a mile from Baglee, called the Koomptalao.
Salim Sing, taking advantage of this negligence, attacked and took the
fort, while its master was absent ; and though the expelled chief made
one desperate effort to recover it, he was driven back, and the Rah-
tores have ever since kept the place-t To confirm their power they
* The Gooroo’s tables commence with ten names prior to Jya Chund, the last king
of Canoge; none of which, except the penult have any resemblance to those in Tod’s:
list, or in the new lists elicited from coins, &e. Two princes, Birda Sing and Jutaran,
connect Jya Chund with Seoji; from whom, to Rinmull the names, (allowing for provin-
-cial spelling, ) strictly correspond with Tod. After Rinmull, comes his third son Champa,
from whose time, the catalogue is evidently defective,—seven names occupying a period
of more than 300 years.
¢ The tumed-out Grassya’s family still reside, I am told, at Mukhsi, a celebrated
Jain Tiruth near Ougein, and receive through our mediation some small annuity.
«
810 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. LOcr.
offered themselves as tributaries to Scindia, and with the usual
activity of new settlers, soon cleared away large tracts of the forest ; so
that when we came to the country, about sixty years* after the first
conquest, they were lords of as many villages. The present Raja,
Bheem Sing, is the son of Salim Sing.
From Bijwar, Ashta may be reached by a difficult pass over a range
of hills of considerable height. At a village called Magherda, half
way, a few handsome Jain statues have been collected and enshrined —
in a low walled court, some fourteen feet square ; where they are
worshipped by the ignorant piety of the villagers as mafas.. The —
court we should have supposed to be a “ bettu’” (A. R. 9; 285), did —
not that description of temple seem to be peculiar to the Jains of the
south. On one of the stones of the wall, there was an inscription in —
modern Nagari. It was placed at an inconvenient height, and as we
were pressed for time, and it evidently contained no date, we did not
copy it. The image, which misled the inhabitants of the village, was
doubtless a Pudmavati;+ who occupies the principal place, while
Santinath and some other saints, sit around her ; nor could the rustics
be expected to know whom this figure represented : for, as is worthy of
remark, the lesser Jain deities are rarely to be found amongst ancient
ruins; inducing the belief, that their admittance into temples is a a
modern innovation. gy
The name of “Deo Burno,’ the Hill of Gods, and the hope-
inspiring intelligence of a large “‘ Kumbh,” tempted us to make arun
from Ashta toa village named Belpan, about fourteen miles north-west __
of it, and situated close to the boasted Tiruth. On this spot we were
assured we should literally find one mass of deities, “‘ tantum statua-
rum ut alter populus lapidens videretur’—and to give us some notion
of the number of the images, (many of which were said to be milk-
maids, turned into stone while milking), they borrowed a fable very
popular at Kasi; where you are told that one maund of rice will not
suffice the worshipper, who should wish to drop only one grain at
each shrine.
* The exact date of the taking of the fort we could not learn; they said the begin- a
ning of the current Sumvut.
+ Pudmavati you are acquainted with from a notice in the T.R.A.S. but of the
forms and legends of the numerous Dii minores of the Jain Pantheon very little seems 4)
to be known. It is however very necessary to be aw fait on these subjects before |
visiting Jain temples, as they are frequently covered with mythological paintings.
I had proposed giving some account of the more common ones, but fear I must now
abandon the design. ‘They might possibly have been useful in decyphering the anci-
ent Budh paintings. :
1839. | March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 811
Of course this report, like every such report, was fabulous. All we
saw on the hill, were a few Vishnooi ruins, temples, and broken
statues ; some of the latter however exquisitely carved. The supposed
milk-maids we found to be a mutilated group of Dytes and Deotas
churning the ocean, with mount Mundar and Vasooki. The only
temple at present in preservation, or hallowed, is a cave,—from the
floor of which, a languid spring issues, filling a small square tank built
about it. The water was muddy and not drinkable: but the fount,
we were told, sometimes supplied a sweeter beverage,—the pilgrims
who assemble here once or twice in the year using no other. Some
of the sculptures of the cave, (now sacred to Sheo,) perhaps indicate
that it had once been dedicated to Vishnoo,—a very common metamor-
phosis in South Malwa, seeming to prove the priority of the latter
worship in these parts. The Kumbh was merely a large Jain statue
at the foot of the hill. |
Ata village called Gundawul, about five coss from Belpan, there
are several ruined Jain temples, two or three large Jain images,
called here by the deceptive name of Kumbh, and a Ling mundir,
in which stands an image of Gundrub Sein in his human shape, with
an ass’s head ; there too Vishnoo seems formerly to have reigned,
from the sculptures of the Autars about the temple. These places are
worth visiting, were it only for the fine bur trees which luxuriate in
every village.
The sight of these was the more pleasing, in consequence of their
scarcity in the higher ground about Mhow ; whilst in this neighbour-
hood they are remarkable for their size and beauty. In the latter
quality, one at Newri is said to bear the palm; and another at
Untralo near Ashta is very celebrated—but the largest forms the
boast of Belpan; though very lofty it already covers a space of 400
paces, and will doubtless spread much further—for remarking that it
had encroached on a field, we said to the owner, who was weeding,
“You must lop off some of the branches of this tree, or your khét
will be destroyed.” ‘“‘ By no means,” he replied, “ ’Tis a God, and
walks where it lists.”
In the villages of this neighbourhood, you meet with a great
variety of Rajpoot tribes,—Bhattis, Seesodias, Solankes, &c. ; a fact ac-
counted for, by the matrimonial custom of a foreign bride being attend-
ed by a few of her brethren, who follow her fortunes, and settle in
the country of her husband. It is, to me, quite inexplicable, how in
the confusion of names, the Rajpoot crime of incest can be avoided ;
since (not to mention the Sachas) many of the minor branches even
5 ™M
812 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [ Ocr.
the Otes and Awuts of the great families, are constantly confounded
with their roots, and you will hardly ever get a list of the so-called
36, froma Bhat of this quarter, without his including in it the Chon-
dawuts and Suktawuts, and increasing the number of names to 50, 60,
or more. The most respectable of these classes themselves, petty rajas,
potails, &c. are in the highest degree ignorant of their heraldry,—pre-
senting in this respect a striking contrast to the purer Rajpoots of
Mewar; a large proportion of whom have the gotra acharya at their
finger ends; while many will repeat the names of their ancestors for
ages back.*
From Ashta to Sehore we found nothing deserving mention ; but the’
antiquity ascribed by Tod to Bhopal, stimulated our zeal to search for
Budh relics: and we began to indulge in visions of success, on finding
a statue of that sect by the road side, half way between Sehore and
Bhopal—and on being told, that the hills round the city abounded in
caves, in some of which we should find inscriptions: yet, after all, our
hopes were not realized. The inscriptions in the caves, which were
all in modern Nagari, proved to be chiefly dates, names, and prenams,
excepting a few of greater Jength; only one of which however was at
all decypherable.t The caves, mere cavities without carving, have
a few of them been walled in and inhabited. In one near the old fort,
a fakir lately made himself a very cosey dwelling place ; but the super-
stitious women of the town so pestered him, that he fairly ran away
from them. i
The first impression of a stranger on visiting the city, will be by no
means a favourable one. It is entered,—either by a hard, uneven, rocky
way (road it cannot be called) with considerable risk to one’s horse’s
knees,—or through heavy sand and mud ; for the sandstone when once
broken, soon crumbles to dust, and no one will take the trouble of
making a firm road, from the trap and kankur which might be easily
brought from the neighbourhood. Being built on a hill, there is hard-— m|
ly a public level space in the whole town, with the exception of a
spot used as a manége, little bigger than a London riding school ;
and the narrow streets are choked with dirt.
* Some of the Jain heads of colleges have astonishing memories on these matters,
and assisted by a Memoria Technica will repeat such long lists of names—of their.
acharyas for instance, or the minute divisions of the ginats—and such whole volumes
of verse and prose, as to reconcile our faith to the almost incredible accounts of the
oral preservation of their learning, by the Budhs, the Druids, and the Greeks.
t Insc: No 2. Itis hardly worth sending, but to shew the modern character.
ee
es SS oe, ae PS eee
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 813
The city however, especially if viewed from a height, has a remark-
ably lively and pleasing appearance: white terraced palaces, and
the light domes and minarets of mosques and tombs, peer above the
houses in every direction. The rock-bound lake washes the town,
and little outworks from the fort, (which has perhaps more of beauty
than of strength)* stretch to the water’s brink, and add much to the
picturesque of the scene. Nor must we forget to notice the gardens
filled with fine trees, and the really splendid baolees, containing nu-
merous shady apartments for the convenience of the traveller. Some
of the mosques, &c. may in after times yield matter for the antiquary :
“for, the Mussulman,—“ non in alia re damnosior quam in edificando’—
not content with mutilating the detested images, is every day using
them as material for his buildings, turning the sculptured part with-
in.t <A few days before our arrival, a stone tablet from some old
temple, in the neighbourhood, containing, it is said, a long inscription,
was buried under the foundation of a splendid musjed which the
Begum is erecting :{ another slab was about to suffer a similar fate,—-
the authors of the sacrilege being in this last instance Jains, but a
copy of the inscription was taken before its consignment to earth.
Captain Burt has I believe sent it you.§ As Bhopal is encircled
with ruined towns, thefts of this nature are committed very generally
by all classes, stones being frequently brought from so great a distance
as Bhojpoor.
We could not visit all these ruins; so we preferred passing by Shums-
gur, from which the two dzjeks above alluded to were brought, and
which as the nearest to the city, has been the common quarry for
ages. We set out in high hopes, for a village, (of which the name has
escaped me,) about eleven miles off; which was fabled to possess a
marble stone,— Heaven knows, how many yards square,—covered all
over with writing. On arriving at the place, the stone was not to be
found ; and though we teased every soul in the village with questions,
* Both the fort and citadel are contemptible as fortifications, spite of the famous
siege.
¢ A common practice, J.A.S. 3; 618. Mrs. Meer Hussun, 2; 138, &c.
t A buniah who had seen it, consoled us by the assurance that it was about 6 or 700
years old, and related to some Raja or town named Bid (?). That he could read it at all
—proves that it was modern.
§ A fragment (No. 3.) that you may verify it is forwarded. We delayed taking a
facsimile till our return from Saugor, in the interim a piece which had been chipped off
one corner, was lost. We can make no sense of it, though the letters seem plain
enough,
814 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [ Oct.
no one had ever heard of such a thing. Bhojpoor, four miles further
on, was, according to Tod, an ancient Policity ; the present name must
therefore be modern, and is probably derived,—not from the more an-
cient Bhoj, of whom the old song tells
‘¢ Rajah Bhojho bari
Vedya Jan to sari’’—
but from his scarcely less celebrated namesake—the historical puz-
zle—the father of Udayaditya.* In support of this supposition, we
have the following traditionary fragment—here in every one’s mouth—
which at least proves, that the only building of consequence at Bhoj-.
poor, was erected at about the period of this later Bhoj, and not im- _
probably to his honor, by his son Udayaditya. It sounds like broken
verse, but we could never get the couplet completed.
Muchalpoor ka baolee our Bhojpore ka kumbh,
Udayapoor ka dehura (were built by one man, )
:
Now for the architect of the temple of Udayapur, we have, as will
be presently seen, the certain date of a. p. 1049, and there isin the
buildings themselves (in the two at least which I have seen) a certain r
conformity in boldness and grandeur of design, justifying the tradition, __
which attributes them to one master mind.
The temple of Bhojpoor would be admired in any country. In the
centre of a lofty chamber, about thirty-five or forty feet square,t
whose light and elegant dome is supported on the four far famed
kumbhas, and on a handsome pedestal, stands Deus Loci, a Ling. |
It is the peculiar excellence of this building that though the whole
is of massive form and material, the parts have been so nicely propor-
tioned and blended together, that it presents an admirable appearance
of combined solidity and airiness. Thus for instance, the platform
of the Ling is 214 feet square, and about ¢en feet high—a bulk, which
if solid, would be out of all proportion to the size of the temple; but
the architect has escaped this reproach, by simply giving it a light and
elegant shape. The sketch, though from memory, will serve to explain
the plan of it: the lower table is formed of four stones, so neatly fitted i
together without cement, that it is a point of faith in the neighbour-
;
* We postpone our remarks on this riddle, till we shall reach Udayapur, where
there is a long inscription bearing upon the question—but not deciding it. Since
writing this, the inscription has been noticed, J. A. S. 7: 1056. I cannot at this place
refer to the original to redeem my pledge.
¢ Some of my pencil notes of this place are effaced, the doubtful measurements are
therefore put in italics, the others in figures.
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, \838. 815
hood to believe them one huge slab. The two upper stories, (if they
may be so called,) are similarly composed, and are but little, if at all,
less in size; but I need hardly point out, how much the rounding
of the edges, and the consequent cushion-like appearance, and even
the ornaments at the corners of the upper table, relieve the heaviness,
which would seem inseparable from such large blocks of stone. The
idol is reached by steps, which being on one side, and half concealed by
one of the pillars as you enter, do not detract from the effect of the
coup di; and this noble and seemingly insulated throne of rock,
crowned by a Ling 74 feet high and 17 feet 8 inches in circumference,
‘so well accords with the dark pillars which bound it, that it can
hardly fail to impose on the approaching worshipper a mixed feeling
of awe and admiration. The art of the architect is again displayed
in the pillars. It was desirable to adapt them, in some measure, to the
necessarily confined boundary of walls, without detracting from their
solid grandeur. ‘This has been effected in an ingenious manner. The
_ shaft, (which, if I remember rightly,) rises from a base s¢a feet square,
is divided into three nearly equal sections. Of these the lower is an oc-
tagon, each of whose sides measures 21 feet; the sides of the second,
also an octagon, are somewhat*narrower, or about 2} feet; the third
has 24 sides, of a little Jess than 2 feet ; so that the pillars have the ap-
pearance of tapering, while in reality they are nearly of the same thick-
ness throughout. Even after this, the pillars would have but a gloomy
look, were it not for the door-way, which, unlike the usual entrance to
a temple, occupies nearly the whole of one of the sides of the square.
This entrance, it is true, seems to have been enlarged by violence, but
it was evidently from the first, lofty and spacious.
The simplicity,—which has been religiously preserved in the walls of
hewn stone, in the unornamented pillars, and the plain pedestal of the
Ling,—was exchanged in the upper part of the temple for rich and ela-
borate carving. ‘The dome seems to have been one mass of ornament.
I say seems, for alas the barbarian has not spared this beautiful strue-
ture, and all that remains of the roof are the sculptured edges. Under
the shelter of this fragment, a mere narrow rim, and clustering on the
projecting cornices, numerous families of bees have taken up their
abode, whose never-silent humming, re-echoed from the hollows,
struck me as in melancholy unison with the solemnruin. We counted
no less than fifty-two of their black nests. Never robbed of their honey,
and accustomed to the crowds, who at certain seasons assemble to pay
their devotions to Bhojeswar, these insects are not the least alarmed
or irritated by the noise of strangers, nor even by smoke, to which bees
816 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. ([Ocr.
eo
3
are in general so averse ; and though at first, it is not a little alarming q
to find them falling every instant on your face and person, as they get q
disabled in their constant battles above; yet they never sting, and —
you soon become accustomed to their buzzing around, and crawling —
about you. If once provoked however, their vengeance is dreadful ;
and the chief of a Math of Gosains attached to the temple, assured me —
that on some few occasions when this has happened, it was not safe to
approach the place for days. He likewise hinted that if a persecutor ;
of their master approached the Ling, Mahadeo’s Fouj would instantly —
detect him, and probably sting him to death. A Moonshi with us had —
laughed at the story; but just at this moment the wind grew high,
and the scattered insects were blown about our faces in hundreds: our
Mussulman friend evidently thought they had found him out, and *
much to our amusement, and most especially that of the Mahunt, we —
observed him quietly stealing off, and saluted him with a peal of
laughter.
The Gosains of the Math, above alluded to, reside ina small court in 3 ;
front of the temple. As usual in these monasteries they were very civil
and communicative, and though now poor,* (the few lands on which ~_
they have rights affording little else but pasturage,) boasted largely
of their former fortunes, and assured us that the establishment was of a
very ancient date; an assertion in some measure borne out by several
venerable looking Samadhs, the graves of former Mahunts. They pre-
tend indeed that the Apsara was founded by Bhoj, or that at least it
was coeval with the temple; which claims may not be credited, but
cannot be disproved,—all the papers and grants of the Society having
been lost (in a fire, I think) many years ago; which ee the ques-
tion in a convenient uncertainty.T
Bhojpoor is at present a small poor village of mud huts, and if we
may judge from the scantiness of its ruins, was never a town of any
size or consequence. The only building worth visiting besides Bho-
jeswar, is a Jain temple, remarkable for an image twenty feet high.
Statues, of such large dimensions are approached, to be worshipped, by “a
stone steps, which are built close to the wall on either side of the
* J think the Mahunt calculated the yearly value of the lands at 750 rupees ; the ac-
tual members of the establishment are about 30,—the residents not more than 10 or 12.
¢ Hyat Mahomed of Bhopal renewed their Sunnuds (we could not however get a
sight of the Tambaputras, ) and from his time only their history can be depended upon.
They read to us the list of Mahunts, all whose names have the distinctive termination .
of Bun.
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 817
saints. In talking of these steps I carelessly made use of the word
‘‘siri,” (instead of paoria or pugtia,) much to the horror of my companion,
a Jutti. The incorrectness of the term as applied to stone steps, he
said was a trifle, but the word itself was unlucky, and of bad omen,
which to pronounce in a temple, was almost sacrilege, and to pro-
nounce any where was a breach of good manners, as it is the name of
the bier on which a corpse is carried. Close to the Jain temple, (Mr.
Wilkinson informs me) there is a cavity in the earth, from which a
warm air issues; unfortunately our guide, either stupid or sulky,
failed to tell us of the phenomenon, and we lost the opportunity of ex-
amining its nature.
Continuing our journey in a southerly direction, some singular
looking masses of black rock, cresting a high hill to the right of the
road, attracted our attention. They are known by the name, (common
in all parts of India to such seemingly art-shaped stones, ) of the Pandu,
Bhim ; and though worshipped by the country folks, (who celebrate
fairs there some once or twice a year,) are, we were assured by our
guide, mere natural rocks, unfashioned into their present pillar-like
form by human hands, and not sanctified by any ancient images
or sculpture. A personal verification of the point would have been more
satisfactory, but we were obliged to take our informant at his word ;
as though from their conspicuous position on the brow of the hill they
appeared quite close, they were at least nine miles off, and our time
only admitted of going as far as Asapuri, two miles from Bhojpoor.
This village should be visited for some very beautiful Vishnooi
images ; which though their temples have been thrown down by some
zealous servants of Mahommud or perhaps of Sheo, are themselves
generally unharmed, being concealed and protected by the huge stone
beams of their roofs, which seem purposely to have been allowed to
fall over them, and under which you must creep to view them. The
scattered ruins are richly sculptured, but we will merely specify some
of the principal images.
Ist. Bhoot Nath Gee, so our guide named it, probably incorrectly ;
as Bhoot Nath is a form of Mahadeo, and here every thing seems
Vishnooi. My pundit called the figure Hunuman, but the tail was
wanting.
2nd. A highly ornamented image, the size of life of probably Indra-
jit, with a pair of ankleted feet in front; near it a Varaha.*
* The worship of Indrajit, or Megh Nath, seems (as will be seen in the sequel) to
be popular in these parts. One of the most beautiful temples in Malwa, and the
chief yiew at Wane, isa shrine of Indrajit.
818 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [Ocr.
3rd. A Shesh Sohai, sculptured with admirable skill and taste. On
a table supported,—at the back, by the stalks of the lotus,—in front on
the heads of worshippers,—lies folded the Nag, whose hood shades, as
its body furnishes a bed for, the sleeping Bhugwan. The god is repre-
sented as Chatoor Bhooja, and is surrounded by attendants, choristers.
&c. In front kneels, expecting his waking, Luchmi; before the image
are the Churrun, two pair of which are also sculptured on a loose
square stone near it.
Ath. A curious image of the “ Fulfiller of Hope,” from whom the —
village takes its name; her immense breasts distinguish her as the ©
Indian Juno Lucina. |
The drawing represents a small conical cup or basket which appears
to issue from her thigh : out of it peeps forth a child’s face, round which
the edges of the cup closely fitting, have much the appearance of a
baby’s cap.
On the other side of the village lie the ruins of what must have
been a very large Jain temple: jungle, and thorns had grown over
them ; crawling among which, not without difficulty and pain, we dis-
covered,—a statue of Santinath, standing sixteen feet high, a large
sitting figure without sanchwn,—and many smaller images.
At a village near this, we were received with the country welcome
of the kudlus ; a few women brought two lotas of water, one put over
the other, with a pan leaf at the top, and placing them at our feet,
began singing a song, which they expect one to reward by dropping
a trifle into the kullus. The officiators at this little ceremony are usu-
ally those of the lower Jats, such as live in the outskirts of towns,
near which they take a position when a great man is passing on any
particular occasion, standing silent with their lotas on their heads.
They thus waited outside Maheswar, when Hurry Holkar escaped
from his prison. Occupied with more important matters, or perhaps
having no superfluous cash, he passed them all, it is said, without no-
tice, merely dropping one rupee into the last kullus. This so unusual a
proceeding was considered most impolitic; the old crones in the neigh-
bourhood shook their heads, and prophesied all manner of evil; and a.
failure would have been doubtless looked upon as omened by, or con-
sequent on, this ill-timed parsimony. To pay this compliment (kullus
budhana) is a not uncommon practice ; Tod and others allude to it.*
* Near Purra and Saush in Afghanistan the old ladies have aless agreeable custom,
though somewhat similar to this—they throw water over the traveller and his horse as
he approaches, to guard him from the evil eye.
f
x 2
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 819
From Bhopal to Sanchi, the villages, (inhabited by Gonds, miser-
able in appearance, and sunk in the grossest ignorance) will afford but
few ruins, on which the antiquary can exercise his fancy or judgment.
Even the temples elsewhere so common, are seldom found here ; or if
found, have but little pooja made in them, in lieu of the more gene-
rally worshipped Deotas of the country—the Bairawas, Lings, and
Matas. The villagers pay their adoration to a parcel of small stones ar-
ranged in a square or circle, forming walled enclosures of a few yards,
with a small gap for an entrance, the stones opposite which, from
their larger share of paint, seem the principal objects of pooja.
These gods, with a curious contradiction, (for the stones are rarely
so high as a foot,) they call the Burra Deos; and though they
pay a general reverence to the Hindoo Pantheon—for as one of them
told me, once a yeara goat dies (bukri murta) to Kali—these are the
powers to whom they look, in the hour of joy or sorrow, round whom
they wind the votive thread,* before whom they throw the marriage
mourt, and hang up the old plough at the s¢mgust.{ In one of these
inclosures we remarked several clubs set up, and on asking the cause,
were told that finding all prayers and ceremonies ineffectual to stop
a sickness which afflicted the neighbourhood at the commencement of
this year, they had determined to threaten the great gods with a
beating ; and sickness having shortly afterwards ceased, they believe
‘their remedy to have been efficacious.§ At one village, Sahapoor, two
miles south-east from the halting place between Bhopal and Bhilsa we
were shewn about forty or fifty (unfortunately we forgot to count) figures
of horsemen carved in sandstone, about a foot and a half high, and
ranged round a small walled inclosure in an oval ; of the warriors who
* Made of threads, and commonly seen encircling Lings. The grateful piety of mo-
thers whose infants have survived the small-pox, generally prompts this simple form
of devotion,
t+ The caps made of split date leaf, or false jewellery, of a Hindu bride and bride -
groom. When a river is at hand, they are generally thrown into it, otherwise at the
feet of some deity. The custom, doubtless of great antiquity, may be traced in other
countries—and as one of the many coincidences between Yavan and Hindu manners,
which seem to argue a common origin, we may notice the resemblance of the Sehwra
of an Indian maiden, to the tinsel cap of the Athenian bride.
t The old plough alone is thus gratefully honored (the iron however taken off)
every twelfth year, other worn out articles, brooms, baskets, ghurras, &c. are merely
thrown out in a heap.
§ A method of managing the gods of which there is a well known example in His-
tory, and one still practised by some of the hill tribes of India.
5 N
820 March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [Ocr.
rode the horses (many of which are richly housed in the native fashion)
the legs and spears, and a few heads which lie at the feet of the
chargers, alone remain. Not one body was to be found, which renders
it probable that these fragments have been brought from some other
place. We eagerly inquired of the villagers where they came from,
their names, their history, and whether there were any more such
statues in the neighbourhood : no one was able to give us the slightest
information. At last to our reiterated questions, and promises of reward
to whoever would shew us any temples—any Deos—a lad replied that
he would be our guide toa big god. We toiled after him over seve-
ral fields, doubting, guessing, and hoping, till he stopped and pointed
with a grin (I really believe the half-idiot-looking rogue knew that he
was taking us in) to what in our zeal we had quite forgot—the circle
of little stones, the Burra Deos. Though we were thus unsuccessful, I
am by no means satisfied that a more extended investigation than our
time permitted, would not have brought to light some temples or mo-
numents with which these figures were associated, and which might
afford some clue to their object and history.* We only saw one
other statue of a horse in this neighbourhood, that of which mention
has already been made in the Society’s Journal.t It stands uncon- ;
nected with any other sculpture on the hill from which it has been
cut, ata village a mile south-south-west from Sanchi. Supposing these |
horses to have been originally placed in their present position, several
explanations of their history offer themselves, but none that seem to me
sufficient ; thus, for instance, in Mussulman asfanas, hundreds of small
horses with riders are heaped together in honor of Alexander; but —
the horses thus offered, are rudely made of burnt clay, while those be- |
* Accompanying is a drawing of one of the images, which we brought away, as the —
villagers pay them no respect. The walled inclosure rather resembled the ruins of a hut |
than a place built expressly to receive them.
+ Journal Asiatic Society 3; 489, where the m of the plan should point 8.S.W. in-—
It was buried in earth, all but the head and upper part.of the back, and _
had been so, said the oldest inhabitants of the village, as long as they could remember. :
stead of S.E.
Two men cleared out its grave in about 12 hours, and brought to light a rudely fashion=
ed, unornamented figure 12! feet from head to tail, about 10 feet high, with a head 24
feet long. The neck and belly are clumsily supported on two columns (if I may s0 |
call them) of this shape £\ which are cut out of, and still adhere to, the same block of
stone from which the horse is carved. On the recess were scratched, rather than en= |
graved, twomarks@ The other image at the same place, alluded to in the Journal, is
modern and Braminical.
1839. ] March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. 821
fore us are carefully carved and ornamented ; and such asfanas seem
peculiar to the south of India.*
The dread of villagers, Shaka Siam,t is represented on horseback
with a long spear, as is the Deccan favorite Kundee Rao, and Pabooji,
whose picture may be seen in Tod, and Ramdeo, a Marwari incarna-
tion of Krishn, and many others: or we should at once have set them
down as the twenty-four Bagrawuts,{ had not the worship of those
worthies been peculiar to Mewar and the countries near it. It would be
a mere waste of time and paper to notice the various forms and seasons
in which the horse is worshipped in India; we will not therefore
weary you with a vain parade of research, but content ourselves with
* As are a large proportion of the customs described in the Quanoon-i-Islam, quod
vide page 279.
+ A corruption probably of Saka Swami, the Lord of Slaughter, for he is principally
worshipped, I am told, on fields where a battle has been fought. His statues are more
commonly found in company with those of brother spirits, as Goga, Phurna Gee, &c.
but he is said to have a temple to himself, at Nursinghur near Bersiah. The following
story related to us by an old villager, will remind you of the black rider of the Hartz.
A buniah had to return home from a Mela, but the gains ofthe day were in his purse—
night was coming on—the road was of bad repute, and he feared to go alone. A soldier
passing by, offered himself as an escort—No, objected the buniah, you are armed, and
Tam weak; you yourself may robme. Anxious however to get home, and encouraged by
reiterated assurances of protection, he agreed to trust himself in the stranger’s company,
provided he would swear by Shaka Siam to dohim noinjury. Shaka Siam is between us
(beechmen) replied the soldier; but no sooner was the village out of sight, than he
robbed the unhappy merchant of not only his money but his clothes, tauntingly ex-
claiming, Where is your Shaka Siam? if he be between us why does he not assist vou ?
Hardly had the words passed his lips, when a tall horseman was seen in the distance—
his jet black steed outstripped the wind—one moment, and the soldier was transfixed
by the lance of the rider. The poor buniah had closed his eyes in terror—when he look-
ed up, the horseman had vanished—the soldier lay dead at his feet.
{ That very singular class of people, the Bhopas, who are the Pundas (poojaris) of
most of the heroes I have enumerated, carry round the villages a long cloth called
a phow USF (similar to the puts for which Juggernath is celebrated) on which the
- history of the twenty-four brothers is painted in glaring colours. Ihave one six feet long,
and a yard high, which, if a novelty, I propose offering to the Society’s acceptance; an-
" nexing toit the explanatory legends, which though Tod seems to have thought them un-
worthy of record, are indispensable to one who wishesto understand the theology of these
regions, Pabooji has a phur to himself, which shall also be sent if acceptable : of Ram
Deo and his worship a description is deferred to another occasion. Tod’s Kajastr. 1,
730. 2, 759. [I sent this down to the Society a year ago, but have not heard
of its arrival. The rest of my engagements I must beg to renounce ; the fulfilling f
them is here impossible. |
aa March between Mhow and Saugor, 1838. [Ocr.
citing one instance of the superstition which seems to have some con-
nection with the point we are discussing. In the old Happa Raj,a —
number of brass images, with horses heads, are ranged on the top of a _
“mountain, and held in great veneration: they seem, says Tod,* to ‘
mark the site of some victory. ‘Till a better explanation be suggest- —
ed, we may suppose our images to be something of this nature, and
ascribe them (a la mode de Tod and Wilford) to the Hihyas, who an- ¥
ciently dwelt in this neighbourhood ; though perhaps the horse-
worship was rather the characteristic of the children of the sun.
Art. III.—On an Aerolite presented to the Soctety.
A short time before the Cabul expedition, I procured through the
kindness of the Resident at Indore an Aerolite, which had then lately
fallen near Ougein, and of which I have the honor to request the —
Society’s acceptance. Being at the time the stone fell, laid up with ~
fever, I was not able, as I could have wished, to visit the spot on
which it lighted, but intelligent persons were sent to report, who gave _
the following information.
On Sunday the 2nd of Asar (sudi) two stones fell from the sky at ©
the village of Doondhoo Dabun, belonging to Manik Chund, Kaith,
seven coss from Ougein on the Burnuggur road.
It was about nine o'clock in the morning, when a few claps of
thunder were heard, but there was no rain: (or to translate my
informant’s letter literally, a dry cloud thundered once or twice.) 4
Immediately afterwards a sound reached our ears, and we learnt —
that two stones had fallen, one 200 paces from a Gosaeen’s baolee, —
‘near the east quarter of the village, the other a stone’s throw from the <4
baolee, in a field belonging to Khusal Patail. The last stone dropped — j
one hour and a quarter after the other. Three men were ploughing — |
close to where it fell, who running up to the spot, found that the stone
had gone two hats deep in the earth, which had dried up for more |
than a foot on all sides of the cavity, though the whole ground and — :
beyond that was wet. 7
vo
‘ff
* Tod’s Raj. 2, 303. A horse seems to have been an almost universal type of victory, |
of which the white horse vale in Berkshire is one well known instance. A number of yy |
brass images of horses are scattered about Aboo, A. R. 16, 298. The Bheels, says Sit |
J. Malcolm, make small mud images of horses ; see T. R. A. S. 1, 72.
1839.] On an Aerolite presented to the Society. 823
Of these two stones, the smaller (which however when brought to
me was nearly the size of a man’s head) is the one sent to the Society.
A few pieces have been chipped off for specimens. There is nothing
peculiar in its appearance. ‘The inside is of the usual grey colour,
with here and there small pyrites intermixed. The outside was
of a pale brown, and smooth all round. The villagers smeared it
over with ochre of which the stain has remained. The other stone
has, I understand, had a temple raised over it, at the spot where it
dropped. On the same day, a stone fell at Sursanoo (a coss and
a half off from Ghorabund) in the Pergunna of Burnuggur, to which
last place it has been taken and enshrined as a Ling.
I could not learn that any meteoric light attended the fall of these
Aerolites.*
Art. 1V.—Extracts from the Mohit (the Ocean), a Turkish work on
Navigation in the Indian Seas. Translated and communicated
by JosepH Von Hammer, Baron Purcestauy, Aulic Counsellor,
and Professor of Oriental Languages at Vienna, &c. &c.
(Continued from vol. — p —.)
SEcoND CHAPTER.
eat Of the fundament (Oss)which is generally used of the Solar and Lunar years
—the Roman, the Coptian, and Persian year——in seven Sections.
Section I. Of the Lunar and Solar years.
The solar year is of 354 a fifth and a sixth part of a day, and has
twelve months (alternatively), one perfect, and the other deficient ; if
the last month is also a perfect one of thirty days, the year is an
intercalar one, the regular alternation in the middle way.
Section II. Of the fundament of the Lunar years.
ining it is to subtract from
| Aa ae The way of obtaining it is"
Be sieitas ere the years of the Hedjrat the imperfect year ;
for example, of the year 961, you subtract one,
and multiply the rest, which is sixty, with
four; (1) calling the result Mahssool (product);
* See Journal Asiatic Society, 7. 668.
824 Extracts from the Mohit. [Ocr.
lay this beside, multiply again sixty with
eleven, divide what you obtain with thirty, —
and add the issue (2) of the division to the ©
Mahssool ; if that what remains of the thirty, is less than nineteen it —
is not counted, if it is more it is counted for thirty. The Mahssool —
{ (3) and what issues by the division in seven parts,
what remains is called the fundament (3).
sesmnwd If there be no fraction, it is called fundament of the seven.
The beginning is from Tuesday, and the day with which the caleula- —
tion ends is the first Moharrem of the year. If you wish to know the first —
day of any other month, you must count each two months of the lunar —
(2)
gaa z jis
ones for three, viz. the first for two, and the second for one; subtract
them of the lunar fundament; if it exceeds seven, that number and —
the rest gives the fundament; if it is no fraction it is again the
fundament of seven ; the day to begin with is Tuesday, on the last day
is the first of the month inquired for. For example, if you wish to
know the first of Moharrem of the year 961, throw away the hundreds,
(900) wosle and from the rest one; multiply
the rest (4) with four, which makes 240 ; this
is called the Mahssool; multiply again sixty
stands for WY) 9425 with eleven, which gives 660 ; divide it with
4
which I suppose
30, the quotient is 22, which added to the a
Mahssool gives 262; if you divide this with seven, there remains ~
three for the fundament, beginning with Tuesday, the last day is —
Thursday, which proves to be the first of Moharrem.
Now if you wish to know the first day of any other month, for
example the first of Ramasan, begin to count from Moharrem, which —
gives eight months, counting Moharrem for two, [safer for one, and so |
on (the first month counting for two, the second for one) so the above __
eight gives twelve; add to it the fundament of this year (3) you obtain s .
15; subtracting from it the seven (contained therein twice) remains ,
one. Beginning again to count from Tuesday, you arrive at the end a
again to Tuesday, which is the first of Ramasan, and so on.
Section III. Of the fundament of the Solar year.
The solar year is called also the year of the Boroody (the 12 con- s
stellations of the zodiacus) the Roman and Coptic year. The way j 7
of finding it is the following. You throw away the hundred and the >
exceeding year. cs Sy gs 4 silo The rest, whatever it may be,
1839. ] Eatracts from the Mohit. 825
multiply with eleven, the result of the multiplication is called
Mahssool (product); the rest multiply with seven, throw away 30,
divide what remains with 60, subtract the quotient from the Mahssool,
the remainder is the fundament of fundaments.
¢ This is the fundament of the Solar, Roman, and
Coptic year. Another way to find out this fun-
dament is the following. You must multiply (after having thrown
away from the year of the Hedjrat the hundred aa and the odd
humber) the remainder with 10. This is also called Mahs-
sool. The remaining 50 you multiply with 3, the result of this
question you add to 30, divide the whole, whatever it may be,
usw WS Un
_ with 60, add the quotient to the Mahssool, and you have then
the fundament of fundaments ; if this number exceeds the num-
_ ber of the solar year, this must be subtracted, and the remainder
is the fundament of fundaments. For example, if of the year 961
you wish to find the fundament of the Solar, Roman, and Coptic year,
you throw away the hundred and odd number so that 60 remains ;
multiply with 11, the product is 660, multiplying this with 7, you
obtain 420, throw away 30, and divide the remaining 390 with 60,
the quotient 63 is reckoned as seven; because the half and what is
beyond is reckoned as one, and what is below the half is not reckoned
at all; subtract this seven from the Mahssool, the remainder is 653.
Subtracting from this sum the solar year you obtain 288, which is the
fundament of fundaments. The second method is as follows ;—of the
year 961 you throw away the hundred and unity, multiply the re-
maining 60 with 70, this gives the Mahssool 600 ; multiply this with
53 you obtain 3180, add to it 80 it makes 3210, which sum divided
by 60 gives the quotient 53, adding this to the Mahssool you get
653, of which subtracting the solar year you have 288, the fundament
of fundaments.
Section 1V. Of the method to know the Solar, that ws to say
Zodiacal, year.
The beginning of it is the entry of the sun into A7zes, which is
called Nawroozt Sultaunt, that is the Sulianic new year. Be it
known to you that the first day of Nawrooz is the same day (of the
|: week) which follows the next Nawrooz ; for example, if the Nawrooz
' falls on Saturday, it will fall the next time on Sunday, and in in-
tercalar years one day more, on Monday. Be it also known to you
that the Nawrooz Sultaunt and the intercalar year are not the
826 Extracts from the Mohit. [Ocr.
same on all points of the globe; in some years the year will be an in-
tercalar one for places of great longitude, but not for places of lesser —
longitude, in which the intercalar year is only to come on in the follow- —
ing year; this is evident to all persons of sound understanding. But
to go on with the subject, if you add to the fundament of fundaments
the sum of 172 you obtain the fundament of the constellations of the
zodiacus ; if this sum be greater then the number of the solar year you ~
subtract it, and the remainder is the fundament. For this operation
there is no regard for the intercalar year ; you subtract the fundament
of the constellations from the broken lunar year, and if this cannot be,
you subtract it from the solar year, add what remains to the broken
lunar year, subtract from the whole the solar year, and obtain by
this operation in the remainder the number of the days of the zodiacal
year; you assign to each of the twelve constellations its number of
days, and the sun shall be in the degree of the constellation in which
your calculation ends, the number of the degrees are
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, _ Cancer, Leo, Virgo,
3] 31 ai 32 31 31
Fabra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pices,
30 _ 380 29 29 30 30.
For example, if you wish to know in which degree the sun is to be
found in the year 961, you proceed in the following way. We know
by what has been said that the fundament of fundaments in this year
is 288 ; add to it 172 it makes 460, subtract from it the number of
the solar year, 365 days, there remain 95, which you subtract from:
the broken lunar year if you can; as it is impossible in this year to
throw away the first of Ramazan, you make the subtraction so that
one month is perfect and the other deficient, and counting also the
first of Ramazan you obtain 237; from this you subtract the above-
mentioned 95, there will remain 142; of this sum you assign 31 degrees
to Aries, 31 to Taurus, 31 to Gemini, 32 to Cancer, and the remain-
ing 17 to Leo, so that the sun is to be found in the seventeenth degree
of Leo; the constellation of Cancer has in our days 32 degrees,
although ist p3 psa} 92) Aboo Nassr Ferahi mentions in the shes
Nessab the following distinction :
XXXI and XXXI, XXXI, XXXII, XXXI, XXXI, are six months
XXX, XXX, XXX and XXIX, XXX, XXX, are the short months
But this agrees with the time when the sun in its greatest height is in
Gemini, now the sun being in its greatest height in Cancer, this has
— 1839. ] Extracts from the Mohit. 827
_ 32 degrees, which will change in future time so that the constellation
wherein the sun is in its greatest height is always to be of 32 degrees ;
_ be it known also that in the first climate summer falls in the signs
of Aries, Taurus, Gemini ; autumn in those of Cancer, Leo, Virgo ;
_ winter in those of Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius ; spring in Capricor-
nus, Aquarius, and Pisces; in these parts, that is in the northern
ones, it is the contrary. If you wish to know in which of the 28
lunar stations the sun rises, you proceed as follows ;—add to the num-
_ ber of degrees in which the sun is found that day, the number 8 ;
_ give to each station 13, except Spica to which you give 14, and if
the year be an intercalar one you give also 14 to Resha (2 in the
_ Andromeda) ; the beginning of numbering is in our times el Awwa
(B.y.8,0s in Virgo) because the beginning of Ama falls in the 22nd
| degree of Spica, and the end of it in the beginning of Libra, that is to
say the beginning of it retards eight degrees.
But the stations of the moon proceed with the eighth sky in 70 years
one degree, according to which you must operate. Where the number
beginning from el Amma B,-y,8,0¢ in Virgo terminates at sunset,_»9 Ba
awe there the station of the moon is rising ; for example—if you
wish to know which station of the moon is rising at sunset on the
first of Ramazan in the year 961, you find the sun in the seventeenth
degree on the 142nd day of the year of constellations. Add to it the
number 8, you get 150; begin then from e/-Amza, the 13th station,
counting for each station 13, but to Spzca 14; six days to the 24th sta-
tion ( and & in Aquarius; six days having elapsed since the rise of
this station, called Saadessofood, so that there remain nearly seven
days. Be it known also that the beginning of e/-Amza at the end of
the 23rd degree of Spica, and its retard of eight degrees from the begin-
ning of Libra, happened in the year of the Alexandrine era 1749,
that is to say in the time when the tables of Ulagbigh were made.
This book has been composed in the 1865th year of the era of Alexan-
der (the Sileucian) 1553 s. ©. so that 116 years have elapsed between.
In this case each station has moved nearly two degrees in our
‘time, and it is therefore necessary to add to the number of the
solar degrees the number sz ; seventy years hence when the stations
shall have proceeded one degree more, the number five must be added
and so on till the beginning of the 13th station (e/-Amwmwa) shall
come to the beginning of Libra, in which time no number shall be
_ added ; when afterwards the end of Jsavfa (the 12th station) shall
_ come to the beginning of Libra the number 12 must be added, and you
5 o
828 Extracts from the Mohit. [Ocr.
will begin then to count from the beginning of Jsazfa, and in the same 7
way you proceed through the other stations. |
Section V. Of the ( Romi) Roman year.
It begins with the first day of Teshreen ewd; be it known that
the day of the week with which it begins precedes the day of the —
week with which the following year is beginning ; for example, if the |
first day of the year be Sunday, the first day of the next year will be
Monday. The fourth part of a day, (which is exceeding every year)
gives in four years the intercalar day. In this year the day of the week
of the next year is two days later, on Tuesday. It is also to be ob-
served that even in the Roman year the seasons must change in
the course of time, which the greatest part of men are unaware
of: so in the course of time the months of spring must become
those of Autumn: because according to the tables of Ooloozbey, there
are wanting to the fourth part of the day forming the intercalar, one 28 |
to the second, and 40 to thethird. But as in the Roman years a fourth
part is counted, the above said deficiency makes in 1233 years one day
to be added, the cause of it is that the fourth part of a day counted —
_ each year is not exactly a fourth, but deficient; which implies the —
necessity of adding one day more to the above mentioned space of |
years. For example, the Nawroozz Sultauni falling now on the
llth Adas, that is to say March, shall fall after the above mentioned
time on the 10th, then on the 9th, and make the four for some calen-
darian works. The day of Nawroozd Sultaunz is found mentioned on |
the 13th of Adas. This book has been translated in the year 1865 of .
the Sileucian era; the difference since the establishment of that era
makes 14 days at the time of its introduction, the beginning of spring; |
that is, the entrance of the sun in Aries was on the 26th of March; but |
as a long time has elapsed since people are in general not aware of
this era, Nastcreddin Toosi (the great astronomer) calls in his treaty
celebrated by its name Sz (Thirty) the Roman year the verdtable |
one, but it is not so, ,<aai= the verdtable one is the year of constella-
tions commonly ealled the Dyelatian year. It is a curious fact that |
the great astronomers Mirza Ooloozbey, Mir Ghataseddin, Djemsheed, |
Hazizade Koomi and Molla Ali Kooshdji (on whom be God’s mercy Hy
call in the new Ephemerides the Greek year the solar one, which is a )
negligence. On the 7th February the first kindling spark %yo> |
of spring is falling ; on the 4th the second spark ; on the 2lst the third, |
after which the cold of winter is broken ; on the 26th is the cold day of
1839. ] Extracts from the Mohit. 829
the old woman ; on the 18th Agaf the beginning of warm winds; on tlre
19th July the first canicular day, after which the heat is broken.
This is the way in which our astronomers fix their days, but with no
reason, because they ought to fix them according to the seasons, and
not according to the Roman year, which is not stable.
The way of knowing the Roman year is to add to the fundament of
fundaments 10, the sum gives the fundament of the Roman year,
subtract it from the broken lunar year, the remainder gives the days of
the Roman year, the names of the ( Roomic) year are with the
number of days.as follows,
Teshreen I. 31. Teshreen, I. 30. Kanoon I. 31. Kanoon II. 30 and
Shooba I. 28. Arer 31. Nisan 30. Ayar 31. Haziran 30. Temooz 31.
Ab 31. Eilool 30.
If you wish to know on which day of the Greek year falls the first
of Ramazan, add to the fundament of fundaments 288 the number 16, it
gives 298, subtract it from the broken lunar year, which not being
. possible as the number is 237, you must add the number of the solar
year, which makes 602, from which you subtract the fundament of the
Roman (Greek) year; the remainder is 304, which you distribute
according to the months, and you will find the day to be the last of
August. For the Roman (Greek) year the birthday of Jesus, the
days of Khizr (St. George’s) and Kaszm (St. Demitrius’) fall for ever on
the same day, but not so the Lent and Easter; the Lent falls in the
simple years between the 2nd of February and 8th of March, and
begins from the Monday nearest ; the number of its days is 48, the 49th
Sunday being Easter Sunday; if Lent begins on the 8th of March,
Easter falls on the 25th of April, that is to say two days later than
Khidhi Elias (St. George’s) ; if the Lent begins on the 2nd of Febru-
ary, and intercalar years on the 3rd of February ; Easter falls on the
22nd March, 32 days before Khidhi Elias: the greatest distance be-
tween the two being 35 days.
Section VI. Ofthe Coptic year.
Add to the fundament of fundaments 342, the sum is the funda-
ment of the Coptic year; subtract it from the broken lunar year,
and the rest will give the days of the Coptic year, the months of which
are, Thom 30, Poazhi 30, Hathor 30, Kihall (Khiak) 30, Ty6z
30, Emsheer (Makhir) 30, Bermohat (Thamenoth) 30, Birmoode
(Tharmatic) 30, Tasheesh (Takhon) 30, Tayniz 30, Epiphi 30,
Mesorz 30. If, for example, you wish to know on which day of the
Coptic year falls the first of Ramazan of the year 961, add to the
830 Extracts from the Mohit. [Ocr. ©
fundament of fundaments of this year, which is 288, the number ~
342, subtract the sum 830 from the lunar broken year, which not —
being possible, you must add to it the solar year; the remaining 285 —
is the fundament of the Coptic year ; subtract it if possible from the — |
lunar year, and if it be not possible add to it the solar year; the ©
number of the broken solar year is 237, the sum gives 802; sub- ©
tract from it the Coptic fundament 165; the remaining 337 dis- —
tribute amongst the above said months, giving to each 30 days, you ~
will find the first Ramazan to fall on the 7th of Mesor7. .
Section VII. Of the Persian year.
The beginning of it is the Yazdjerdian Nawrooz; be it known ©
that this Naz7ooz falls regularly in the next year on the day of the |
week next to that with which it begun in the former, so if it begins —
this year with Monday it begins next with Tuesday, because there —
is no intercalar year in the Yazdjerdian cyclus. The way, of know- —
ing it, is to throw away the hundred and odd number of the year of ;
the Hedjra, and to multiply the rest with 11. Keep what you ©
obtain and multiply it again with 11: add to one of these two pro- :
ducts 53, and call this sum Madjmoo, divide the second with 30, —
subtract the quotient Madjmoo, from the number which remains ~
beside ; if the quotient is less than 19, you do not mind it, if it is <|
greater than 19 you add it to the quotient, subtract the rest of the {
Madjmoo from. the broken lunar year, and if this is not possible add _
to it the solar year ; from the sum subtract the Madjmoo, the remain- —
ing number gives the day of the Namrooz. For example—if you |
wish to know on which day of the Yesdedjerdran year falls the first —
of Ramazan of the year 96], you throw away the hundred and the |
odd number of the years of the Hedjra, multiply the remaining 80
with 11, which gives 660, add to the first 660 the number 93 which |
makes 713, and call this Madjmoo, divide the second 660 with 30, the |
quotient of which is 22; subtract this from the Madjmoo, and you |
will obtain 891 ; subtract of this the solar year and you will get 326.
As it is impossible to subtract this sum from the broken lunar, year |
you must add to this the solar, which makes 602, from which you |
subtract 326, the remaining 276 are the days of the Yesdedjerdran
year, which you distribute according to the months Farwardeen 30,
Ardebehesht 30, Khorded 30, Tir 30, Mordad 30, Shahirwer 30, |
Mihs, 30 Aben, 30, Azes, 30, Dei 830, Rahman 30, Isfendarmed 30; —
and you will find the first Ramazan to fall on the tenth of Ded. |
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1839. ] Description of an Astronomical Instrument. 831
Art. V.— Description of an Astronomical Instrument presented by
Rasa Ram Sine, of Khota, to the Government of India.— By J. J.
MippteEtTon, Esa. of the Hindoo College, Calcutta.
The instrument of which I am about to attempt a description,
was presented some time ago by the Raja of Khota to the Government
of India, as a very good specimen of its kind. The body of the
instrument consists of a square plate of pure and massive silver, in
addition to which, on one side, is a plummet or index-rod, which re-
volves freely in the vertical upon an axis fixed at one of the angles of
the plate, and at the termination of a tube of about one-sixth of an
inch in diameter, which runs the whole length of one side of the instru-
ment. On the other side an index, consisting of four hands, at right
angles to each other, and of nearly the radius of the plate, is screwed
on to the centre of the plate, around which it revolves at pleasure.
The drawings which accompany this description will render the above
observations quite clear.
The Sanscrit inscription on the obverse of the plate, and occupying
a triangular space at one of its angles, informs us at once of the class of
instruments to which it belongs. The inscription may be rendered
as follows—‘‘In the year 1891 Sumbut, (1756) “‘ Shokabdha, in the
“month of Assar, on the 7th day of the moon, the son of Boidhanath,
“constructed this astronomical instrument, in accordance with the
“principles of an astronomical work, styled Jontro Chintamony,
“under the direction of Raja Ram Sing of Khota, (blessings be upon
“his head) who is an encourager of learned men.”
We learn from this, that the instrument is of very modern construc-
tion, a circumstance which however in no way detracts from its
substantial interest, since it is not indebted, so far as I can discover,
to modern principles of science, but might have been fabricated or
used by the Indian astronomer of some thousand years ago. This,
and the great rarity of astronomical instruments in India, at least
in this part of it, contribute to it considerable importance. Of
several learned Brahmins with whom I have consulted regarding
the instrument, no one could give any account of it; indeed, with
the exception of some unimportant facts, it was to them only a sub-
ject of astonishment ; some, it is true, had read of such instru-
ments in Bhascara, and other commentators on the Siddhants, but
their notions of them, thus derived, were in the highest degree
obscure. No additional fact is necessary to prove how rapidly Indian
832 Description of an Astronomical Instrument. [ Ocr.
astronomy is fading away in its native soil,—a decay which the
Brahmins themselves readily admit; and which they attribute to the
little encouragement held out to those who profess it. Although the
relaxation of the grasp in which the Brahmins have long held the
Indian mind, can be no subject of regret, and the discredit of their
vaticinations no ground for lament ; yet those who delight to trace the
history of the human mind, and who contemplate with satisfaction
the monuments of its industry and power, must ardently desire
that Indian astronomy should be embalmed, as entire and perfect
as possible, in scientific history. To effect this, the lover of science
should allow no fact to escape him, being assured, that so soon as the
sciences of the West have been diffused over India, so soon will
Indian astronomy be but a name.
I shall begin my particular description of the instrument by
showing its use in finding the time of the civil, or bhamd savan, day,
which with the Indian extends from sunrise till sunset. For this pur-
pose the inner quadrantal arc, described upon the obverse of the instru-
ment, is graduated from right to left to fifteen prime divisions, these
again being subdivided into six equal parts ; the former being the num-
ber of dundas in half the Indian equinoctial day, and the latter being
ares of ten pulahs each, equal to four of our minutes. This will be
rendered more plain by the following table of Indian divisions of time.
6 Respirations = 1 Vicala.
60 Vicala = 1 Dunda.
60 Dundas = 1 Nachshatral day*
In order to find the time of the day, the observer places the index
rod upon its axis, which is fixed near one extremity of the tube, and
raises the instrument in the vertical plane till he can see the
sun through the tube ; he now marks what part of the circle of time
just described is cut by the rod, and reads off the number of hours and
minutes, proximately, which the sun has of altitude, and this being
added to the time of sunrise, or subtracted from that of sunset, (data
which their almanacks supply) gives him the hour of the day. I need
scarcely mention, that though the result is not strictly true even with-
in the tropics, yet it is sufficiently so for the Indian astronomer, who
diminishes its errors by compensations, a mode of correction to which he
is accustomed, and in the application of which he is exceedingly skilful.
The outer circle is an are of the meridian intercepted between the
equator and the pole, andis graduated to 90°, the divisions being num-
* Nachshatral day, the time of an entire revolution of the earth.
1839. ] Description of an Astronomical Instrument. 833
bered from left to right. By this, the index-rod being adjusted as in
the last case, the zenith distance may be readily found ; but when
taken in connexion with other parts of the instrument, the latitude of
places is also easily found. Before describing the manner in which
this is done, however, it may be as well to enter into a brief exposi-
tion of the principles involved.
Of all the observations which the Indian astronomer makes, none are
so generally important to him as those made with his gnomon and
graduated horizontal plane, for any error committed here vitiates
almost every calculation to which he is accustomed. When the
practical imperfection of this instrument is considered, and the
difficulty which the Indian artist has to encounter in its construc-
tion and adjustment from the rude tools he uses, it is a matter of
much astonishment that he attains such accuracy as he will be pre-
sently seen to do.
Having fixed a conical gnomon perpendicularly upon a plane, which
he graduates into wngolas, or digits, each equal] to a twelfth part of the
height of the gnomon, he again subdivides these into beungols or
60ths of an ungol. Thus provided, he proceeds at noon on the day
of the equinox, to measure the length of the sun’s shadow—an opera-
tion upon the accuracy of which depends his reputation as an astrono-
mer. Having carefully ascertained the length of the shadow, he next
proceeds to the determination of his latitude, which he effects in the
following manner :—
Let A B be the gnomon, B C
the graduated plane upon which
the shadow is to be measured,
S A D a ray from the sun S, then
B D is the shadow.
Draw D G at right angles to B D,
and upon it let fall the perpen-
dicular S E, and from G draw
GF perpendicular to D G.
Then 4/A B2 + BD2 =AD by the 47th of Euclid (a proposition
well known to Indian mathematicians, and probably borrowed from
BD SE 5 : :
them) and >= ps = the sine of the zenith distance.
Indian mathematicians do not appear to have been acquainted with
the nature and use of tangents ; had they been so, they would cer-
834 Description of an Astronomical Instrument. [Ocr.
tainly have used them in the present case, as their object would thereby
ha : ce D 2 eR ad :
have been less indirectly attained ; since 7p = fq — tan. zen. dist.
These observations being premised, let us again return to the
examination of the plate. It will be observed that its surface
within the circles is crossed by equidistant straight lines, inter-
secting each other at right angles, and that at the twelfth division
counting from the angle where the axis of the index-rod is placed along
on the one side, the perpendicular has the points of intersection of the
other lines numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. If then the outer line thus inter-
cepted by the line last mentioned be taken to represent the axis-of
the gnomon, the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, will represent the section of its shadow,
and if the edge of the rod, adjusted as before, be brought over the
number signifying the length of the shadow, that edge will also in-
tercept a segment of the quadrant of latitude equal to the zenith dis-
tance. This will readily appear on inspection of the diagram just given.
Thus the length of the shadow at any place being known, our in-
strument at once reveals the latitude.
The only use of this side of the instrument, so far as I can make
out, which remains to be explained, is in the determination of heights
and distances. ‘To show its
usefulness in this respect, little
more will be necessary than to
adduce an example of its appli -
cation ; let A B be an inacces-
sible object standing on the
horizontal plane B D, whose
height is required.
Observe through the tube the summit A, and mark what division
of the line 1, 2, 3, the index allowed to revolve freely on its axis
intersects, and let that be, for example, at the number 12; then
go backwards in a direct line from the object to any new station
D and observe the summit of the object as before ; let us suppose that
now the edge of the rod is found to intersect at the number 16,
then we have 16-12: 16: DC: D B=4CD
and 16: 4CD : 12: BA=sCD, the height required.
It is unnecessary to multiply examples, as from the one now given the
readiness with which trigonometrical measurements of a simple kind
may be effected without the introduction of angular functions, is suffici-
ently evident. As to the accuracy with which they can be performed,
it may be perhaps sufficient to state that, after a little practice, I found
1839. ] Description of an Astronomical Instrument. 835
myself able to determine heights and distances with it with very great
exactness.
Let us now turn our attention to the reverse side, where, by remov-
ing the revolving indices, we meet with numerous letters arranged
around the centre in concentric zones, being an arrangement called
lotas, the Indian metaphor of beauty, anda form peculiarly favoured
of Indian sages.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, it will be observed, are written exterior
to the outer circle, and indicate the beginning of the four slokes
which make up the figure ; the three first being read across, and consti-
tuting diameters to the outer circle, the fourth forming the outer
circle itself. The following is a translation.
‘The length of the shadow of the gnomon at Khota is five ungols
‘and 30 beaugols, in consequence of which the elevation of the signs
‘above the horizon takes place there in times the particulars of which
‘are as follow—
Aries, 3 Dundas, 43 Pulas.
Taurus, 4 a Lae
Gemini, 5 _,, Bina A
Cancer, 5 ee Ae): Gi te
Leo, 5 os AS has
Virgo, 5 oe 2 ee : P
‘But the other six signs, namely Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capri-
*cornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, are in point of rising above the horizon
‘equal to the former six, when taken in inverse order ; that is to say,
‘ Libra rises in the same time as Virgo, and so on.’
The length of the shadow here given is not quite correct,* at least
if I may credit, which I have good reason to do, the result of Mr.
Hunter’s computations, published in the fourth volume of the Asiatic
Researches. According to that careful observer, the latitude of Khota
is 25° 11’ 41”, while the datum of the instrument gives but 24° 37’ 25",
which, notwithstanding some corrections which I shall presently make,
still leaves the latter in defect.
The difference between the latitude of Khota, as calculated by
Mr. Hunter, and that deduced from the Indian datum is, 34’ 16’;
this is considerable, and is perhaps not entirely attributable to im-
perfection of instruments or carelessness of observation, but to the
* The same length of shadow 5 a 30 b is the same as that supposed in the Bhagul-
pore tables given by Le Gentil. In both cases the number is suspiciously round, and
in both also somewhat inaccurate.
5 P
836 Description of an Astronomical Instrument. [Ocr.
omission of certain elements which the European astronomer takes
into account. But. little familiarity with astronomy is necessary to
an apprehension of the fact that, whatever apparently elevates the
sun above his true position must, in the same ratio, diminish the
shadow of the gnomon, and consequently the latitude thence de-
duced. Now refraction does this to a small extent, and the rays of
light from the sun’s upper limb cause a much greater error of the same
kind. ,
Making the necessary corrections, we have
Difference, .. a — 34’ 16"
Refraction, .. om oe + 26"
Sun’s semidiameter, . . 2S 26 9a
True difference, 4 sited Aas
This is, as I doubt not will be generally allowed, a difference
astonishingly small, considering the imperfection of the instrument
employed in observation.
Before entering on the examination of the Table of Ascensions of the
Signs as given above, it may be as well to inform the reader that
after having ascertained the occurrence of any celestial phenome-
non, such as an eclipse for instance, in sideral time, the astronomer
next converts this into civil time ; to do which it is necessary that he
should know how long each sign occupies in rising. This he effects
in the following manner :—
Let us take for example the sign Aries, the place Khota, the length
of the equinoxial shadow, as it is given to us, 5 ungols and 30 beun-
gols, and the obliquity of the ecliptic 24°
1: Sin 24 :: Sin 30 : Sin decl.
9:6093133
9 6989700
ee ee ee
93082833
1D 25 ide holidib els, Geel, (hina
8 9207188
0°7603627
9°70828338
89693648
1839. ] Description of an Astronomical Instrument. 837
Reece: 1s: i Chitija: Sin chara
00091609
8:9693648
8°9785257—= 5° 28’ nearly,—ascensional diff.
Again, the Lugna of Lanca, or right ascension, is,
+ 17° 50’
Chara — 5° 28!
Gives 22°.22' the ascension of the sign Aries at Khota,
which being reduced to Dundas gives us 2 = 3.726=3 dundas 43
pulas nearly, as given on the plate, notwithstanding that my calcula-
tions have been performed with logarithms; a sufficient proof, if proof
were needed, that where care can save him from error the Indian astro-
nomer is not wanting. It will be seen that I have assumed the obliquity
of the ecliptic to have been estimated at 24°, which assumption gives
me the true result ; this supports the statement made in the beginning
of this article, that the instrument is not beholden to modern science
for the principles of its construction. Calculating by spherical trigono-
metry, and assuming the same obliquity, I obtain 3 dundas and 40
pulas for the ascensional arc, giving a difference in time of 3 pulas,
or about one of our minutes; an error so small, that even were the
Indian astronomer aware of its existence he would disregard it, satisfied
that the practical purposes which his labours subserve, are, notwith-
_ standing, carried out with sufficient accuracy.
The zones which bound this side of the instrument alone remain to
be explained. There are two of them, with their subordinate circles,
the inner serving for an hour circle, the outer for the Bhagana or zodiac.
_ It will be observed that in the latter the signs are arranged in pairs, and
are referred to the hour circle, of which they occupy segments propor.
tioned to their times of ascension, as given above, while the pairs whose
ascensional arcs are equal, are classed together: viz. Mesha and Minah,
(Aries and Pisces) Brisha and Khumbo (Taurus and Aquarius) and
soon. The whole zodiac thus occupies an equatorial are of 12 hours,
or 30 dundas.
Indian astronomers divide their zodiac in the same manner as those
of Europe, and have equivalent names for their signs, as appears in the
following table.
838 Description of an Astronomical Instrument. [Ocr.9
Divisions of the Zodiac.
60 Vicalas = 1 Cala °30 Bhagas = I Rasi
60 Calas = 1 Bhaga 12 Rasis = 1 Bhagana.
Names and order of the Signs.
Mesha .... The Ram Toulah ..-- The Balance
Brisha .... The Bull Brishika ..... The Scorpion
Mithouna .. The Twins Dhanou .... The Archer
Corcota .... The Crab Mocora .... The Sea-monster
Singha .... The Lion Coumbho .. The Pitcher
Cunya.... The Virgin Meena .«-.. The Fishes
This is a remarkable fact, and in itself a strong argument against
the opinion entertained by some, that the boasted antiquity of Indian
astronomy owes its rise to imposture practised by the Brahmins ; since
it is inconceivable that men capable of perfecting so astonishing a
system would have permitted a coincidence so striking, and so en-
couraging to envy or suspicion, to continue.
The revolving indices, although they might serve the astronomer
to illustrate the revolution of the colures, were more probably intend-
ed to assist the astrologer in the partition of the celestial concave—an —
early and important process in the investigation of destiny.
I must not quit this subject without expressing my grateful acknow-
Jedgments to Bishonath Turkabhooshuna and Jogodhan Missi, two
learned Pundits of this city, for their valuable assistance in transla-
tion of the inscriptions.
Art. VI.— Extract from a Memoir on the Preparations of the Indian |
Hemp, or Gunjah, (Cannabis Indica) thetr effects on the Animal
system in Health, and their utility in the Treatment of Tetanus and
other Convulsive Diseases.— By. W. B. O’Suaucunessy, M.D. Pro-_
Jessor in the Medical College of Calcutta, &c. &c.
(Continued from page 745.)
Section V.
Experiments by the author—inferences as to the action of the drug
on animals and man.
Such was the amount of preliminary information before me, by
which I was guided in my subsequent attempts to gain more accurate
knowledge of the action, powers, and possible medicinal applications:
of this extraordinary agent.
|
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 839
There was sufficient to show that Hemp possessed in small doses
an extraordinary power of stimulating the digestive organs, exciting
the cerebral system, of acting also on the generative apparatus. Larger
doses, again, were shewn by the historical statements to induce insen-
sibility, or to act as a powerful sedative. The influence of the drug
in allaying pain was equally manifest in all the memoirs referred
to. As to the evil sequele so unanimously dwelt on by all writers,
these did not appear to me so numerous, so immediate, or so formid-
able, as many which may be clearly traced to over-indulgence in other
powerful stimulants or narcotics, viz. alcohol, opium, or tobacco.
The dose in which the Hemp preparations might be administered,
constituted of course one of the first objects of inquiry. Ibn Beitar
had mentioned a dzrem, or 48 grains of Churrus, but this dose seemed
to me so enormous, that I deemed it expedient to proceed with much
smaller quantities. How fortunate was this caution, the sequel will
sufficiently denote.
An extensive series of experiments on animals, was in the first place
undertaken, among which the following may be cited :
Expt. 1.—Ten grains of Nipalese Chazrus, dissolved in spirit, were
given to a middling sized dog. In half an hour he became stupid and
sleepy, dozing at intervals, starting up, wagging his tail asif extremely
contented, he ate some food greedily, on being called to he staggered to
and fro, and his face assumed a look of utter and helpless drunk-
enness. These symptoms lasted about two hours, and then gradually
passed away ; in six hours he was perfectly well and lively.
Expt. 2.—One drachm of Majoom was given to a small sized dog, he
ate it with great delight, and in twenty minutes was ridiculously
drunk ; in four hours his symptoms passed away, also without harm.
Expts. 3, 4, § 5.—Three kids had ten grains each of the alcoholic
extract of Gunjah. In one no effect was produced ; in the second
there was much heaviness, and some inability to move: in the third a
marked alteration of countenance was conspicuous, but no further
effect.
Expt. 6.—Twenty grains were given, dissolved in a little spirit, to a
dog of very small size. In a quarter of an hour he was intoxicated ;
in half an hour he had great difficulty of movement ; in an hour
he had lost all power over the hinder extremities, which were rather
stiff, but flexible; sensibility did not seem to be impaired, and the cir-
culation was natural. He readily acknowledged calls by an attempt
to rise up. In four hours he was quite well.
840 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. \|Ocr. ~
In none of these or several other experiments was there the least
indication of pain, or any degree of convulsive movement observed.
It seems needless to dwell on the details of each experiment ; suffice
it to say, that they led to one remarkable result—That while carnivo-
rous animals and fish, dogs, cats, swine, vultures, crows, and adjutants,
invariably and speedily exhibited the intoxicating influence of the
drug, the graminivorous, such as the horse, deer, monkey, goat, sheep,
and cow, experienced but trivial effects from any dose I administered.
Encouraged by these results, no hesitation could be felt as to the
perfect safety of giving the resin of Hemp an extensive trial in the
cases in which its apparent powers promised the greatest degree of
utility.
Cases of Rheumatism treated by Hemp.
The first cases selected were two of acute rheumatism, and one of
that disease in the chronic form. In the two former but little relief
had been derived from a fair trial of antiphlogistic measures, and
Dover’s powder with antimonials—In the last case, sarsaparilla at
first, and subsequently the Hemidesmus Indicus with warm baths
had been tried without advantage.
On the 6th November, 1838, one grain of the resin of Hemp was
administered in solution, at 2 p. m. to each of these three patients.
At 4 p. m. it was reported that one was becoming very talkative, was
singing songs, calling loudly for an extra supply of food, and declaring
himself in perfect health. The other two patients remained unaffected.
At 6 p.m. I received a report to the same effect, but stating that
the first patient was now falling asleep.
At 8 p.m. I was alarmed by an emergent note from Nobinchunder
Mitter, the clinical clerk on duty, desiring my immediate attendance
at the Hospital, as the patient’s symptoms were very peculiar and
formidable. I went to the Hospital without delay, and found him
lying on his cot quite insensible, but breathing with perfect regula-
rity, his pulse and skin natural, and the pupils freely contractile on
the approach of light. 2
Alarmed and pained beyond description at such a state of things,
I hurried to the other patients—found one asleep, the third awake,
intelligent, and free from any symptoms of intoxication or alarm.
Returning then to the first, an emetic was directed to be prepared,
and while waiting for it I chanced to lift up the patient’s arm.
The professional reader will judge of my astonishment, when I
found that it remained in the posture in which I placed it. It
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 841
required but a very brief examination of the limbs to find that the
patient had by the influence of this narcotic been thrown into
that strange and most extraordinary of all nervous conditions, into
that state which so few have seen, and the existence of which so
many still discredit—the genuine catalepsy of the nosologist.*
It had been my good fortune years before to have witnessed two
unequivocal cases of this disorder. One occurred in the female cli-
nical ward in Edinburgh, under Dr. Duncan’s treatment, and was re-
ported by myself for the Lancet in 1828. The second took place
in 1831, in a family with whom I resided in London. The case
was witnessed by Dr. Silver, Mr. G. Mills, and several other profes-
sional friends. In both these cases the cataleptic state was established
in full perfection, and in both the paroxysm ran on each occasion a
regular course, and terminated suddenly without any evil consequence.
To return to our patient, we raised him to a sitting posture, and
placed his arms and limbs in every imaginable attitude. A waxen
figure could not be more pliant or more stationary in each position, no
matter how contrary to the natural influence of gravity on the
part.
To all impressions he was meanwhile almost insensible; he made
no sign of understanding questions ; could not be aroused. A sinapism
to the episgastrium caused no sign of pain. The pharynx and its
eoadjutor muscles acted freely in the deglutition of the stimulant
remedies which I thought it advisable to administer, although the
manifest cataleptic state had freed me altogether of the anxiety under
which I before laboured.
The second patient. had meanwhile been roused by the noise in the
ward, and seemed vastly amused at the strange aspect of the statuelike
attitudes in which the first patient had been placed, when on a sudden
he uttered a loud peal of laughter, and exclaimed that four spirits
were springing with his bed into the air. In vain we attempted to
pacify him ; his laughter became momentarily more and more incon-
trolable. We now observed that the limbs were rather rigid, and in a
few minutes more his arms or legs could be bent, and would remain
in any desired position. A strong stimulant drink was immediately
given, and a sinapism applied. Of the latter he made no complaint, but
Ais intoxication led him to such noisy exclamations, that we had to
remove him to a separate room ; here he soon became tranquil, his limbs
* The subject of the celebrated Article in Blackwood, the ‘“‘Thunder-struck”’ of the
Diary of a late Physician.
842 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. [Ocr. -
in less than an hour gained their natural condition, and in two —
hours he experienced himself perfectly well and excessively hungry.
The first patient continued cataleptic till 1 a. m., when consciousness —
and voluntary motion quickly returned, and by 2 a. m. he was exactly
in the same state as the second patient.
oT.
‘
The third man experienced no effect whatever, and on further ©
inquiry, it was found that he was habituated to the use of Gunjah in
the pipe.
On the following day it gave me much pleasure to find that both
the individuals above mentioned were not only uninjured by the
narcotic, but much relieved of their rheumatism; they were dis-
charged quite cured in three days after.
The fourth case of trial was an old muscular cooly, a rheumatic
malingerer, and to him half a grain of Hemp resin was given in
a little spirit. The first day’s report will suffice for all.—In two
hours the old gentleman became talkative and musical, told several —
stories, and sang songs to a circle of highly delighted auditors,
ate the dinners of two persons subscribed for him in the ward,
sought also for other luxuries I can scarcely venture to allude
to, and finally fell soundly asleep, and so continued till the following
morning. On the noon-day visit, he expressed himself free from head-
ache or any other unpleasant sequel, and begged hard for a re-
petition of the medicine, in which he was indulged for a few days, and
then discharged.
~ In several cases of acute and chronic rheumatism admitted about —
this time, half-grain doses of the resin were given, with closely
analogous effects ;—alleviation of pain in most—remarkable increase of _
appetite in all—unequivocal aphrodisia, and great mental cheerful-
ness. In no one case did these effects proceed to delirium, or was
there any tendency to quarrelling. The disposition developed was
uniform in all, and in none was headache or sickness of stomach a —
sequel of the excitement-
Case of Hydrophobia.
A case now occurred in which the influence of a narcotic, capable
either of cheering or of inducing harmless insensibility, would be
fraught with blessings to the wretched patient.
On the 22nd November at 8 a. m. a note in English was handed to
me by my servant, entreating my assistance for the Hakim Abdullah,
then at my gate, who had been bitten by a rabid dog three weeks
before, and who feared that the miserable consequences of the bite al- _
1839.) On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 843
ready had commenced. I found the poor man in a carriage; he
was perfectly composed, though quite convinced of the desperate nature
of his case. He told me that the evening before, on passing near a tank
he started in alarm, and since then was unable to swallow liquid.
His eye was restless, suspicious, and wild, his features anxious, his
pulse 125, his skin bedewed with cold moisture ; he stated nevertheless
that he wished for food and felt well ;—a small red and painful cica-
trix existed on the left fore-arm.
He was immediately removed to the Hospital, where I accompanied
him. By his own desire water was brought in a metallic vessel,
which he grasped and brought near his lips ;—never can I forget the
indescribable horrors of the paroxysm which ensued. It abated in about
three minutes, and morbid thirst still goading the unhappy man, he
besought his servant to apply a moistened cloth to his lips. Intel-
ligent and brave, he determinately awaited the contact of the cloth,
and for a few seconds, though in appalling agony, permitted some
drops to trickle on his tongue,—but then ensued a second struggle,
which, with a due share of the callousness of my profession, I could not
stand by to contemplate.
Two grains of Hemp resin in a soft pillular mass were ordered every
hour ; after the third dose he stated that he felt commencing intoxica-
tion—he now chatted cheerfully on his case, and displayed great
intelligence and experience in the treatment of the very disease with
| which he was visited. He talked calmly of drinking, but said it was
| in vain to try—but he could suck an orange ; this was brought to him,
and he succeeded in swallowing the juice without any difficulty.
The Hemp was continued till the sixth dose, when he fell asleep,
and had some hours rest. Early the ensuing morning, however, Mr.
Siddons, my assistant, was called up to him, and found him in a
state of tumultuous agony and excitement ; tortured by thirst he
| attempted to drink,—but I will spare the reader the details of the
horrors which ensued.
The Hemp was again repeated, and again by the third dose the
| cheering alleviation of the previous day was witnessed. He ate a piece
of sugar-cane, and again swallowed the juice—he partook freely of
some moistened rice, and permitted other necessary remedies to be
| used. His pulse was nearly natural, the skin natural in every respect.
| His countenance was happy. On one subject only was he incoherent,
and even here was manifested the powerful and peculiar influence
| of the narcotic. He spoke in raptures of the inmates of his zenana,
and his anxiety to be with them. We ascertained however that he
| had no such establishment. Die
844 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Guwyah. (Ocr.
Four days thus passed away, the doses of Hemp being con-
tinued. When he fell asleep on waking the paroxysms returned, but
were again almost immediately assuaged as at first. Meanwhile
purgative enemata were employed, and he partook freely of solid food,
and once drank water without the least suffering. But about 3 Pp. m.
of the fifth day he sunk into profound stupor, the breathing slightly
stertorous ; in this state he continued, and without further struggle
death terminated his sufferings at 4 a. m., on the 27th November.
Reviewing the preceding summary of this interesting case, it seems
evident that at least one advantage was gained from the use of
the remedy—the awful malady was stripped of its horrors ;—if not
less fatal than before, it was reduced to less than the scale of suffer-
ing which precedes death from most ordinary diseases. It must be —
remembered too that in this the first case ever so treated, I pos-
sessed no data to guide me as to the dose or manner of administration
of the drug. ‘The remarkable cases of tetanus detailed in the sequel,
throw light on these important points, and will lead in future cases to
the unhesitating administration of much larger quantities than at first I
ventured to employ. I am not however rash enough to indulge the
hope which involuntarily forces itself upon me, that we will ever —
from this narcotic derive an effectual remedy, for even a solitary case _
of this disease—but next to cure, the physician will perhaps esteem
the means which enable him “ to strew the path to the tomb with |
flowers,” and to divest of its specific terrors the most dreadful malady —
to which mankind is exposed.
LIPO DD IG POLE FILO LE
While the preceding case was under treatment, and exciting the
utmost interest in the school, several pupils commenced experiments —
_ on themselves, to ascertain the effects of the drug. In all, the state of
the pulse was noted before taking a dose, and subsequently the effects
were observed by two pupils of much intelligence. The result of |
several trials was, that in as small doses as the quarter of a grain, the 4
pulse was increased in fulness and frequency; the surface of the”
body glowed ; the appetite became extraordinary ; vivid ideas crowded |
the mind; unusual loquacity occurred ; and with scarcely any ex-
ception, great aphrodisia was experienced.
In one pupil, Dinonath Dhur, a retiring lad of excellent habits, ten
drops of the tincture, equal to a quarter of a grain of the resin, induced
in twenty minutes the most amusing effects I ever witnessed. A
shout of laughter ushered in the symptoms, and a transitory state of
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 845
cataleptic rigidity occurred for two or three minutes. Summoned to
witness the effects, I found him enacting the part of a Raja giving
orders to his courtiers; he could recognize none of his fellow students
or acquaintances; all to his mind seemed as altered as his own
condition ; he spoke of many years having passed since his student’s
days ; described his teachers and friends with a piquancy which a dra-
matist would envy ; detailed the adventures of an imaginary series of
years, his travels, his attainment of wealth and power. He entered
on discussions on religious, scientific, and political topics, with as-
tonishing eloquence, and disclosed an extent of knowledge, reading,
and a ready apposite wit, which those who knew him best were
altogether unprepared for. For three hours and upwards he maintain-
ed the character he at first assumed, and with a degree of ease and
dignity perfectly becoming his high situation. A scene more interest-
ing it would be difficult to imagine. It terminated nearly as rapidly
as it commenced, and no headache, sickness, or other unpleasant
symptom followed the innocent excess.
In the symptoms above described we are unavoidably led to trace
a close resemblance to the effects produced by the reputed inspira-
tion of the Delphic Oracles—perhaps it would not be very erroneous
to conclude, that it was referable to the same kind of excitement.
PRIPPEPO LL PP DOPE LOE
Use in Cholera.
An epidemic cholera prevailing at this period, two of the students
administered the tincture of Hemp in several cases of that disease, and
eures were daily reported by its alleged efficacy. Dr. Goodeve was
thus led to try it in several cases, and his report was in the highest
degree favorable. The diarrhoea was in every instance checked, and the
‘stimulating effects of the drug clearly manifested. The Durwan of
the College, an athletic Rajpoot, was attacked, and came under my
treatment after he had been ill seven hours ; he was pulseless, cold, and
in a state of imminent danger, the characteristic evacuations stream-
ing from him without effort—half a grain of the Hemp resin was given,
and in twenty minutes the pulse returned, the skin became warm, the
purging ceased, and he fell asleep. In an hour he was cataleptic, and.
continued so for several hours. In the morning he was perfectly well
and at his duty as usual.
846 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. [Ocr.
It is but fair to state, however, that the character of the epidemic
was not at the time malignant. I admit the cases to be inconclu-
sive, but I conceive them to be promising, and that they deserve the
due attention of the practitioner.*
PODIDIIE IL OD CP LL ID
Use in Tetanus.
&
I now proceed to notice a class of most important cases, in which
the results obtained are of the character which warrants me in
regarding the powers of the remedy as satisfactorily and incontrovert-
ably established. I allude to its use in the treatment of traumatic
tetanus, or lock-jaw, next to hydrophobia, perhaps the most intract-
able and agonizing of the whole catalogue of human maladies.
The first case of this disease treated by Hemp was that of Ramjan
Khan, zt : 30, admitted to the College Hospital on the 13th December
ee ee ee ea ee a eee
[4 eae | ae
Ment = ES Ae A OS
1838, for a sloughing ulcer on the back of the left hand. Five days —
previously a native empiric had applied a red hot gool (the mixture
of charcoal and tobacco used in the hookah) to the back of the left
wrist, as a remedy for chronic dysentery and spleen. The patient’s —
brother was similarly cauterized on the same day. In both sloughing
took place down to the tendons. Symptoms of tetanus occurred on the —
24th December. The brother who had refused to avail himself of —
European aid, had been seized with tetanus at his own home four —
days previously, and died after three days illness. On the 26th
of December spasms set in, and recurred at intervals of a few
minutes ; the muscles of the abdomen, neck, and jaws, became firmly
and permanently contracted. Large doses of opium with calomel
having been administered for some hours, without the least alle-
‘viation of symptoms, and his case having on consultation been
pronounced completely hopeless, I obtained Dr. Egerton’s permission ©
to subject the poor man to the trial of the Hemp resin. ‘Two grains —
were first given at 24 p. m., dissolved in a little spirit. In half an |
hour the patient felt giddy, at 5 p. m. his eyes were closed, he felt —
sleepy, and expressed himself much intoxicated.
He slept at intervals during the night, but on waking had convul- i
sive attacks.
* Since this paper was read at the Medical Society a severe epidemic cholera has —
broken out in Calcutta. I have treated seven cases in the Medical College Hospital,
and in all the pulse and warmth returned from the use of this remedy. Five recoyered,
but all passed through a feyer stage.—W. B. O'S.
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 847
On the 27th, two grains were given every third hour, (a purga-
tive enema was also administered, which operated three times) the
stiffness of the muscles became much less towards evening, but the
spasms returned at intervals as before. Pulse and skin natural.
28th.—Improved ; is lethargic but intelligent. Spasms occasionally
recur, but at much longer intervals, and in less severity.
29th.— Dose of Hemp increased to three grains every second hour.
Symptoms moderating.
30th.—Much intoxicated, continues to improve.
Ist January, 1839—A Hemp cataplasm applied to the ulcer, and
internal use of remedy continued ; towards evening was much im-
proved ; spasms trivial, no permanent rigidity, Dysentery has returned.
2nd.— Morning report. Has passed a good night, and seems much
better. Hempcontinued. Evening report. Doing remarkably well.
3rd, 4th, and 5th.—Continues to improve. Hemp resin in two
grain doses every fifth hour.
6th.—5 p. m. Feverish, skin hot, pulse quick, all tetanic symptoms
gone. Dysentery urgent.
From this day the tetanus may be considered to have ceased
altogether, but the dysenteric symptoms continued, despite of the
use of opium and acetate of lead; the ulcer too proved utterly in-
tractable. Some improvement in the dysenteric symptoms occurred
from the 10th to the 15th. He seemed gaining strength, but the
wound was in no wise improved, the slough on the contrary threat-
ened to spread, and two metacarpal bones lay loose in the centre of
the sore; on consultation it was agreed to amputate the arm, but
to this the patient peremptorily objected. The mortification now
spread rapidly, and to our infinite regret he died of exhaustion on the
night of the 23rd January.
An unprejudiced review of the preceding details exhibits the seda-
tive powers of the remedy in the most favorable light; and although
the patient died, it must be remembered that it was of a different
disease, over which it is not presumed that the Hemp possesses the
least power.
The second case was that of Chunoo Syce, (treated by Mr. O’Brien
at the Native Hospital) in whom tetanus supervened on the 11th
- December, after an injury from the kick of a horse. After an in-
effectual trial of turpentine and castor oil in large doses, two grain
doses of Hemp resin were given on the 26th November. He con-
sumed in all 134 grains of the resin, and left the Hospital cured on
the 28th December.
848 -On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. [Ocr.
Third case.—Huroo, a female, xt: 25, admitted to the Native
Hospital on 16th December, had tetanus for the three previous days,
the sequel of a cut on the left elbow received a fortnight before.
Symptoms violent on admission. Turpentine and castor oil given
repeatedly without effect ; on the 16th and 17th, three grains of Hemp
resin were given at bed-time. On the morning of the 18th she was
found in a state of complete catalepsy, and remained so until evening,
when she became sensible, and a tetanic paroxysm recurred. Hemp
resumed, and continued in two grain doses every fourth hour. From
this time till the third hour tetanic symptoms returned. She subse-
quently took a grain twice daily till the 8th of February, when she
left the Hospital apparently quite well.
Mr. O’Brien has since used the Hemp resin in five cases, of which
four were admitted in a perfectly hopeless state. He employed the
remedy in fen grain doses dissolved in spirit. The effect he des-
cribes as almost immediate relaxation of the muscles and interruption
of the convulsive tendency. Of Mr. O’Brien’s seven cases, four have
OST Sy
vt Syebe
recovered. |
In the Police Hospital of Calcutta, the late Dr. Bain has used the
remedy in three cases of traumatic tetanus, of these one has died
and two recovered.
A very remarkable case has recently occurred in the practice of my
cousin, Mr. Richard O’Shaughnessy. The patient was a Jew, ext:
30, attacked with tetanus during the progress of a sloughing sore of
the scrotum, the sequel of a neglected hydrocele. Three grain doses
were used every second hour, with the effect of inducing intoxication —
and suspending the symptoms. The patient has recovered perfectly,
and now enjoys excellent health.
Besides the preceding cases I have heard of two of puerperal
trismus thus treated in native females. Both terminated fatally, —
an event, which cannot discredit the remedy, when it is remember- —
ed that the Hindoo native females of all ranks are placed during
and subsequent to their confinement in a cell within which large —
logs of wood are kept constantly ignited. The temperature of these —
dens I have found to exceed 120° of Fahrenheit’s scale.
The preceding facts are offered to the professional reader with un-
feigned diffidence, as to the inferences I feel disposed to derive from
their consideration. To me they seem unequivocally to shew, that —
when given boldly and in large doses, the resin of Hemp is capable of
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah, 849
arresting effectually the progress of this formidable disease, and in a
large proportion of cases of effecting a perfect cure.
The facts are such at least as justify the hope that the virtues of the
drug may be widely and severely tested in the multitudes of these
appalling cases which present themselves in all Indian Hospitals.
SLDPDIP LI LP LI IP DO IP
Delirium occasioned by continued Hemp Inebriation.
Before quitting this subject, it is desirable to notice the singular form
of delirium which the incautious use of the Hemp preparations
often occasions, especially among young men who try it for the first
_ time. Several such cases have presented themselves to my notice.
They are as peculiar as the “ delirium tremens,” which succeeds the
prolonged abuse of spirituous liquors, but are quite distinct from any
other species of delirium with which I am acquainted.
This state is at once recognized by the strange balancing gait of the
patient, a constant rubbing of the hands, perpetual giggling, and a
propensity to caress and chafe the feet of all bystanders of whatever
rank. The eye wears an expression of cunning and merriment which
can scarcely be mistaken. In a few cases, the patients are violent ; in
many, highly aphrodisiac ; in all that I have seen, voraciously hungry.
There is no increased heat or frequency of circulation, or any appear-
ance of inflammation or congestion, and the skin and general functions
are in a natural state.
A blister to the nape of the neck, leeches to the temples, and
nauseating doses of tartar emetic with saline purgatives have rapidly
dispelled the symptoms in all the cases I have met with, and have
restored the patient to perfect health.
DPI POLO LOLO LODE PE COR
The preceding cases constitute an abstract of my experience on this
subject, and which has led me to the belief that in Hemp the
profession has gained an anti-convulsive remedy of the greatest value.
Entertaining this conviction, be it true or false, I deem it my duty to
publish it without any avoidable delay, in order that the most exten-
sive and the speediest trial may be given to the proposed remedy. I
repeat what I have already stated in a previous paper—that were
individual reputation my object, I would let years pass by, and
hundreds of cases accumulate before publication ; and in publishing I
would enter into every kind of elaborate detail. But the object I have
_ proposed to myself in these inquiries is of a very different kind. To
gather together a few strong facts, to ascertain the limits which cannot
850 On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. (Oct. —
be passed without danger, and then pointing out these to the profession,
to leave their body to prosecute and decide on the subject of discussion,
¢
‘
—such seems to me the fittest mode of attempting to explore the
medicinal resources which an untried Materia Medica may contain.
It may be useful to add a formula for making the preparations
which I have employed.
The resinous extract is prepared by boiling the rich, adhesive tops of
the dried Gunjah in spirit (Sp: gr. 835,) until all the resin is dissolved.
The tincture thus obtained is evaporated to dryness in a vessel placed
over a pot of boiling water. The extract softens at a gentle heat, and
can be made into pills without any addition.
The éncture is prepared by dissolving three grains of the extract in |
one drachm of proof spirit.
Doses, §c.—In Tetanus a drachm of the tincture every half hour
until the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy is induced. In Hydrophobia
I wouldrecommend the resin in soft pills, to the extent of ten to twenty
grains, to be chewed by the patient, and repeated according to the
effect. In Cholera ten drops of the tincture every half hour will be
often found to check the vomiting and purging, and bring back warmth —
to the surface. My experience would lead me to prefer small doses of
the remedy in order to excite rather than narcotise the patient.
Postscript.
While the proofs of this paper were under correction, Dr. Esdaile, of Hooghly, has
communicated a case of traumatic tetanus, in which he has used the extract of Hemp
and the patient recovered. The details will be subsequently published.
Mr. Sawers, the Ist Member of the Medical Board, has also favored me with the
results of a very curious trial of the remedy on a pony which had been attacked by
lockjaw as the sequel of forcible compression of the testes. I have the pleasure
to insert an extract from Mr. Sawers’ note.
“Having made no memorandum of the case of the pony, I am
unable to give the particulars in detail. Before the Bhang was given —
the power of mastication had ceased for several days, and he had
been supported by mixing settoo (pounded pulse) and bran with his
water ; with this the powdered Bhang was mixed. When he had taken
some doses the general rigidity of the muscles was in some degree
removed, and he began to masticate hay and grass, and shortly was
able to lie down and rise without assistance ; but it was sometime ere
he recovered the power of balancing the muscles so as to trot evenly.
1839.] On the preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah. 851
*‘ I direct the syce to give a little more of the Bhang than it was
usual for a stout man to take for a dose, and it was given for eight or
ten days, perhaps longer.
“The pony is now perfectly well. The disease was induced by
compression of the spermatic chord, as a mode of castration. Tetanus
is not so fatal in the horse as in man; of the former I have known
several instances of recovery, of the latter, in all my experience I have
seen but one case which did not terminate fatally.
“ After the battle of Laswarry several wounded Europeans and
Sepoys were received into the Hospitals at Agra with Tefanus, but
they all died. A Sepoy who had a large wound on the outside of his
tight thigh (which had been brushed by a cannon ball, removing the
integumenits,) was seized with lock-jaw a few days after his arrival.
The only medicines he took were pills of opium and calomel, which he
took in large quantity, with occasional aperients ;—he recovered. The
disease came on gradually, and for many days his jaws were so
clenched that the small pills could only be administered by an opening
between two of his teeth.
“TI ought to have stated that the pony had enemata daily whilst
taking the Bhang.
| Signed, “J. SAWERS.”
Arr. VII.—Memorandum of Experiments on the Explosion of Gun-
. powder under Water by the Galvanic Batiery ; with a notice of
the successful destruction of the wreck of the “ Equitable,” at Fultah
Reach.— By W. B. O’Saaucunessy, M.D. Assistant Burgeo
| Ǥe. &e.
Havine recently undertaken a series of experiments on the applica-
tion of the Galvanic Battery to the explosion of gunpowder under
water, with reference to the destruction of the wreck of the barque
“Equitable,” sunk in the channel of the Hooghly at Fultah Reach,
| I think it desirable to publish a succinct statement of the results to
_ which these experiments have led.
DPOPOLEDP LODO IP LE LD
Description of the Galvanic Battery.
The galvanic battery which I employed in my experiments is one of
My own construction, but on Daniell’s constant principle. It consists
mR
852 Memorandum of Experiments, Sc. LOcr. |
of a series of rectangular copper cells, (water-tight) fifteen inches
square, and the sides three-fourths of an inch apart. To one lip of
the cell is soldered a small copper tube a (water-tight) in which a
few drops of mercury are contained. One of these cells is shewn
- in the plate, fig. 1.
Each copper cell is provided with a sheet of zinc plate, fourteen and —
a half inches square, to which a thick copper wire, seven inches long,
is firmly soldered. Each zine plate is amalgamated with mercury,
and enclosed in a pasteboard case, the construction of which deserves
attention, as upon it depends much of the action of the battery.
Two sheets of brown pasteboard are cut, of such dimensions that
they will freely slide into the copper cells. The pasteboards are then
placed over each other, and their edges fastened together at three sides
by thin slips of teak, halfan inch wide, bound together by a few copper |
screws. <A case or bag of this kind when well made is water-tight
at the joints, but allows slow filtration to take place through its sides.
One of these cases is shewn at fig. 2.
To arrange each cell the zinc sheet is introduced into the paste-
board case, and this into the copper cell.
Twelve of these cells constitute what we may term one division.
The cells must not touch, and are accordingly separated by slips of |
wood. The zinc sheet from cell No. 1 is connected by its wire with
the copper cell No. 2, the zine of 2 with the copper of 3, and so
on, as shewn in fig. 4, in which twelve are placed in a box together.
To excite the battery two different solutions are employed, one a |
solution of blue-stone (sulphate of copper, nzla ¢utiya). This salt costs |
in the Calcutta bazars about twenty-two rupees per maund.
The second solution is made of sulphate of soda, (Glauber salt, |
Kari nimuk), dissolved in warm water, and allowed to cool be- |
_ fore use.
Each copper cell is to be filled to two-thirds of its depth with |
the blue liquid. The pasteboard cases with their zine sheets are to be |
_ steeped in the Glauber salt solution till thoroughly soaked, then slip- |
ped into the copper cells, and filled up with the same liquid. The
battery is then ready for use.
1839.] Memorandum of Experiments, &c. 853
Igniting effect produced on platinum or tron wire ; how influenced by
distance and thickness of conductors, and length of platinum wire.
I abstain from all explanation as to the theory or mode of action of
this battery, wishing to confine myself here to its effects in the ignition
of metallic wires.
To produce this effect, twist a copper bell-wire ten feet long to the
wire of the last zinc plate, and connect a similar wire with the mer-
eury tube of the first copper cell. If the free ends of these wires be
joined by a fine platinum or iron wire, say two inches in length, the
moment the junction is completed the platinum or iron becomes white
hot, and if the battery be in full action, generally melts into numerous
globules. The ready destructibility of iron by oxidation renders it
inferior for the purpose now in view to platinum, which was according-
ly used in all the subsequent experiments.
But if the copper wires touch each other in any part between the bat-
tery and the platinum no heating is produced, because the electrical
action does not extend beyond the first metallic junction. This most
important fact is made use of in a self-acting apparatus which I employ
for the explosion of mines at a certain fixed time after the experimen-
talist has retired to a safe distance.
It also shews, that when we wish to produce ignition of pla-
tinum wire at a distance we must take some means for preventing
the conductors from touching each other. But before describing
how this may best be accomplished, it is necessary to examine the in-
fluence of two important circumstances over the ignition of the plati-
num wire, viz. the thickness of the conductors, and the distance of the
platinum wire from the battery. A few experiments will render this
quite intelligible.
A constant battery of twelve cells was employed, and a platinum
Wire two inches long and 1-30th of an inch in diameter.
Ast Experiment.—Using copper bdell-wire 1-12th of an inch in
diameter, this battery caused the platinum wire to become so hot as to
kindle saltpetre match-paper at a distance of 130 feet.
_ 2nd Experiment.—Each conductor was formed of two strands of
bell-wire. The platinum was now heated to the same degree to exactly
double the distance of the first experiment. ,
854 Memorandum of Experiments, &c. [Ocr. 4
37rd Experiment.—Three strands of wire were now employed in 4
each conductor, twisted into a cord. The igniting distance was rather —
more than trebled.
My stock of wire was insufficient to carry this curious experiment — }
further; but a trial with a weaker battery and shorter conductors as —
far as six strands in each, led to the inference, that the igniting distance —
increases in an arithmetical ratio with the mass of the conducting
wire.
A very extraordinary circumstance presented itself in these experi-
ments, one which has been previously observed by Davy, but the 5
great importance of which in the present inquiry demands a distinct © 3
description.
“
ae aes
if at the distance of 130 feet two inches of platinum wire become
a bright red, we find that by shortening the wire to one inch thel
ignition is not increased, but diminishes remarkably. Shortened to-
half an inch the wire ceases to be even sensibly warm to the touch!
This curious fact is one deserving all the ingenuity of the theorist to—
explain its nature, but my business now is with practical matters —
alone. It leads clearly to the employment of exploding wires of much
greater length than we would employ were we ignorant of this very
singular and apparently anomalous circumstance.
PIAL OL IP LE PPPP IS OO
Insulation of conductors not essential even in water.
The preceding observations refer to dvy conductors. It is almost
needless to say that dividing the wires in any part, and thus interrupt-
ing the circuit, at once causes the platinum to return to its natural
degree of coldness. |
It might be, and indeed generally is supposed, that were the con-
ductors immersed in water, this fluid would carry off the electricity, —
and nullify all effect on the platinum. Thence it would be inferred
that it would be necessary to insulate the wires, that is, to place them
within a coating of some resinous, or other non-conducting substance,
which would at the same time prove impervious to water and a barrier
to the passage of the electric fluid. 5
Impressed with the idea that this insulation might be dispensed
with, I instituted severalexperiments with the same battery and plati-
1839. ] Memorandum of Experiments, &c. | 855
num wire already described, using the three-strand conductors led
through water in the tank of the Medical College.
The result was, that the conductors being three inches apart from each
_~ other, and prevented from mutual contact by pieces of wood, as shewn
in fig. 5, the platinum wire ignited gunpowder in a bottle under
water, to a distance one-third the length of that at which explosion
would occur were the conductors dry.
This fact enabled me inthe explosion of the barque ‘‘ Equitable,” here-
inafter described, to dispense with the insulation of the conductors al-
together, and to use naked three-strand wires, in the ladder-form, as
represented in the plate.
It was manifest however that the water did interfere so much as to
eut off two-thirds of the electricity in circulation from the stand-
ard battery employed. It was also found that approximating the
wires towards each other to the distance of one and a half inch, pro-
duced a nearly proportionate diminution of the igniting distance. But
separating the wires to the distance of three feet did not, on the
other hand, materially lengthen the igniting distance. I did not
attempt to trace the law by which this effect is regulated—neither
time nor means were at my command todoso. But from one anda half
inch to three feet constituted the limits within which, in a practical
point of view, it was of the least interest to study the phenomenon.
PIPE PI PL POLO PE FL IG
Floating conductors, construction of.
The preceding experiments made it manifest that to effect subaque-
| ous explosions in fresh water with perfect certainty, xaked wires, three
_ inches apart, might be used to the distance or depth of 130 feet. It next
became a point of interest to learn how far the distance might be ex-
| tended by floating or insulating the portion of wires not necessarily
| immersed in water.
Several plans for floating the wires were tried ; for example, earthen
' pots kept at a distance by slips of bamboo were used, but. found
very unmanageable, the breakage of one pot frequently throwing the
whole line into confusion, and sinking so many of these frail vessels
'| as to prevent any certain results being obtained.
I then tried corks, and with complete success. One of the conduc-
856 Memorandum of Experiments, &c. [Ocr.
tors was led through the axis of each cork, and the cork slided along ;
as it reached its place a brush dipped in melted pitch was applied
round the wire, and the cork shoved on the pitched part. In a few
seconds the pitch set, and was protected by the cork. The entire of one
conductor, 480 feet in length, was thus coated, and at an expense I
may observe of fifteen rupees for all the corks required.*
To the side of this corked wire the second conductor was lashed
on by turns of cord. On placing the entire in the tank, I found, to my
great satisfaction, that the conductors floated freely, were flexible, light,
and manageable in every direction, and that with the battery all along
employed, the standard platinum wire was ignited to the same dis-
tance as when the conductors were used on land.
POLO POLO LOEDO LO DROS
Mode of insertion and protection of the platinum wire in the mine.
These experiments left nothing to be desired so far as the battery
and conductors were concerned. The next circumstance to be attended
to, was the best manner of inserting the platinum wire into the charge
of powder, so as to ensure explosion without risking the entrance
of water, and with such arrangements as would protect the wires
from sudden strains, which might endanger their being torn asunder.
Colonel Pasley, of Chatham, was reported to have led the termina-
tions of the wires through corks, and then to have poured on a cement
composed of suet, wax, and pitch. I speak vaguely, not being in full
possession of the particulars of Colonel Pasley’s method. His conductors
were made of wire led through ropes, well insulated by pitch, and
surrounded by tarred yarn. It is said that the heavy strain of these
rope-conductors frequently tore the wires from the cement, destroyed
the platinum loop, and prevented the desired explosion. I do not
make this statement in full knowledge of the facts,—it is moreover my
most anxious wish not to misrepresent this very distinguished officer ;
but my object in preparing for the explosion of the “‘ Equitable” was to
guard against the evils attributed to Colonel Pasley’s system, by com-
mon report and newspaper statements.
* Sola (the subaqueous spongy stems of Aschynomen e. paludosa of Roxburgh)
was tried, but was found too brittle and weak,
1839.] Memorandum of Experiments, &:c. 857
My apparatus was thus prepared, see fig. 7—fifteen inches of the
thick end of a gun-barrel g, g, were cut off, and a male screw turned on
the barrel near its centre. To this screw was fitted a square plate of
iron, half an inch thick by about five inches square 7, 7, having a hole
at each angle to admit of fastening screws being inserted. A teak
rod ¢, ¢, eighteen inches long, was now prepared so that it would just
enter the gun-barrel when nearly red hot—two grooves were cut in
the opposite sides of this rod, and the conducting wires let into the
grooves and securely fastened in with a strip of wood and pitch cement.
The rod and wires were then driven into the hot gun-barrel, and the
whole immediately plunged in cold water. The contraction which
ensued bound the rod and wires so firmly that no force could possibly
affect the platinum loop, nor any leakage occur through the iron tube.
An inch and a half of platinum wire (p) was next soldered to the end
of the conductors, and over these was tied a paper cartridge containing
mealed Dartford powder—the cartridge was protected by a copper tube
G, which screwed on to the end of the gun-barrel, and projected about
three inches beyond the platinum loop. This tube was filled with
Dartford powder and securely closed by a wooden stopper, cemented
into its place by melted pitch.
The ignition of the platinum wire would explode the cartridge, and
this the surrounding Dartford powder, which must burst the tube
and explode the contents of the mine in which it was placed.
I may here advantageously anticipate the regular course of this
narrative by stating, that the mine for the destruction of the “‘ Equitable”
consisted of a barrel-shaped wooden vessel, about seven feet long by
three and a half feet in diameter, capable of containing 2,500Ibs. of pow-
der. The square iron plate 2, z, fig. 7. B, was screwed into the side of
this vessel, which was subsequently enclosed in thick sheet lead. Into
the iron plate the priming tube, above described, was firmly screwed,
a, washer of lead being placed in the joint.
PL IP PDIP IODIDY PI DP
Description of self-acting apparatus for igniting the wire at any given
moment.
In compliance with the wishes of Captain Fitzgerald, the engineer
officer in charge of the operations for destroying the wreck, it was
determined to sacrifice the battery employed, by placing it immediately
B58 Memorandum of Experiments, &c. [Ocr.
over the mine—it therefore became necessary to contrive some self-acting
apparatus by means of which. the requisite contact of the conductors
with the battery could be made at any desired period.
Bearing in mind that all that is required to prevent the ignition of
the platinum wire is to cut, or otherwise interrupt, one of the conduc-
tors—or else to bring the wires into metallic contact with each other
between the battery and the platinum loop—it will be easy to under-
stand the action of the two pieces of apparatus which I now proceed to
describe.
The first of these acts by restoring contact between the ends of a
divided conductor, thus completing the electric circuit and igniting
the wire. But as some unforeseen accident might interfere, and render
it necessary to examine the whole arrangement after the mine was laid, —
a contrivance was added, which after an interval of four minutes
- would break the circuit again and render every thing safe during exa-
mination.
This apparatus is shewn at fig. 8. It consists of a watch from which
the minute hand was removed, and its place supplied by a strip of
copper four inches long and a quarter of an inch broad, and fixed by
its centre to the arbor of the minute hand. Each end of this index
carried by a thread a wire bent thus (), the legs dipping into glass tubes
fixed in wood, and containing a portion of mercury. As the copper —
index revolved, its advancing arm gradually lowered the bent wire
a a into the tubes, and thus established contact with the battery, one of
the conductors of which c, was interrupted at d and e. The opposite
arm, also connected with a bent wire 6 5, would lift this from a
similar pair of tubes after a lapse of four minutes, and thus break the
contact should no explosion have occurred.
A glance at the figure in the plate will render the plan at once
intelligible.
This apparatus could be set so as to go for any period from one to |
thirteen minutes. The watch employed cost twenty-five rupees.
The second self-acting contrivance was perhaps the simpler of the
two, and depended on the fact, that if the conductors come into metal-
lic contact with each other between the battery and the platinum
wire, the electricity does not reach the latter, and no ignition occurs,—
parting the conductors directs the electric fluid upon the platinum wits
and ignition accordingly ensues.
Dppera L205 for - HaCoflotecr of Gorfowder ander Maller” =
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1839. ] Memorandum of Experiments, Sc. 8909
A joint of bamboo, see fig. 9 6, about 5 inches long by 132 in dia-
meter, capable of holding 2lbs. of mercury, was fitted with a small
brass stopcock below, through which when opened the mercury might
escape. It was found by experiment, that when fully open 2lbs.
escaped through the stopcock employed ina few seconds more than five
minutes.
The bamboo joint was fixed on a wooden frame f/f, having a vessel
below to receive the mercury. A stout copper wire was led through
the diameter of the bamboo, one and a half inch from the bottom.
A similar wire was inserted three-fourths of an inch below, and in the
same direction with the first, and this second wire was divided into
two parts, as shewn in the drawing. The ends of the wires were turned
into a few loose spirals to allow of their being readily connected with
the battery on one side, and with the conductors to the mine on
the other.
Suppose this joint filled with mercury, the stopcock shut, and the
battery wires connected with it at one side (say the right,) and the
mine conductors connected with it at the left—in this case metallic
contact being established in the conductors c, c, between the battery
and the mine, no ignition can possibly occur, because the electricity
returns to the battery by the first cross road it meets, if I may be per-
mitted to use this homely, but I think expressive, illustration.
If we now open the stopcock and allow the mercury to trickle out
as soon as its level subsides below that of the highest copper wire, the
only path of the electric fluid now lies through the mine, the platinum
becomes ignited, and explosion ensues.
But should any accident have occurred, so that no explosion takes
place at once, and should therefore the whole arrangement need inspec-
tion, the mercury still subsiding passes after two or three minutes
below the second wire, which having been previously cut, the circuit
is now completely interrupted, and the whole arrangement is perfectly
safe for inspection.
in using this apparatus two things must be attentively borne in mind.
No accident can happen while it is full of mercury, but when once
emptied it must not be filled again while in connexion with the bat-
tery, otherwise an explosion may ensue.
The whole arrangement is shewn in the accompanying diagram, in
DES
860 Memorandum of Experiments, &c. . ‘LOcr.
which @ represents the battery, 6 the bamboo mercury cup nearly
full of mercury, cc the battery conductors, c c the conductors leading
to the explosion tube ¢, containing the platinum wire and priming.
The whole cost of this apparatus, including quicksilver, is not more
than six rupees.
It is obvious that many substitutes for the watch apparatus may be
devised, and indeed the expense of even the cheapest watch procurable
(ten rupees) is an objection, though an insignificant one, to its employ-
ment, where circumstances render it advisable to expend all the appa-
ratus by placing it immediately over the mine. Ina remarkable set
of experiments which I witnessed, portfires were employed instead of
the watch—one, six inches in length, supported by a string the wire for
establishing the connexion with the battery, corresponding to the watch
wires a, a—a second portfire, nine inches long, supported a weight, the
descent of which was intended to break the connexion in the manner
effected by the watch wires 5, 6. In two of the three trials in question
the weight did not fall, and the consequence was the imminent dan-
ger of the destruction of the party whose duty it was to re-examine
and re-adjust the arrangements on the failure of the two first attempts.
In one of the trials it was observed too, that one of the tubes containing
the mercury was completely choked up by melted saltpetre which had
fallen from the portfire during its combustion. These defects seem to
me to constitute a most serious objection to the use of portfires ; 1 admit,
however, that these are more of a military character than my contri-
vances—and in this, I believe, their chief merit lies.
Explosion of the barque “ Equitable.”
The barque “ Equitable,” boundto Sydney, and laden with wheat, rice,
rum, &c. while proceeding down the river in September 1839, touched on
Fultah Sand, and instantly turned over in six to seven fathoms water.
The wreck lay on her beam-ends athwart Fultah Channel, the keel to-
wards Calcutta. On sounding with the lead, the water over her quarter
shoaled to three fathoms, and then suddenly deepened to five or six.
Capt. Fitzgerald, the engineer officer employed, determined to attempt
the destruction of the vessel by the explosion of 2,500 lbs. of powder
placed between the mizen and main masts, close to the deck.
|
|
:
1839. ] Memorandum of Experiments, &c. 861
The cylinder already described was admirably fitted up, under
Captain Fitzgerald’s directions, in the arsenal of Fort William; before
being filled with powder, the exploding tube was screwed into its side,
twenty-four barrels of powder were then poured in through an aper-
ture left at the top of the cylinder, which was afterwards closed with
wood and soldered up with sheet lead.
The cylinder thus prepared was slung on a cradle to the bows of
the “ Vulcan” anchor vessel, which proceeded down the river and took up
her berth at Fultah, immediately over the wreck.
At the slack of the tide, on the 14th December, the preparations for
lowering the cylinder.being completed, the ends of the ladder-conductor
were securely twisted to the wires projecting from the explosion-tube, a
piece of wood interposed, and the whole guarded by a joint of bamboo
and a wedge. As the cylinder was lowered, my assistant, Mr. Siddons,
cautiously permitted the ladder conductors to follow, and when the
cylinder was in its berth, the conductors were cut short, so as that their
free ends should reach the bow of an old fishing boat, previously moored
fore and aft over the wreck. To the bow of this boat the wires
were secured by twisting them round screws inserted for the purpose; the
length of conductors immersed in the water was thirty-four feet.
The battery and watch apparatus were placed on the boat—the watch
set to twelve minutes—and, lastly, the battery wires twisted to the con-
ductors at the bow. The party at the mine consisted of Capts. Fitzgerald
and Debude, and Lieut. Smith of the Engineers, my assistant Mr. Sid-
_ dons, and myself. When all was ready, one of the wires in the battery,
ca ———_ - | oe it
CT
Se ~
purposely left out of its mercury cell to prevent accident, was placed
in its position, and our party pulled away vigorously from the
dangerous vicinity. At the thirteenth minute a slight concussion
was felt in our boat, a sound like that of a very distant and heavy gun
at sea was heard, and a huge hemispherical mass of discoloured water
was thrown up to the height of about 30 feet. From the centre of this
mass there then rose slowly and majestically a pillar of water, in-
termingled with foam and fragments of wreck, and preserving a cylin-
drical form till it reached an elevation of at least 150 feet. The
column then subsided slowly, a wreath of foam and sparkling jets of
water following its descent, and rendering the spectacle one of indescri-
bable beauty.
862 Memorandum of Experiments, &c. [Ocr.
On pulling to the spot we found the river absolutely thickened by
the wreck and cargo of the vessel. By subsequent examination, it
was found that with the exception of the forecastle, the ‘“ Kquitable”
had by this explosion been literally torn to pieces. The fishing boat,
battery, watch, &c. were all ‘‘expended.”—The ladder conductors were
however picked up uninjured half a mile from the wreck.
PILPLI OP PDIP DP OO IO
In conclusion of this paper—which circumstances induce me to pub-
lish sooner than I intended—I think it but just to express my thanks for
the zealous assistance afforded me in all the preceding experiments, and
in the construction of the apparatus, by Mr. Siddons, of the Medical
College. |
I should add, that while my experiments were proceeding, my col-
league Mr. Egerton, suggested the placing of a strip of saltpetre match-
paper round the platinum, in preference to placing this in contact
with the powder. The excellence of the suggestion was proved
by experiment, for we found on repeated trials that saltpetre match
inflames at nearly double the distance at which the wire will explode
powder.
The match should be prepared by immersing coffon in a saturated
solution of the purest saltpetre; if the salt be impure the match is
liable to become damp, and thus to frustrate the experiment. A few
fibres of this cotton should be twisted loosely round the platinum wire.
It is astonishing to observe the great cooling effect produced on the
platinum wire by the contact of apparently dry powder, if this be in
the least degree damp. On one occasion with a new battery in perfect
order, with dry conductors only 150 feet long, the standard platinum’
wire was kept for an hour in a pint bottle of powder just drawn from
the canister, and no explosion ensued ; but by removing some of the
powder, so as to leave only a grain or two on the wire, the mass being
half an inch below it in the neck of the bottle, explosion took place the
instant the battery contact was effected.
I wish it to be remembered too that the preceding experiments are
applicable only to explosions in fresh water ; operations in salt water
would require a special set of experiments, which I have not had the
means of instituting on a sufficiently large scale. I have strong reason
however to believe that the cork conductors with pitched wires will
+
1839. | Memorandum of Experiments, &:c. 863
succeed effectually in salt water also. Nay, even naked wires after
having been used for about an hour as conductors in salt water are, I
find, protected or insulated by the coat of oxychloride of copper, which
forms on the positive wire.
In subsequent experiments I would recommend a copper or sheet-
iron, water-tight, tube to be soldered round the internal orifice of the
screw plate into which the explosion tube is inserted (see fig. 10 ¢, ¢, c,)
This would constitute a separate compartment in the mine or cylinder,
and in the event of leakage, that portion only of the powder could be
spoiled contained within this tube. This alteration I have taken the
liberty of recommending to Captain Fitzgerald and Lieut. Smith, the
engineer officers employed in these operations.
Lastly, were I again to undertake the destruction of a wreck, I
would employ cork conductors secured fromthe mine to a buoy, and
from this I would float 100 yards of conductors to a boat containing
the battery and the mercurial discharger. At such a distance I have
little doubt but that the whole apparatus, battery, boat, &c. would
escape unharmed.
Calcutta, 20th January, 1840.
Art. VIII.— Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
( Wednesday Evening, the 4th December, 1839.)
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
Captain F. W. Brircu, proposed at the last Meeting, was balloted for and duly
elected a Member of the Society.
His Excellency Sir Jasper Nicotxis, Commander-in-Chief, was proposed by the
President, seconded by Colonel D. MacrzEop.
Maharajah Rauamut. Att Kuan, Bahadur, was proposed by H. T. Prinszp,
Esq. seconded by the Secretary.
Read a letter from Sir G. C. Haueuton, acknowledging his election as an honor-
ary Member.
To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society.
14 Grafton Street, Bond Street, London, \8th July, 1839.
Sir,—I beg you will present my best respects to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta,
and express to them how much I feel honored by the distinction they have conferred
upon me in making me an honorary member of their Society. I am happy that any
864 Asiatic Society. | [Oee:
little service rendered here on my part has been useful to a Society that has been equal-
led by few, and surpassed by no other, in the spirit and result of its labors. The names
of Jones, CoLEBROOKE, Wrtson, and though last, certainly not the least, that of
Mr. James Prinsep, (whose melancholy state of health every lover of literature,
science, and generous disinterestedness must deplore) will ever forma proud subject of
remembrance to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta; and make the republic of letters join
in the wish of its founder—Esto perpetua.
I need scarcely add, that my humble services will always be at the bidding of the
Society. I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your very obedient humble servant,
GRAVES C. HAUGHTON.
Read a letter from the Dutch Government, returning thanks to the Society for
the books presented on their behalf to Prince Henry of Orange, during his visit to
Calcutta.
A la Société Asiatique, Calcutta.
Le Soussigné, chargé d’affaires de sa Majesté le Roi des Pays-Bas, prés la cour de
la Grande Brétagne, a l’honneur d’envoyer ci joint a la Société Asiatique 4 Calcutta,
une lettre du Ministre de l’Intérieur du Royaume des Pays-Bas par laquelle Son
Excellence remercie au nom de sa Majesté Neerlandaise a la dite Société du cadeau
qu’ elle a fait, 4 l’occasion du séjour de Son Altesse Royale le Prince Henri des
Pays-Bas 4 Calcutta, de plusieurs ouvrages scientifiques destinés a des institutions
savantes du Royaume des Pays-Bas. BARON BENTINCK.
Londres le 19 Juillet, 1839.
Read the following letter from the Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society
regarding the publication of Geographical Memoirs presented to the Asiatic Society
of Bengal.
To the Secretary of the Bengal Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
Royal Geographical Society, London, lst August, 1839.
Sir,—I have the honor to acquaint you, that in accordance with the suggestion of
Major T. B. Jervis, Surveyor-General of India, the Council of this Society has
resolved to present a complete set of its Journal to the public Library of each of the ten
principal stations in India, and I have now the pleasure to forward a copy, consisting of
nine volumes, for the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which I am to re-
quest you will be pleased to present in the name of the Geographical Society of
London.
In making this communication, the Council beg to express their hope that this
Journal may prove useful to officers who may be about to undertake journeys in
the various parts of India, and in the adjacent countries, and to make known to
them, that there exists in London a Society specially devoted to the advancement of
Geography, which will gladly receive, and publish in the best form, the correct
account of any journey in a country of which our Geographical information may be
imperfect, as is the case throughout almost the whole continent of Asia.
I am desired to propose to you the exchange, in future, of the Geographical Journal
for the admirable Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which contains so much
1839.) Astatic Society. 865
valuable Geographical, as well as other information. Should this arranpement meet
your views, the subsequent numbers of our Journal shall be dispatched to Calcutta as
soon as published. Iam Sir,
Your obedient servant,
JOHN WASHINGTON, Secretary.
P.S.—The other nine stations are Bombay, Madras, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mhow,
Dum-Dum, Delhi, Meerut, and Cawnpoor; which I mention in order that officers
moving from one station to another, and desirous of consulting the London Geogra-
phical Journal, may know where to find it.
Read a letter from H. T. Prinsrp, Esq. Secretary to the Government of India,
Political Department, forwarding a Topographical Report, and Meteorological Re-
gister of Tatta, by Dr. WINCHESTER.
Library.
Read a letter from J. P. Grant, Esq. Officiating Secretary to the Government of
India, Revenue Department, forwarding for presentation the following books on the
part of Government :—
Illustrations of Indian Botany, No. 9.
Dr. Wicut’s figures of Indian plants, Nos 9 and 10.
- The following books were presented :—
Observations relative to the Statistical Reports on the sickness, mortality, and inva-
liding among the troops in the West Indies. By James Mouat, Esq. M. D.
——by the author.
Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, No. 62 all the Society.
Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay, Volume 2——by the
Society.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 14, part Ist,——bdy the
Society.
Proceedings of ditto, Nos. 13, 14, and 15,07 ditto.
Third, fifth, and sixth Annual Reports of the Managers of the Pennsylvania Insti-
tution for the instruction of the Blind,—by the American Philosophical Society.
Pickering’s Eulogy on Dr. BowpirTcu, President of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, ——by ditto.
Constitution, Charter, and Bye-laws and Documents relating to the Pennsylvania
Institution for the instruction of the Blind——by ditto.
A Discourse occasioned by the death of Jutius R. FRIEDLANDER,——by ditto.
Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the Royal Asi-
atic Society, ——by the Society.
A copy of “ Akhlaqi Jelali,”’ translated from the Persian by W. F. Tompson,
Esq. B. C. S ——by the translator.
On the causes of Bronchocele in India and England——presented by Dr. Mal-
colmson.
Hammer’s Gemaldesai,__—-by the author.
Hammer’s (4 vols.) Mahmud Schebisteris Rosenflor des Geheimnis Bema und
Deutch, 3 copies-———by the author
Jahrbucher der Literatur, vols. 81, 82, 83 and 84,—-by the Editor.
866 Asiatic Society. LOcr.
The following books were received from the Oriental Translation Fund ;—
Practical Philosophy of the Mohammedan People, being a translation of the Axkh- :
laki Jalaly, by W. F.,THomeson, Esq.
Kumara Sambhava Kalidase Carmen Sanscrite et Latine edited by A. F.
STENYLER.
Rigveda Sanhita Sanscrite et Latine by F. A. Rosen.
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia; Statesmen, Vol. 7.
Museum.
A curious helmet used by the warriors of the coast of Mergui, with a spear and a_
couple of shields, were presented by a Member on the eve of his departure for Europe.
Antiquities, &c.
Read a note from Mr. James MIppLETON, on the silver plate presented by Govern- —
ment on the 3rd July last, used for taking observations of altitude, and distance. _ Pub-
lished in the present number.
Read a letter from Counsellor Von Hammer, forwarding his translation of the —
Mohit. |
Physical. |
Read a letter from W. Scort, Esq. forwarding observations on the Tides at Singa- .
pore, for June, July, and August, and stating that in consequence of a Tide Gauge
being established by Government, he will discontinue the observations for the Society
in future.
fe ee ee
Read a note from A. Kean, Esq. on the Table furnished by Dr. Stewart, and pub-_
lished in the Journal for April last, respecting the Hindu population, and Mortality in~
each Police division and Thannah of Calcutta, for the year 1837. .
Read a letter from Dr. J. G. SpiisBury, forwarding drawings of Fossil Shells, with i
plates, by Captain P. A. REyNo ps, 38th Madras N. I. P
Both the preceding papers have been published in the September number of the
Journal.
NOTICES.
The generous kindness of CoLONEL Mac eon, enables us to present our readers
with the spirited and accurate sketch now published of the ‘“‘ Nizamut Palace at
Moorshedabad.’’ In binding the volume the sketch should be placed in juxta-position
with the architectural description given at page 552, of the July Number, 1839. |
In our next Number wiil be published a sketch on stone of the explosion of the
tbe
barque “ Equitable,”’ from the successful pencil of Coronet Luarp. We regret
that it is impossible to complete this admirable drawing in time for the prese
Number.
Aur. IX.—Meteorologival Register, hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of December, 1839. 867
= —— :
Minimum Temperature observed Maxi :
| ee Rg nas OO Observations made at Apparent Noon. :
| uiperature. | Wind, 2 Temperature. | Wind. > ‘Temperature. ) Wind. 7
0 ae Se a Tal a, al CA 3 =a =
le |e lEel 3 2 |. [Be g 4 He Mes Es 3
ts S ise : = s l= a rt . Ss s s 3 :
| 5) = [ga] S | 3 2 Fels |Ea] 8 3 = Fels |gz] 8 3
2 a 3 g Z/2 les] 5 3 5} elas! = 3
z le'|2 gal £ z 2 2°|3 [ga] 2 z 2 22/3 |za| & z
[eta 24) el <2 ajo /ojo | Aa 4 ais jojo | a <
Pet EB eh — PZERE Sea S| 2 Se
| 30,042) 66,6) 97,9) 58,0|Calm. |Clear. 30, 118} 70,5] 75,5) 69,0)B. 30,108] 71,0] 79,5] 71,8)E. _..|Clear.
| 080} 65,8] 99,6/59,6/Calm. |Clear. 150} 69,5] 71,0) 65,5|N. 114] 72,2] 77,0] 68,8). W.|Clear,
| ,073)66,6/ 97,9/57,2/N. ..|Clear, 106! 69,4) 70,9) 66,9\n, ,084] 72,0) 77,0] 69,9|N. W.|Clear.
| ,076)67,0] 98,0)58,0|N. . .|Clear, 112) 70,0) 73,2) 69,0|N. 3087] 72'5| 81,0] 73,9|N. ../Clear.
| *089{68)2} 60,5] 60,5)N. <|Clear. +130] 20,9) 75,9) 70,9)N. 116] 75,9] 82,7| 74,8|N. E.|Clear,
34) 68,9| 60,0/61,0)N. E.|Clear. {110} 71,2) 78,0) 71,4/N. J094] 74}5| 81,0| 72,9|N. W.|Clear. :
8,0)| 99,0] 60,0/Calm. |Clear. "102| 72,0) 76,2) 70,4. N- 090] 74,6| 79,9/71,5|N. ..|Clear. ;
60,7|60,6|N. ..|Clear. 1069] 71,5] 75,5) 70,0). \042| 72,2) 78,8] 71,5|N. <<|Clear.
60,0 60,0/N._ |Clear. 1036| 70,5) 72,6] 69, L|N. {OL4] 71,6] 76,8) 70,9|N. <-|Clear. |
58,9] 58,9/Calm. |Clear, 31054] 70,4) 72,0] 69,5|N. 1023) 71,9) 86,0) 70,5/N...|Clear. ;
58,5/59,0/Calm. Clear, $088] 70,074 ,9] 69,2)N. "050| 74,0] 77,5|70,9\N- ..|Clear.
§] 57,0] 58,0|Calm. |Clear. 1012] 69,8) 72,9] 67,3,N. 29,992| 73,1] 78,0| 70,4|N. ..|Clear.
56,9]58,0|Calm. |Clear. | 29,996] 68,7) 74,0] 68,5,N. 956| 71,5] 76,4| 68,9|N. ..|Clear.
54,9) 56,0/Calm. |Clear, 30,010) 66,4| 72,7| 66,8.N. '994| 70,4) 75,0] 69,0\N...|Clear.
54,0) 56,0/Calm, Clear, 034] 66,0) 70,0] 66,5 N. ,019] 69,5) 73,0) 68,9|N. _..|Clear.
53,0) 54,9/Calm. |Clear $102] 67,3) 70,9] 66,9, N- 1055 70,0) 76,0| 69,0|N. W.|Clear.
51,5) 52,9/Calm. |Cleur. ,008/ 66,5) 72,5) 67,0) W. 29/983] 68,6) 74,9] 67,5|W. ..|Clear. -
5 088) 67,8] 72,0) 66,5) W. 30,060] 69,0) 74,0) 67,0/N. W.|Clear,
0] 9 104] 67,5| 71,2] 67,0|N. 1077] 70,2) 76,8) 69,9|N. _..|Clear. ;
6] 56, 1096] 67,5) 71,0] 67,0|N. 079} 70,8| 77,0) 69,5|N. W.|Clear.
56,0} S112} 68,2] 7130] 67,0)N \086| 70,1|78,2| 70,9/N. ..|Clear.
1159, 1074) 66,5] 70,5] 63,5|N. 1062] 68,6) 77,0/ 68,0)... |Cirro-strati.
5 066] 67,6|70, 8] 65,0|N 044] 68,5| 73,1) 67,8|N. W.|Clear.
1050] 67;3] 70,9] 65,5|N 1024] 69,2) 74}5| 67,1)N. W.|Clear.
1032] 66,5) 70,5] 66,0). b. {019} 68,8) 73,8) 67,5|N. W.|Clear.
000] 66,4) 70,9] 65,0,N- 29,972] 68,5| 72,9] 67,2|N. W.|Clear.
5 29,986] 67,7| 72,8] 68,8)N- :964) 68,8) 74,5| 69,5|W. ..|Clear.
5 +980) 68,2] 74,2] 67,5). 1959] 69,0) 75,9] 68,6|N. Clear
4 : 964] 66,6) 70,0] 64,7|N. 948] 68,5) 73,8) 67,5|N. _E.|Clear.
9 0 Calm, | 30,054) 66,3) 69,4] 63,4.N. 027] 69,5) 73,0) 69,0|N. W.|Clear.
5) 58,4 |Calm, Clear. +138] 63,9] 66,5] 62,0|W. 11U} 67,7| 72,0] 65,0|N. W.|Clear.
8,021 | 63,6} 56,3/56,9 | ,064] 68,8] 72,3167,3 O41} 70,7| 76,4) 69,4)
Mixitaum/h aot peratare oberge Minimum Pressure observed at 4 vm. Observations made at Sun-set. Gay %
Wind, 2 Temperature. ) Wind, Be ‘Yemperature. | Wind, a
a a | ae a ze ae
& \e \a me z = a
4 e iS le lee! = 4 1) gee Solis ecllle |
8 = SB) Plea Sl) S & lA sie 123) =
2 = = [e8] 5 [a2] = 2 2 [gt] ¢ e] 3 = mele
| : = gel |ga| 2 = = |2°|)3 |ga| 2 z 22
a < aepj|o|5 | a < alo jlo is | a 4 Dp |S .)
72,6) 78,3 056] 71,7) 74,0] 71,0|Calm. |Light Cirro-strati.
71,5) 78,0 ,034] 71,0] 73,8} 68,0|Calm. |Clear.
5|73,0| 78,5) 035) 72,5] 74,6] 68,9
73,8} 82,0) 039] 73,0] 78,2] 73,0|C
73,5] 82,5 ,069] 72,9] 77,8) 72,8 ‘
72,6) 83,8 1038} 72,5] 76,0] 73,7
4,4) 79,5) {O40} 73,9] 75,9] 73,0/C .
73,0) 79,6) 29,996] 72,0] 74,8] 73,0)
30] 72,4 79,8) 19721 71,9] 73,5] 72,3 1
73,3) 78, $996] 72,0] 72,5] 70,4
a 74,6) 79,5 | 30,016} 71,9] 72,9] 69,
OW. 73,0| 77,8 29,920] 71,9] 73,0) 69,0|N
bic 0,2| 75, | {9241 69,8) 70,7] 68,3)
pecan 70,0} 85,0) $957] 69,5) 70,0] 68,0)
N. '::|Clear. 70,4 74,2 1964] 69,0} 69,8) 68,5 j
Nea : 1970] 70,9) 75,3 +982) 68,8] 69,8] 67,7
97,0|W. ..|Clear. 1948] 69,9] 75,0 1360) 68,9] 68,9] 67,0
'3/W. ..|Clear :990| 71,0] 76, | [998] 69,0} 69,5] 67,2 ‘
OXO\N. ..|Clear, 1022) 71,6] 77,2 1029) 63,8) 70,8) 63,6
w 90,0|N. W.|Clear. 1020] 72,0] 77,9) 1028} 69,0] 70,0] 68,2
21 90;5|/N._..|Clear. 022] 71,9] 78,0) 024) 70,0] 70,5] 68,7
" 88,0/N, W.|Cirro-strati, cloudy occasionally) \010) 69,5) 77, | {016} 68,8} 69,0| 67,2
3 91,0,N. W.|Clear. 970] 70,3] 76, | 982] 69,8) 70,6] 67,0
dt 90,0|N. W.|Clear. 1975) 70,9] 73,9 ; 3 | 3984} 69,9] 70,0] 65,2)
5 91,5|W. ..|A few fragts. of Cumuli, 1954] 70,3) 73,0) Clear. | 69,0] 69,8) 65,5) Py
6 OL2lW. ..|A few Cirro-Cumuli, '918) 70,5) 74,5) ..|Cloudy partially. +922! 69,3] 73,0) 69,7| Calm.
7 98,0) W._--|Cum, Cloudy occasionally. 1900] 70,9) 77,0) . n,|Cumuli zenith clear. +912} 70,0] 73,5) 70,9] Calm. |Gencrally Clear.
3 95,2|N. W_|Clear, 1858)71,2) 78,3 ~\Clear. | ,900| 70,0] 72,7) 66,6| Calm, |Clear,
a) 92,5|N. E,|Clear. 1879) 69,9] 79,0) “/Clear. | .890| 69,2] 71,9] 65,0|Calm, |Clear.
u) aS\0|N. ../Clear. 960) 69,5) 74,3] ..|Clear, | 5970] 69,0} 70,8) 64,0/Calm. |Clear.
87,5'N. ..|Clear. 30,050} 68,0) 7,8) "| Cirro-strati. ,057| 67,9] 70,7} 63,8) Calm. |Clear.
van.| 998] 71,9 78,7170,5) 4,4) 29,980) 71,5] 76,9 | ,989| 70,4) 72,2| 68,7 :
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 95—NOVEMBER, 1839.
Arr. I.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of
Afghanistan and the neighbouring Countries. —By Lieut. Irwin.!
POPEPP OOP PPE PP LD
PART II—OF SOIL.
90. It may appear an easy task to learn the nature of the soil
in the various districts, or at least the more ostensible properties, such
as colour and consistency, but in practice many disappointments will
be experienced. Informants are apt to impose upon the inquirer their
own petty experience, for the general truth of things ; on few subjects
is local vanity found so strong a vitiating testimony. Moreover, let the
testimony be ever so candid, the circumstances of the case present
some other difficulties. It is well known that within short distances
the nature of the soil is often found to vary in all degrees. Evidence
as to a small part of the district is here but little conclusive with
respect to the whole, and it requires a large induction of particu-
lars (which may not always be procurable) to establish an accurate
generalization ; and the terms used are often vague and of difficult
interpretation. However strange, it is yet true, that the ideas of the
Asiatics on colour are very different from ours, and their arrangement
aid nomenclature are calculated to mislead an inexperienced inquirer.
From all these causes the following observations must be received, as
they are offered, with distrust.
1 Continued from p. 804
870 Lieut. Irwin's Memotr of Afghanistan. [Nov.
91. The immediate environs of Delhi are of a sandy soil, though not
a mere sand, and generally of a yellow colour. In the northern road
to Lodhiana after a few stages the soil becomes more and more
loamy and black. The soil.of Paneeput is a fine sandy loam. At
Umbala, which lies on the left of the Kughur, the soil is a deep loam
or mud, of a dark brown colour and great strength. Kughur and
Sursootee running in a muddy soil are narrow and deep, and hence a
slight fall of rain makes them impassable. The Markunda, which the
traveller crosses between Shadeepoor and Lundee, before he reaches
the Sursootee, ultimately falls into that stream; it runs in sand, and
is shallow and broad. At Sirhind and as far as Lodhiana the soil
has a greater proportion of sand than on the banks of the Kughur.
The soil of the country of Bhutner is various. The cultivated parts are
loam or sandy loam ; some of the pastures contain tracts of sand hills,
and others of level hard clay. Under the great northern hills the soil
has a great proportion of mud, of a rich quality and much natural
moisture. In the road between Delhi and Lodhiana, water in wells
is found at moderate depths, but to the left hand, in Hureeana and
Bhutner, we come to places where the wells are of considerable
depth.
92. In the Dooab or country lying between the Sutluj and Beah,
we find the soil to possess considerable variety, but on the whole it may
be described as a sandy loam of excellent quality, very little elevated
above the surface of the rivers, and the wells are consequently shallow. |
‘. The Beah runs in sand, and sweeps away in its waters sand ofa yellow
colour; the Sutluj in the rainy season is more turbid and muddy.
The right bank of the Beah is high and sandy, and there seems to be
a gradual descent thence to the Ravee. The soil of this part of the upper
Punjab has a great proportion of sand, but yet has sufficient firmness.
The remaining two Dooabs have a less proportion of sand, yet little —
loam is to be seen. In some places tracts occur which are naturally
sterile. Inthe upper Punjab, the greatest cultivation, though perhaps
not the greatest population, is in places near the great range of hills |
which bound it to the north-east, the soil there having less sand and
being of superior quality. On the whole strangers have too high an
opinion both of the natural advantages and of the population of this
province. Its water is much boasted of, and that of the rivers may
deserve praise, but that of the wells is seldom good.
93. In this respect it is much excelled by the Dooab of the |
Hydaspes and Indus, in which the water is peculiarly good. I must
be understood as speaking of that in or near the Embassy’s route from
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 871
Attock on the Indus, to Julalpoor on the Hydaspes; it has been
already mentioned that some parts of the country to the left, or north-
east of that route, are noted for Goitres, a disease occasioned by bad
water, (see paragraph 89.) The soil in the greater part of this Dooab
but especially Pothwar, is a light yellow sand, which the rains cut
into deep ravines in the most irregular and curious manner ; every
year the existing plain grounds are thus destroyed and new ones
formed. Sometimes beneath the sand are seen strata of loose rounded
stones, or of silt, stone, and sand, and these layers are sometimes of
great thickness. Water in wells is near the surface, but the farmers
are not at the expense of digging wells for irrigating their Rubbee
crop, putting trust in the winter and spring rains, and the natural
_ goodness of their land. Huzara and Pukhlee have good soils of vari-
ous kinds, but yet inferior to Chhuchh; they have however greater
command of water for irrigation. The soil of Kushmeer is generally
loam, and in colour black or dark brown. The district of Pamper, in
which alone saffron is produced, is a red clayey loam. The soil of
Kushmeer and the nearest hills around it, isremarkably free from stones.
‘The Hydaspes when low, is sea-green and turbid, its waters on reach-
ing the Punjab are of a deep coffee colour. Its alluvial matter is loam,
that of the Indus sand.
94. Wereturn to Delhi to detail the nature of the soil in the Embassy’s
route thence to Peshawur. It becomes more and more sandy from
Delhi to Rewaree and Kanour. The wells are of considerable depth,
and the water often brackish. The country of the Shekhawuts, which
next succeeds, is superior in all these respects, and the fields have occa-
sionally a few stones in them derived from the low hills which traverse
this tract. Leaving it we enter a sandy plain, generally abounding
-with sand hills. The depth of the wells increases at every stage till
we reach Beekaneer, where it amounts to 264 feet. The water is
sometimes good and sometimes brackish in various degrees. That of
_ Nathoosur is peculiarly bad. Beyond Beekaneer the desert is common-
_ ly considered as beginning. To twelve miles beyond Poogul, or sixty-
_ Seven miles from Beekaneer, the same soil continues; but the sand hills
_ are higher than before. Next commences a level hard smooth clay ;
this is locally called Chdtrang, and it is only in such tracts that the
_ traveller imagines he sees lakes and rivers before him. To the west-
ern edge of the desert is eighty-three miles more, and about half of this
| distance is clay, the other half sand, which appears to have been nearly
| blown over the clay. From Beekaneer the depth of the wells gradually
| decreases. The soil.of the desert, generally considered, is not inferior
372 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov.
to that of Beekaneer, and where the sand and the clay are mixed in due
proportions, is of an excellent quality. It is therefore neither the bad-
ness of the soil, nor the depth of the wells, as commonly imagined, that
causes the desert to be so thinly peopled, neither is its water worse
than that of the tracts to the eastward. There are several reasons to
think it was in former times better inhabited. It is unquestionably
for the interest of the British Government, that it should be utterly
uninhabited and impassable; a little address and a moderate ex-
pense could effect this object even with a due regard to the rights of
the present inhabitants. 3
95. The edge of the desert at Buhawulpoor is only three miles from
the left bank of the Ghara, and the space between them from the
north-west point of Sadik Khan’s dominions to where the Ghara is lost
in the Chunab (see paragraph 32) is seldom much more than double
this distance. This narrow tract is of a soil not to be surpassed in fer-
tility. When dry its surface has a degree of whitishness perhaps ori-
ginating from a mixture of chalk ; when watered it appears black. It
is deep and friable, and may be called a clayey loam or mud. The
Ghara when low has a whitish colour, and its water is very good. Its
bed abounds in quicksands, having that mixture of fine sand and mud
which seems calculated to form them. The rivers in general of the
Punjab as well as the Indus have quicksands. Beyond the Ghara, on
the road to Mooltan, is a tract of sandy ground, in which the wells are
deeper and some of the plants and other appearances of the great desert
occur, from which in fact it seems to have been cut off by the Ghara.
It extends at most but two or three days to right and left of the road
travelled by the Embassy ; and gradually melts into the more fertile
country which surrounds it. It seems to rest on clay, and the soil of
Mooltan has a great proportion of clay ; many of the fields give evidence
of salt, and in general the soil is inferior to that of Buhawulpoor.
96. In the further progress of the Embassy from Mooltan to the
commencement of the hills beyond the Indus at Punecala, the basis of
the country appears still to have been clay, though in some cases the
uppermost stratum be sand. At three and a half miles from the left
bank of the Chunab begins the Thul of Mohummud Khan already
mentioned (see paragraph 29 ;) it is sand of a poor quality, but not un-
cultivatable. It is broadest to the north, and there too the wells are
deepest. In this quarter is situated Munkeera, the chief fort of Mo-
hummud Khan, which is thought to be secure less by the strength of
its own works, than the barrenness of its neighbourhood, and the scarcity
and badness of the water. In the route of the Embassy the wells were
—-1839.} Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. .- 873
_ of moderate depth, but the water sometimes brackish. Towards the
_ Indus the quality of the soil and water improves, but the country is
| stil] sandy. Mukulwad, on the other hand, beyond the Indus, is a stiff
| and hard clay of an ashy colour; in process of time it may assume
| adifferent character. On the one hand the Indus is continually en-
croaching on it, and washing it away. Where that river has mixed
its sand with the original clay, the quality of the soil is plainly im-
| proved. On the other hand, towards the Daman and the hills, are con-
| siderable tracts of sand incumbent on the clay,and impregnated with salt;
the rains annually bring down more sand and spread it on the clay.
| The original soil on the right of the Indus, even as far as Shikarpoor
| appears to have been clay, and clay is even now predominant ; but to-
wards the river a portion of sand has been introduced from its waters ;
and towards the hills sand or stones, or both, have been washed down
by the rains. South-west of Dera Ghazee Khan, which is the capital
of upper Sindh (see paragraph 25) on the road to Seeweestan, are the
sands of Dajul, which if extensive would constitute a desert. Largee,
(see paragraph 14) is sandy and unproductive. The plain of Eesa
Khel is a clay or clayey loam of the best quality; it is of a dark
red colour ; its breadth is inconsiderable, and the Indus is daily dimi-
_ nishing it. The same changes in short are here operating as in
| Mukulwad, for here also we find a tract of barren and saline sands
_ under the hills. The water of the Koorm after rain is of a bright red
colour, and it deposits a loam of good quality. The district of Bunnoo
is sandy, or a sandy loam. In the country of the Murwuts, which lies
to the right of that river, and south-east of Bunnoo, are some tracts
of sands very similar to those already mentioned; such also occur
between Bunnoo and the districts of Malgeen and Kohat. These dis-
tricts however have as yet received but little injury, from their neigh-
_ bourhood possessing an excellent soil, which may be called a clayey
) loam. The colour in Kohat is black or grey, but in Malgeen red.
97. The original soil, and that which still predominates in the
‘plains of Peshawur and Bajour is a clayey loam; there are now
however several exceptions deserving of notice. Opposite to Chhuchh
is the plain of the Mundeers, or lower Yoosufzyes, the soil of which
is of the same kind and quality with that of Chhuchh. On the other
side of the Cabul river the Khutuks possess the south-eastern corner
of the plain of Peshawur, which is light, often stony, and of indiffer-
ent quality ; more to the west, but still under the hills, are Oormul and
some other places in which the soil is sandy and naturally poor.
The Mihmund’s lands are generally a clayey loam; and the Khuleel’s
874 Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov.
have a still greater proportion of clay. The colour of the soil is
various ; it requires much water and much stirring, but when properly
treated bears heavier crops than most lands in our provinces. Bajour
is of a like nature. The lands of the Mihmudzyes and Daoodzyes
have had introduced into them by alluvion a considerable proportion
of sand. The latter are thirsty, and bear but ordinary crops. Swad
and Punjkora has each its river, and are less clayey than Bajour.
The Gugecanee lands are clayey, but such as are near the Ootman
Khel and upper Mehmund hills have a mixture of stone. The
Khuleels have the firmest soil, the clay extending to a great depth,
and water being at a considerable distance from the surface: hence
this tribe have dug many underground dwellings, in which to take
refuge during the heat of midsummer, and they are not subject to fall
in like those made in other parts of the plain.
98. Teera has a stony soil, which generally contains a considerable
proportion of sand. Koonur and Lughman are loams of good quality,
and very well watered, and productive in rice. The former because of
its wideness requires a greater quantity of water for irrigation than
Bajour. Jellalabad is a sandy and thirsty soil. Under its hills (the
range of 34°) there extends on the left hand of the traveller to Cabul
a barren tract, in length about forty-five miles from Busawul to Nimla ;
and in average breadth about five or six. It is partly stony and partly
sandy. Perpetual winds here prevailing, it is thought that these sands
are encroaching on the good lands. The present soil of Jellalabad has
probably been transported from them by the winds. The lands of the
upper Mihmunds are of very various kinds. Kama is clayey and moist,
Goshta is inclined to sandy.
99. We find considerable variety in the soil of Cabul. The greater
part isa loam with a great proportion of clay, but stones, gravel, and
sand, have been lodged under the hills by the rains. On the left hand of
the traveller as he goes to Ghorbund from Cabul, is a sandy tract —
under the hills. It is about eleven miles long by four broad, and quite
uncultivated. This is the Reg-ruwan of which many fabulous stories:
are told by Aboolfuzl and others. The gardens and grounds used for
raising vegetables in the vicinity of Cabul, have, by long care and
culture been cleared of stones, and now have a black, fertile vegetable
soil, from nine to twelve inches deep. In general the lands in this
valley bear heavier crops of all things proper for the climate than
those of the plain of Peshawur ; but this is partly attributable to the
plentiful manure and assiduous culture they receive. Draw-wells are
but little used, as water is near to the surface; but the water of draw-—
1839. | Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 875
' wells in the city of Cabul is acknowledged to be bad. The neigh-
_ bourhood of Ghuznee has a light soil, with a mixture of small stones.
_ Some other parts of the table land are stiffer, as having more clay in
| their composition. A mixture of stones in the cultivated fields is
universal, and indeed considerable tracts of the table land are so
| eovered with small stones, as to yield but littie, even in pasturage.
The north has a good deal of broken ground; the south is more
_ level. With respect to the lands of the Huzaras, they are of no one
| kind except that they are generally stony.
— 100. Mookr and Abitazee, on the road from Ghuznee to Candahar,
| have light soils with a mixture of small stones. ‘The Dooranee country
| generally considered must be pronounced sandy. Near Candahar the
| soil is sandy and thirsty, but facilities exist for irrigation. In the city
of Candahar water in draw-wells is near the surface, and of good qua-
| lity, and few places can be named in the whole of Khoorasan where the
water is bad. In general the inhabitants drink from running streams,
| but draw-wells are not unknown, especially within cities and in the
desert places frequented only by shepherds. Between Hirat and the
Persian Khoorasan there is a sterile tract, which forms an imperfect
barrier. The Regimulikan would be crossed in the direct road from
Jellalabad, the capital of Seestan, to Furah, and is of considerable extent.
South of Soorbut the traveller crosses a desert tract forty miles broad,
on the road to Goonabad and Ghaeen. In Seestan, especially the west,
there are considerable expanses of sand, generally without fixed in-
habitants, and sometimes without water. Between Jellalabad and
Kilat of the Beeloches, the country is supposed to be generally a desert.
The various desert or sterile spaces now mentioned, appear to me to
have an imperfect communication with one another, and therefore do
not constitute a military barrier ; nay, we perhaps over-rate the diffi-
culties they would throw in the way of the disposition and passage
of troops. By digging draw-wells an enterprising and ingenious
enemy would find water at a less depth in the earth than is commonly
imagined.
101. Zumindawur is situated, as already mentioned, on the right of
the Helbund, (see paragraph 56.) Its soil is more loamy than that of most
other parts of the Dooranee country, and is of a good quality. North-
west of it is the country called Seahbund, situated within the Parapar-
nisan mountains, and inhabited by the Tymunus, a tribe of Ymaks:
part of it has aclayey soil. The Gurmseer lies south and south-west
of Zumindawur. Its soil, which is naturally sandy and weak, is ren-
dered productive by water drawn from the Helbund. The Joolgha
876 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov..
or plain of Hirat is a sandy loam naturally fertile, and being well
watered bears good crops. The same species of soil extends to Murv,
and beyond it, although the intermediate space be little cultivated.
The soil of Murv is esteemed very good ; that of the Jumsheedee tribe,
whose territory forms the north-east corner of Khoorasan (see para.
19, 27,) is perhaps equally good, and the Ymak vallies are in general —
fertile. In the Jumsheedee country, and also in Jam and Toorbut, is
a great deal of broken ground. There is a less proportion of this in the
country of Ghaeen, and Birjund, and in Zumindawur, but still it is —
considerable. Ekatool, belonging to the Ulukhoo-Zyes, a tribe of ©
Mushhud is good and productive. To the north we soon reach the
desert of Margiana, which is generally a sandy plain, but contains
some low hills or hillocks. To the east it approaches near to Muno,
and north of that place joins the sands lying between Bactria and the
Oxus (see paragraph 104.)
102. The great desert called Loot, lies south and west of Seestan,
and divides Seestan and Khoorasan from the Persian province of
Kirman. It undoubtedly communicates with deserts in the west of
Bulochishtan, or those deserts form a part of it. It is throughout a
sand, probably quite uncultivatable, and the edges only are visited by
the pasturing tribes. It is crossed by caravans, and sometimes by
small parties of marauding horse, but in these quarters those who go on
expeditions, generally mount themselves on cameis, as being more pati-
ent of thirst. Like other deserts its outlines are not easily traced, as it
gradually melts into the inhabited country. In the road to Tubus —
(the westermost of that name) in Khoorasan, the last inhabited place
in the province of Kirman is Durbund, which is forty fursukhs from
the city of Kirman—at Durbund are some brackish springs ; thence —
are forty-five fursukhs of desert, to Chih] paya, where are no inhabitants, —
but a tank containing rain water, and a bowree dug by the order of ©
Nadir Shah. It is reckoned to be 300 feet deep, and the water is —
brackish. There is here a hill which appears as if overturned by —
some convulsion of nature ; it has not the least vegetation, and there is
little grass or even shrub in this dismal desert. After fifteen fursukhs
more, we reach Naeebund, where is some good water from springs in
hills, and a few resident inhabitants. The country is still sandy and |
continues so far, several stages towards Tubus, and the population is
but small. There is a road east of this road from Nil (see para. 27)
to Khubees, where the chief inhabitants are Ghiljees, who settled
Dooranees, is remarkable for the quantity of its ravines and broken t
ground. Sungoo a city of Khaf has a hard clayey soil. The soil of —
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 877
there during the time that the Afghan dynasty ruled Persia. This
is even a less practicable road than the other, and in summer is not
travelled. There are eight stages of a camel journeying almost in-
cessantly, and no water is to be had in the whole space. This desert
then may be pronounced impassable by regular troops, except in the
smallest bodies.
103. Our knowledge is very scanty concerning Bulochistan. Its
western parts or western boundaries are generally desert, but in some
places villages are intefspersed. There isa winding road from Kilat to
Kirman through Punjgoor, Jalk, Dezuk, and Bempoor, but various
parts of the stages are desolate; the soil even in the route I conceive
to be generally sandy ; the fertile spots are at the foot of hills, which
yield them either by nature or by means of art, a scanty supply of
water. The hilly tract on which is situated Kilat is much superior
| to the preceding, yet even here are several upland wastes in which
| even water is not to be had for one or two days’ journey. The soil of
Kilat seems to be generally loamy, but in some places is a stiff clay.
| Such feeble streams as the Buloch hills yield being soon absorbed in
| this warm climate, there intervenes a dry space between the hills and
| the sea-coast, which may be compared to the Tehama of Hejaz and
| Yemen. In this space Rind tribes wander, whose chief riches are their
camels. The soil seems to be most commonly inclined to clay. In
| Seweestan, a clay or clayey loam seems to predominate, but Dajul
_ (which perhaps belongs to Sindh) is sandy, and there are other excep-
| tions. In Seeweestan water in draw-wells is deeper under the surface
| than in Sindh, but yet at no inconvenient distance. In some routes
| spaces occur, of perhaps forty miles broad, where neither water nor
cultivation is to be seen, but there is little reason to think the circum-
| stance owing to the badness of the soil ; some were formerly well
peopled. ‘There isa tradition that the river Indus taking a bold turn toe
| the right formerly ran through this country, and appearances are said te
| favor it. The lake or swamp called Manchoor, mentioned by Aboolfuz],
| was perhaps a part of the bed.of the Indus; it is thought to be in the
_ south-east. Aboolfuzl tells us it is near Seewee, but this I eonceive
erroneous. There are some low and moist lands in Seeweestan, which
| perhaps were also parts of the Indus bed. There is reason to think
| that from other causes the rest of Bulochistan (and the remark might
‘be extended to other countries) is drier and more barren than in
former times.
104. The soil of Bactria from Mymuna to Talikan, has a great pro-
| portion of clay in its original composition; at present this is most
a
878 Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. } LNov.
visible in those parts which are neither near to the hills nor the Oxus ;
for towards the former, the matter brought down by the rains has often
changed the soil to stony, gritty, or gravelly, sometimes to sandy ; to-
wards the Oxus the soil becomes a loose unfertile sand. The sands
begin at Huzrut Iman, and continue to the lake of Aral, their breadth
continually increasing. In the space intercepted between Huzrut
Iman and the common road from Bulkh to Bokhara, through Kilif, the
average breadth of these sands, which are nearly waste, is more than —
thirty miles; the sandy tract opposite, on the right of the river, is
a At sald
not so broad. The soil of Bulk is a clayey loam, sufficiently friable, —
and of a good quality. That of Koonduz is very similar, and in colour
black. Khoollum, and generally that under the hills is a hard gra- —
velly clay. Talikan is a loam inclining to clay, of a good quality.
Undkho has a good deal of sand, but Mymuna is a strong clay, and
abounds in ravines and broken ground. About half way between
Undkho and Mymuna the traveller begins to see numerous hillocks in
the plain, and they continue as far as Muro, and almost to Hirat.
They are composed of a good soil, without stone, and bear good
grass; they are sometimes under crop, but the chief cultivation in
this space is near the moist banks of streams constant or temporary.
Budukhshan has a stony soil, but otherwise it is very various in con-
sistency, colour, and excellence. Fyzabad is a sandy loam of a reddish —
colour, as is found in many other places. Durwaz, and the Shooghnan
and Wukhan vallies have a blackish soil. The same observations
are probably as applicable to Wukeeha and Keerategin as to Budukh-
shan.
105. The west of Toorkistan is sandy, and without artificial water-
ing yields poor crops; hence the chief cultivation is near the banks |
of rivers and streams. Between Kilat and Bokhara the water of wells
is usually brackish, but is found at moderate depths. The hillocks near |
this road are of sand, not of a good soil as those of Bactria. To the
west of Bokhara is the Kurakol, an uncultivated space which extends
to the lake of Aral; but it is not considered as crossing to the left of the |
Oxus, where begins the great desert of Margiana, so called by the anci- |
ents. The principality.of Khwaruzm is thus encircled by deserts. Itis |
however to be remarked, that the Toorkmuns who live on the edge of |
the river, generally avail themselves of the facilities it affords for irri- |
gation in its flood season, and raise some crops on the low grounds near |
it. Water is here so near the surface, that the inhabitants often dig wells, |
where they pitch their tents, to serve for their use during the time they |
may halt. In the interior of the deserts there are wells, which have |
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 879
been dug by the governments of former times; these are never re-
markably deep in the Kurakol, but the water is at least as good as
that of draw-wells in the neighbourhood of Bokhara. The soil too is
seldom impregnated with salt, and were it the custom of the country
to water lands from wells, it could be brought into cultivation. At pre-
sent it affords an early grass to be pastured in the spring. That part
which is next to Bokhara, was formerly cultivated. The Kurakol ex-
tends beyond the Jaxartes into the country of the Kuzzaks, but that
people have also hills and declivities with a good soil. With respect
to the Kirghiz country, and the east of Toorkistan, the soil has consi-
derable variety ; many places are stony; loam and clay are very com-
mon, and in natural fertility the cultivated lands of the east are un-
questionably superior to those of the west. The Pamer has a rich soil.
106. In the vast extent of Chinese Toorkistan it may be supposed
there is to be found all varieties of soil. That of Yarkund is sandy
and weak, and sandy wastes intervene between it and Khootun, in
which the Chinese Government have erected pillars to guide the tra-
vellers into the right road. The uncultivated space is about an hun-
dred miles broad, if we pursue the ordinary road. The soil of Khoo-
tun is superior to that of Yarkund, and the cultivation considerable.
The river of Yarkund passes through this country. To the north-
east sands soon recommence, in which the river is at length lost, at no
great distance from Toorfan. Ela and Aksoo lie near to mountains in
northerly directions, are tolerably well watered, and the soil is good.
Akeoo seems to be north and a little east from Yarkund, and the
road is sometimes inhabited, sometimes not.
107. There remain some countries of which we have little in-
formation which can throw light on the present subject. Such are the
Tibets and Kushkar. We know that they are ill cultivated, and per-
haps the climate condemns great part of them to sterility. Other parts
may be occupied by rocks and stones. From the particulars now
detailed, it is evident that the countries most favoured by nature, are
neither the upland tracts nor yet the open plains distant from hills,
but those which lie at a moderate distance from their foot, and receive
the water which flows from them. Lofty mountains however barren
themselves, are the cause of fertility to the plains below. In the
vast expanse here treated of, there is a very great proportion now un-
cultivated, and may continue so forever. Some part is a loose sand or
hard clay, unproductive without much water, which at the same time
the climate and situation deny ; another is covered with a profusion
of stones. The composition of some lands seems adverse to the growth
880 Laeut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. | Noy.
of useful vegetables. The commonest species of this kind is saline
jJand, which occurs at intervals in almost all the various districts which
have been mentioned. A mere sand and a very hard clay seldom give
evidence of this quality, which is thus found in soils otherwise of
the best composition. Chhuchh, the lands of the Mundurs, and those
of the Huzaras, are remarkably free from it. A certain degree of it is
by no means inconsistent with fertility, nay, the natives of the west of
Khoorasan, prefer land moderately saline for the raising of melons
and cucumbers: some remarkable saline spots are mentioned under
the subject, which next follows, (see paragraph 112.)
PART IIL—OF NATURAL HISTORY.
Section I.—Of Manerals.
108. The Persian metals are not found in these countries in great
abundance. Most of the streams which rise in the great northern
range, or in that branch of it which forms Kafiristan, and also those
streams which arise in the Belur, wash down grains of gold which
the natives take pains in collecting, but it is not supposed that this
business is very profitable. In some parts of the south-east of the Hu-
zara country, grains of gold are also found. With respect to silver, if
we except a little found in the country of the Kafirs, it is produced
no where but-in the Chinese dominions, and I am not sure whether
it be in their ancient territories or their new acquistion of Chinese
Toorkistan. Copper seems to have been formerly found in the dis-
trict called Seahbund (see paragraph 101) and according to some it is
produced not far from Nishaboor, which is in the Persian Khoorasan.
The same hill which yields it, is said to yield iron and lead; but |
according to others, lead is the only metal produced. Between Furah
and Ghaeen, is Tubus, called Mzseen from its copper mines, and to
distinguish it from another Tubus, far to the west, commonly called
Gil Tubus. At present both are under the Persians. Indications of
copper are to be seen in the Bajour territory. In the kingdom of
Bokhara, is a town called Sherabad, about seven days south-east of
Bokhara, and about two days north of Sherabad is a hill called after it
which produces copper, not wrought, and also verdigris, which is an
oxyde of copper. With respect to precious stones, the ruby mines
of Budukhshan, once so famous in the whole world are no longer
wrought. Weare told that in the south-eastern parts of that country
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanisian. 381
are whole rocks of lapis lazuiz. Nishaboor is stiil famous for its
turquoises, which are found in a hill in its neighbourhood, that yields
no other mineral product. Major Welford has mentioned lapis
Jazuli, hyacinths, crystal, bajor, stones of a superior quality, and
marbles of various colours, being found not far from the banks of
the Indus, before its junction with the Cabul river, (see his paper on
mount Caucasus in the sixth volume of the Asiatic Researches) I scarce-
ly remember to have heard of these things, but as that author’s in-
formation is generally very correct on points of geography and statistics,
I presume there is much truth in the account.
109. Aboolfuzl has mentioned an iron mine at Khiroo in Kush-
meer, and it is still wrought, being perhaps the only mineral
of any note to be found in the valley. There are numerous mines of
iron near Kanee Goorm of the Wuzeerees, which lies to the north of
the range of 324°, towards its termination to the eastward. Iron is found
near Burawul, and Burwa of the Turkoolnees, and also above Deer of
the Yoosufzyes, lying in Punjkora. In all it is gathered in the state
of coarse sand or gravel. An iron mine was formerly wrought near
Dhukha of the upper Mihmunds. Near Cimnan, a city of Khoorasan,
on the frontiers of Irak, iron is produced, and also in @ hill four days
south of Ghaeen. The existence of iron in the territory of Nishaboor
is disputed; an ore of this metal is found ina hill of Chhuchh or Huzara,
six miles west of Hussun Abdal. In Toorkistan there are very numer-
ous mines of iron. In the territory of Kokum may be two, in that of
Bokhara one, in that of Hisar two. Shuhursubz has one mine, the
territory of Tashkund one, perhaps more. It is said Keerategin and
Durwaz have none. In the territory of Fyzabad there are four mines ;
and in the small principality of Kolab, the greater part of which lies
on this side the Oxus, between Keerategin and Fyzabad, there is one.
Bulkh has one mine in its hill to the south, and Tolekan another.
Notwithstanding the number of iron mines in Toorkistan, that metal
is imported from Russia, and is of a superior quality.
110. Lead is very abundant in many parts of these countries. Not
unfrequently it is found in the same matrix with soorma, which is an
ore of antimony ;* sometimes it is found alone, as soorma also is. I
have heard of the following mines of joint lead and soorma, viz. two
in the country of the Afreedus, one at Khakshista of the Huzaras,
south of Bameean, one or two near the source of the Urghundal, two
* T am now (January 1811) assured there is also sold under the name of soorma a
certain sulphate of lead, and it is natural to suppose, this is the substance here meant.
882 Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Nov.
at least in Chitral, and one in the dominions of Kokur. One mine of
lead is found in upper Bungush. In the country of the Shinwarees,
who are west of the Afreedus, one mine. There are two mines in the
country of the Kokurs, and one at Turbulakh of the Dehzungee
Huzaras, who are the most westerly ofall. Near Baghis of the Ty-
munees within the Ymak hills, the spring torrents bring down pieces
of this metal. I have not heard of its being found in any other place
of Khoorasan, except near Nishaboor. In Toorkistanit is very abun-
dant. There is one mine in the hills near Bulkh ; in the principality
of Talikan there seem to be two mines. In the district of Undurab
there is one mine, and in that of Khoost another. Lead is also found
in Khirjan, which lies between Khoollum and Bameean. In Bu-
dukhshan lead is abundant, and there are three or four mines in the
valley of Wunj. Some lead is also brought through this country from
Kashkar and the borders of the Kafirs. Kolab has two mines,
Buljeewan, which is under the lesser Kolab and is beyond the Oxus,
has one, and in the territory of Hisar are two. Nooruta has one mine,
and there is perhaps another in the dominions of Kokun, and one or
two in those of Tashkund. There is one minein Keerategin, probably
more. Soorma without lead is found in the principality of Talikan,
in several places, and is said to be abundant in Budukhshan, Durwaz,
and Keerategin. Soorma is found in the country of the Besoot Huzaras,
who are among the most easterly of that nation. A mineral called ~ |
white soorma, is found near Dubran, which lies north of Huzara. |
111. Orpiment, which is yellow oxyde of arsenic, is found near
Sakhir in Seahbund, and in more than one place in the hills of Bulkh.
It is also produced somewhere in Budukhshan, near Lungreeal,
which is not far from Dubran ; it is the ore of some metal of a whitish
colour and a consistence which adapts it to be easily made into
bullets. ‘Towards Cabul and in many other places, the villagers use a
certain species of gravel, called sungisachma, for shot. The most fa-
mous place for sulphur is Gogirduk, between Khoollum and Bulkh,
but this mineral is said to be found in some other places of Bactria, to
the east of Bulkh. Some is produced in the territory of the greater
Kolab, and some in that of Fyzabad. Sulphur is reported to be found
in the hill of Sherabad (see paragraph 188.) It abounds in Chitral,
and some other parts of Kashkar, and some of it is in an oxydized
state. Some is to be seen in the desert of Margiana (see paragraph
101.) There are two mines in Seeweestan, of which one is near Bhag,
and one not far from Sunnee. The western Tubus is famous for its
sulphur, as well as its tobacco. Some of the springs of the Kafirs
1839.] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 883
' smell of sulphur. In these countries are many warm or even hot
springs which could be named. The other natural curiosities known
_ to the natives do not deserve much mention, especially as the cir
cumstances of some seem fabulous.
112. The supply of common salt is from various sources ; rock salt,
that of salt ponds, that of springs, and that made from the soil. A
minor range of hills has been already distinguished as the Salt range,
(see paragraph 12.) Some is found at the beginning of the range in
the country of the Oorukzyes, but is of little note beyond the neigh-
_bourhood. At Kala Bagh, the hill which overhangs the town, is
in a great part composed of salt. Near the termination of the
range, this mineral again becomes very abundant, and is found in
several places. This is that which in our provinces is called Lahouree,
as coming to us through Lahour, though all produced beyond the
Hydaspes. It is of a dingy colour, whereas that of Kala Bagh, which
is superior, is either so white as to be pellucid, or tinged with a red
colour from the clay contiguous to it. The north is supplied from
these mines, whose produce is carried even into Kashkar, where it
~ fetches a high price, because of the natural difficulties of transporting
it. It is rather heavily taxed, in Kushmeer which makes it dear.
When the governor rebels, which has often happened, and trade is
checked by the existence of hostilities, the dearth is still greater, in so
much, that the Kushmeerees having no interval supply, have been re-
_ duced to eat red ants asa substitute. In the south of the kingdom, the
demand for rock salt is not great. Some is indeed carried from Kala
| Bagh, as far as the lowest parts of Sindh, but this traffic bears no pro-
portion to the riches and population of that country, and indeed seems
an appendage to that in the transporting of pilgrims, who intend visit-
ing the holy city of Mecca. The boats are sold on their arrival with
what cargo they may contain, and few if any again ascend the river as
far as Kala Bagh. In all parts of Bulochistan, soil salt is that chiefly
used, and each neighbourhood makes it for itself. Even the Moolta-
nees consume more of this kind, pretending that the other is unwhole-
some. Candahar is partly supplied with salt from that made by
boiling the water of a spring at Kushkinukhood, 40 miles on the road
to Hirat, and partly from the soil; the latter is reckoned inferior. The
chief resource of the west or rather middle parts of Khoorasan, is pro-
bably in salt ponds, in two different places of the country of Ghaeen.
An ice-like crust is formed at the edges, when the water begins to re-
eede in the dry season, and no further preparation is required. Besides
the salt well in the Loot desert already mentioned, there is one about
884 Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of ‘Afghanistan. _ [Nov.
40 miles south of Toorbut, and another in the road between Toon and
Yezd, but none of these are of any use. Near Ubasabad, which is ten
days from Mushhud, on the road to Tuhiran, is a hill which gives out
two feeble salt springs, which make two bogs, and to procure salt
pits are dug at the edges and filled with the brine; this gradually
evaporates, and is covered with a saline crust.
- It is probable, many lesser ponds and bogs of this nature exist espe-
cially in the level countries. Bokhara and Nooruta chiefly consume
salt brought from places in the Kurakol (see paragraph 105.) Jizzukh
has a mine of rock salt, and also salt from the plain. Samarkand
is said to have one mine, Oratepa another. All the three are under
Bokhara. Oorgung, Mura, and Mymuna chiefly use salt found in their
own plains, sometimes artificially prepared, sometimes not. The king-
dom of Kokur is not destitute of soil salt, but has besides at least —
four mines of rock salt. ‘Tashkund has one, probably more, and also
receives salt from the plains to the west towards the Kuzzaks. We
know of two mines in Keerategin, one in Buljeewan, twoin the greater _
Kolab, and the valley of Wakhan has rock salt, but the southern part
of Budukhshan in which is situated Fyzabad, seems to have but one
mine, and its produce is very bad. The eastern part of Bactria, on the
other hand, is abundantly supplied, having at least five mines, and
Duroona beyond the Oxus has one. One mine of Shuhisubz yields
salt of a very fine quality, which is carried as far as Bulkh and Bok-.
hara for the use of the rich. Hisar has a salt spring, and two mines —
he ee Te ey.
very little worked exist in its dominion. Bulkh and Bokhara are
partly supplied from springs found between them, partly from a place —
under the hills, where a crust of salt is produced. Shibirghan has a
mine of very good quality, and exports to Bulkh, Undkho, and other
places. Ihave not learnt that any salt is found within the Parapar-
nisan mountains, and such is the scarcity of this article among the
Huzaras of the interior, that they do not use it dry but dip their
morsels in a brine of it. At one time of the year the poor have none
to consume.
113. Saltpetre is no where found in these countries but is made by
natives, from the soil in innumerable places. It isa curious fact that the |
same earth which yields common salt often yields saltpetre also, although
both ingredients be different; but dry situations are more favorable
to it, and moist to the generation of salt. To complete the list of ingre- .
dients used for making gunpowder, it may be observed that no place
is much famed for its charcoal. The best is made from the willow,
and very good from the plant called uk or mudar (see paragraph 130:)
1839. ] Lieut. Irvin's Memotr of Afghanistan. 885
Borax is dug up near Mushhud in an impure state. A salt call-
ed black salt is found in a hill some miles south-west of Kala Bagh.
The most famous product of Kala Bagh is its alum, which however is
not native, but is prepared from a mixture of pure clay and sulphur,
found in the same hill which yields salt. The same exists in small
quantities in the quarter where the Lahouree salt is produced.
114. I have made no mention of the minerals of the Tibets, or
country north of the Punjab, or those of the Raipoot country. We
know little of the minerals of Chinese Toorkistan, except that coal is
burnt at Ela, in that country ; and some mistakes have probably been
committed in assigning the situations of mines in independent Toor-
kistan. With respect to the structure and general composition of the
hills and mountains, it is needless offering conjectures ; the hills seen
by us were plainly secondary. Soft and composite rocks appear
to be very common in Afghanistan, and hence it is that in a country
so mountainous, few houses are built of hewn stone. ‘The valley of
Kushmeer is peculiarly destitute of stones proper for building ; wood
at the same time is cheap and abundant, and therefore the inhabitants
erect lofty houses of that material. Good flints are found in many
places in the south-east of Bactria, (from whence they are brought to
Cabul) in some low hills in the districts of Muro, in those west of
Sindh, and doubtless many more. Upper Bungush produces a mar-
ble much esteemed.
Section II.—Of Vegetables.
115. The present is a subject on which little is known. What
here follows being also very imperfect, it is needless to affect nice divi-
_ sions, and it is enough if we distinguish plants into three classes ;
first, grasses and small succulent plants ;—second, shrubs ;—third,
trees.
lst. Of Grasses, &c.
116. It is moisture which chiefly encourages the growth of herbage.
Those countries however are not the most verdant in which the
greatest quantity of water falls in the year, but those in which
there are many days of rain, dew, and mist. The water which falls
in low latitudes, does so generally in a short space of time, and with
great violence, so that drought prevails during the greater part of the
year; hence warm countries are seldom verdant. We should be in
error if we supposed that heat, as distinguished from drought, was
o xX
886 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov.
hostile to verdure. The season of grass in all countries begins with
the renewal of the warm season, unless in circumstances the most
peculiar; and even in warm countries the herbage withers at the
beginning of winter. Neither are we to decide that warm countries
have naturally more grass throughout the year than the cold ; for if their
summer be dry, the heat of the sun soon withers the pastures, which
do not recover until next spring. . It is evident therefore that the
growth of herbage will be greatest where heat and moisture meet in
due proportions. Moisture may arise from the atmosphere or from
the soil; and with respect to the moisture of soils, it may arise
either from the composition or a low position. It is thus that aclayey —
loam is better covered with grass than a loose sand or a hard clay ; and
many districts, the drought of whose climate would leave them little
verdure, have abundant grass which is nourished by the water descend-
ing from higher situations. A new complexity is added to the subject —
when the periodical rains fall in the summer, and thus revive the
grass which has been withered by the heat in the warm climates.
117. It is found that in India every grass and small plant has its
natural seasons of putting forth its new leaves, flowering, casting its
seed, and withering. Most of them flourish most in the Kureef, that is
after the great rains have begun to fall. Very many however even of
these put out new leavesin February and March—soon to be burnt up
by the scorching winds ; and some of them bear seeds in the Rubbee as
well as the Khureef. Some plants naturally flourish in the Rubbee ; for
example, the Sehoon, or wild oat—the seeds of which are shed before the
commencement of the great rains, but do not spring up until perhaps the
month of October. From what has been said, it is plain that in India —
there are two seasons of grass—the lesser in spring, and the greater in the —
great rains, and for a short time after them. The winter months have |
but little fresh grass, but there is a considerable resource in the wither- |
ed grass of the Khureef. Between the spring and Khureef grass is |
an interval in which the pastures are burnt up by the excessive heat
and drought; if the soil be very moist, or frequent showers fall, this
interval may not be perceptible. It may be supposed to be the
same with every country which, like Hindoostan, has a warm
climate, and its chief rains in the summer; but when either fails
we no longer find these two ‘natural seasons of herbage. When
the cold reaches a certain point, the heat of summer is not sufficient to
wither the grass after its commencement in the spring, and this is
reserved for the cold of winter. The grains of the Rubbee, also, it may
be observed, in climates where the winter reaches a certain degree of
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 887
length and severity, do not spring up in autumn, but in spring, and
ripen in autumn. In warm countries which have no summer rains,
the spring grass having once withered, does not recover during the re-
mainder of the year.
118. In the Punjab and Sindh the seasons of grass are the same as
in our provinces, and the species are much the same. In the upper
Punjab there is perhaps more grass fit for provender than in our upper
provinces, but the large kinds used for thatching are scarcer, this how-
ever is of little consequence, the inhabitants prefering flat-roofed houses
covered with mud, to the thatch so common elsewhere. Hurriana
and Bhutner are well known to have abundance of good grass; and
the country in general which lies between the Sutluj and the Jumna
is more verdant than that on this side of the latter river. The Dooab.
of the Hydaspes and Indus present the usual varieties. Pothwar
has but little grass, except in the bottoms of the ravines. The hilly
country of the Gukhurs, and others already mentioned to the north,
appear to have much grass, but this does not arise from the great growth
but from the small consumption. Inthe Thul of Mohummud Khan, as
in the great desert, we find more shrubs than grass. Mooltan,
and upper and middle Sindh, have little grass. The spring of Pesh-
awar is naturally later than in our provinces, and the rains which
then fall have an additional tendency to protract the time of fresh
grass. The lateness ofthe summer rains, and their comparative unim-
portance, makes the Khureef grass later in commencement, and causes
it to be little superior to that of the spring grass in this country ; it is
even said that in Jellalabad the spring grassis of more importance than
the Khureef. In Seeweestan though the summer rains are scanty, the
Khureef grass is superior to the other kinds ; but herbage is not abundant
in that province. Peshawar, though its summer rains are deficient,
has yet as much grass on an average of all months as our provinces,
for showers fall at different times of the year, and the soil is good.
The name of Shurhsubz which Tymoor gave it, we may suppose allu-
ded rather to its constant succession of green crops, than the exube-
rance of its natural vegetation in grass, which is not extraordinary.
The least quantity of grass isin the middle of winter and the middle of
summer. :
119. The seasons of grass in Chhuchh, Huzar, Kohat, Malgeen,
Eesakhel, and Bunnoo, are nearly the same as in Peshawar, and the
quantity not very different. Mukulwud has but little grass, but some
parts of the Daman havea great quantity. The hills called Bedaulut,
owe their name to the scantiness of their herbage. The hills of Bajour,
888 Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov.
Punjkora, Swad, Bhooner, and Pukhlee, afford abundance of grass in the
summer; and the plain of Bajour is even more verdant than that of
Peshawar. The grass of Koonur is inferior to that of Bajour, and that
of Jellalabad to Koonur, but Lughman is superior to both. Kushmeer,
and the hills which surround it, have a very abundant herbage in sum- —
mer, but itis not reckoned nutritious ; in the winter the sheep and other
stock are house-fed—a management probably more judicious than if
they were kept on the grass remaining under the snow, or were driven
to a warmer climate. :
120. A great part of the surface of the districts of Cabul and
Ghuznee is covered with stones, and the soil is in other respects
unfavorable to the growth of grass. The new leaf appears in April, —
and there are but few places, where it is affected by the summer
heat, or withers until autumn. If the soil be moist and has been well —
covered by snow, the grass remains green even during the winter, but
makes very little progress in the spring. It may be observed, that the
grass of sandy soils appears earlier and also decays sooner than that
of other soils. In the winter the sheep of these upper countries are
driven to warmer climates to the eastward, and have been known
to come as far as Husun Ubdal. It would be difficult to estimate —
whether the cold or the warm countries here have most grass
during the year on a given surface. In the summer, that of the cold is —
most luxuriant, but in the winter there remains little beyond some ~
withered herbage under the snow; whereas in that season the warm
countries have a certain degree of verdure remaining, especially after a
shower, and when the surface is free from snow. The nature of the soil —
too has an infiuenee, and the upper countries are the less productive of
grass, as much of their surface is covered with stones. Cabul is pro-
verbial for a scarcity of fodder, but this does not arise from the na-
ture of the soil, but from there being a great number of horses and
other animals, and but little ground for pasturage left uncultivated.
121. Khoorasan has a dry climate, and no summer rains ; hence
its temperate and warm parts have very little herbage. Bu-
lochistan has still less, and Seestan is ill supplied. Sheep and goats
are seldom kept in the villages, but pasture during all seasons at
a moderate distance from them. There are indeed certain parts,
particularly in the Dooranee country, where the flocks return to
the villages after the grass has been burnt up, and are subsisted on
straw and other products of agriculture or gardening, with some
assistance from the meadows which are not withered by the heat. A
considerable part of the Dooranee flocks are driven in summer to the
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. 889
country of the Ymaks, where they find plentiful pasturage. The
Ymaks do not, on the other hand, resort in the winter to the country
of the Dooranees, which has less herbage than their own, though
warmer, but returning to their A¢shlaks, or winter residences in the
vallies, subsist their flocks partly on what grass they can find in good
weather, and partly on what has been cut forthemin theautumn. The
Huzaras, in a climate still more severe, reap great quantities of grass
for their sheep, which are seldom unhoused during three months of
winter, but sleep under the same roof with their master. Grass is very
abundant during the summer in both countries. Bactria too, with the
exception of the sandy spaces, is a verdant country and has many mea-
dows, which are always green. In the plains the snow is seldom so
deep as to prevent the cattle reaching the grass, but among the hills it
is found prudent to provide in part for their provender by a stock of
grass, cut in the autumn. ‘The reaping of grass is very common in
Kushmeer and in parts of Pukhlee, Bhooner, Swad, Punjkora, Cabul,
and Ghuznee, but in general the sheep which have not gone to the
low countries are driven out to feed on the shrubs and withered herb-
age of a hill exposed to the sun, which has been reserved for this pur-
pose. Straw also composes a great part of their food.
122. With respect to Chinese Toorkistan, we have little information.
Yarkund and the sandy tracts (see para. 106) have but little grass.
Khootun is in this respect much superior, as in most others. As to in-
dependent Toorkistan beyond the Oxus, generally considered, it is not
inferior to Bactria, but within it we are to distinguish—lIst, the dry
sandy plains—2nd, the moist plains and meadows—3rd the little and
lower hills—4th, the high hills and elevated plains. The first has least
grass ; the new leaf which had been nourished by the snow is on the 20th
March about three inches long ; after three months it withers from the
heat of the sun. The meadows have abundance of grass, which is conti-
nually renewed. Some banks of rivers have a close sweet turf, but the
meadows in general afford a deep grass. The lower hills are better
clothed with grass than the dry plains, but are not equal to the mea-
dows; their grass has nearly the same periods as the former, and on a
given surface perhaps supports during the year an equal number of
animals. The hillocks, are, in the country beyond the Oxus, of sand,
and bear a scanty grass, which soon withers. In Bactria and Muro the
hillocks are of a good soil, and bear good grass. The high mountains
and plains of Toorkistan have a grass which makes little progress in
the spring, but grows luxuriantly in the summer, sometimes exceeding
@man’s stature, and it does not wither until autumn ; the inhabitants
890 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov.
reap a portion of it for the sustenance of their stock during winter. In
the west of Toorkistan this practice is but little known. In districts,
such as that of Samarkand, which are well cultivated, the stock, which
isnot very numerous, is fed on straw or hay. Where natural pasture is
near and plentiful, they are driven out to it even in the depth of win-
ter ; hence an extraordinary fall of snow causes a great mortality among
them. It is still more fatal to the stock of the Kirghizes and Kuzzaks,
who inhabit a more rigorous climate, and having little agriculture
have less resource when the surface of the ground is covered with snow.
They make no provisions of dry grass, in which we are not altogether
to blame them as improvident, for some have scarcely a fixed residence
for winter ; and the flocks are so numerous, that it would be difficult to
provide sufficient provender forall. Some of the Kirghizes frequent the
Pamer, which bears a most luxuriant herbage, but by reason of the
cold it is not pastured more than a third part of the year. On their re-
turn, they feed their flocks in the warmer vallies below, until the heavy
falls of snow and severe cold force them to retire to their késhlaks in
the vallies, near which they have left forage remaining for the wants
of winter. The sheep remove the snow with their feet, or if too deep
they follow the track of the horse, where he has uncovered the herbage.
All the animals drink the snow in this season. Itis thus the quantity
of herbage and its natural seasons, determine the mode of life of a
great part of the population.
123. Pasturage may be divided into two species, the shepherd re-
maining in one climate, or visiting another different from his own.
In warm or temperate climates far removed from any other, he feeds his
flocks all the year near his own village, and according to the distance,
brings them back to the village by night, or not. In very cold climates
when circumstances prevent an access to more temperate ones during
the winter, they subsist in that season on reserved pasture, on the
grass which has been reaped, or on the straw or other products of tillage.
But when in the same neighbourhood there are warm plains and
cold mountains or upland plains, nature lays the foundation of a
more erratic life, the flocks being driven up in the summer and
down in the winter. Sometimes there are constant inhabitants in both
the upper and the lower countries. It is thus the Ghiljies, who stay
in the elevated country of Cabul and Ghuznee, send part of their
flocks in the winter to the various warm countries, from the most
southern parts of Daman to Koonur and Jellalabad. In the summer
the inhabitants of these countries send a part of their sheep to the
upper country, but the proportion is not considerable. Sometimes the
2
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 89]
habitations of the people are in the vallies and plains, and they frequent
the hills and upper plains in the summer-—this is the practice
of Kushmeer, Pukhlee, Bhooner and Punjkora. Sometimes they
reside in the high country—it is thus part of the Kafirs leave their high
hills in the winter to pasture their goats among the low ones, and
the declivities. The Afreedies too in general stay in the upper part of
their country. During the summer the shepherd shelters himself
under trees or rude sheds of grass; in the winter he removes to low
hills, where he finds natural or artificial caves in the rocks to receive
him and his flocks by night. Some of the Dooranees near the Helbund
construct habitations for themselves from the branches of trees and
mud. The Dooranees, in general, Ghiljies, and Beelochees live under
black tents; the Ymaks, Huzaras, and nations of Toorkistan use
khirgas made of felt and wood, or kuppas made of felt and reeds.
124. Some details might be given of the species of plants found in
these countries, but they would be little interesting. A considerable
number of spontaneous products form articles of food. The chief are
the lotus, the ruwash, some of the fungins, a kind of wild vetches, a plant
bearing some resemblance to the turnip, the roots of the tulip, the
leaves of the plant in India called paluk,* and the seeds of some of
the gramina ; other plants are used in medicine, and perhaps we have
here something to learn of the natives. Perfumes are extracted from
others, for instance from the grass which in India is called Gundhel or
Mircheeagundh, + and which according to some yielded the spikenard
of the ancients. The well known dool{ grass of India seems to ex-
tend over all these countries, some parts of which moreover have supe-
rior species. Two of these called Rishka$ and Shuften|| are also
artificially raised. ‘The Surkunda appears to extend to the utmost
verge of our inquiries to the north-west, and it is not so much from
the want of proper grasses as from other circumstances, that in the
countries of the west a thatched house is scarcely to be found ;
a flat roof with a balcony, or a vaulted one without it, are substitu-
ted. This last expedient is resorted to wherever wood is dear. Of
noxious vegetables, there is none worthy of mention except it be
the Bhoart. This abounds in the country of Beekaneer and the
neighbouring ones, as far as our military station of Lodhiana, the
sandy parts of the great Indian desert, and in some quarters of the
country between the Hydaspes and Indus. Its seed which is some-
* A species of beet. ¢+ Andropogon, nardus vahl.
t Panicum dactylon. Linn. § Sueerne. || A kind of trefoil.
892 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Nov. —
times gathered, and even sold at a considerable price, is covered with —
several sharp prickles, which readily attach themselves to clothes, and —
are with difficulty taken out. However insignificant they may seem,
they are the chief annoyance to a traveller. Beyond the Indus, and a
short distance from its banks, we do not find that grass which yields —
the khus* so useful during the hot winds in India. In these countries
tattees are not much used except in the hottest season, and then only by
people of condition. The plant employed is the Juwasat of India, in
Peshawar called Jhoy, and by those who speak Persian Shooturkhar,
from its being a common food of the camel; -besides these uses, in
some places it yields manna, for example, the neighbourhood of Can-
dahar and Hirat, and the banks of the Chilchick (see paragraph 45.)
This precious substance exudes from it after the spring rains are over,
and is collected by merely shaking it off. It is also produced in Toorkis-
tan, on the dark barked or cultivated willow, and from some other
plants.
2nd. Of Shrubs.
125. These countries have shrubs and low trees of several varieties
and in great abundance. It may be remarked that they are most
abundant in unfertile and uncultivated places ; whether it be that such
is their peculiar situation, or that they occupy places refused by the herbs
and succulent plants and by the timber trees I know not. Some
insinuate their roots among rocks and loose stones; some grow on
the hardest clays and merest sands, and in the driest climates; and
others overspread the salty deserts. ‘Though humble, they are how- |
ever useful, and demand some of our attention. |
126. Some furnish food from their roots, barks, flowers, or fruits.
The last only is worth mentioning, and the most remarkable species is
the barberry, which abounds in the east of Toorkistan, the Ymak coun-
try, the skirts of the great northern range, and some parts of that of 34°.
It is little cultivated, but that which is raised in Ghaeen is much
esteemed. The plant in India called Jhurbeereeat extends to the foot of
the hills in the northern and western directions. The Byr, which is said
to be merely a cultivated species of the barberry, is raised in Peshawar
but not in Khoorasan or Toorkistan, where instead of it is cultivated the
Connal, a fruit which much resembles it in taste and properties, and is
found wild in the hill of Bajour, in Pukhlee, some parts of Persian
Khoorasan, and probably many other quarters. On the low hills in
the east of Afghanistan, and those south of Kushmeer, which yield
* Andropogon muricatum. Linn.
¢ Hedysarum Alhaji. Linn.
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 895
berries; such are the goorgoor, moomanee, kookee, simloo, gurinda
(the Kurounda* of Hindoostan) and some others. By the banks of
streams there is found a plant which bears a fruit intermediate between
the raspberry and bramble. The wild grape is found both in the
warm and cool climates, but disappears in very cold ones ; its fruit is
sour, but is sometimes eaten either fresh or fermented. In the coun-
tries of the west, sugar being dear, various substitutes are found for it,
for example, preparations of dates and other fruits, and a preparation of
the sugar melon and honey ; but perhaps the most common is what is
called Doshab, which is sometimes made of apples or mulberries, but
oftener of grapes, wild or cultivated, the juice of which is boiled to a
consistence.
127. Where grasses are plentiful, as in Cabul and the cultivated
parts of Khoorasan and Toorkistan, a spirit is extracted from them.
In the Punjab and Sindh coarse sugar is the chief material from which
spirits are extracted, but the inhabitants of the latter sometimes use
the date alone, or mixed with sugar, and in the Punjab the same
use is made of a fruit called Umlok, which is both wild and cul-
tivated.
In some villages of Cabul a strong drink is extracted from mul-
berries, and in Kushmeer from pears. In Keerategin, and other parts of
Toorkistan, there is a coarse grape called Muska, this they gather, boil,
and afterwards dry in the sun. A water melon is now opened at one
end, and about nine of these grapes are inserted and forced into the
substance of the water melon, which being done, the orifice is shut
up by re-applying the piece which had been cut out. In-seven or
_ eight days it is found that both substances have fermented, and the
pulp of the water melon is converted into an intoxicating liquid fit for
home use. But in Toorkistan the favorite liquors are Koomiz, made
from mares’ milk, and Boza, made from rice; these liquors are both
_ Wines, not spirits ; they are somewhat acid, and are reckoned whole-
some. Koomiz is not considered as coming under the prohibition of the
law of Mahomet ; but in most of the principalities, especially where
the Tajiks bear sway, Boza is strictly forbidden. Although these pro-
hibitions, whether serious or not, are quite ineffectual when they are
met by a disposition to elude them, both Koomiz and Boza are less
consumed in the great towns than among the pasturing tribes ; yet on
the whole there is less intoxication among the latter, for the people
of towns indulge themselves in opium, the wine of the grape, and
* Carissa Carandas. Linn.
394 Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanistan. LNov.
various preparations of hemp. Not only in these countries but in
most others, intoxication is commonest in cities and crowded neigh-
bourhoods ; whether it be that company invites conviviality, and con-
viviality leads to excess, or that the real and imaginary ills of life being
more oppressive where population is accumulated, the miserable are
driven to this resource to procure a temporary relief in forgetfulness ;
a review of these countries will furnish no arguments for the com-
mon opinion, that climate influences this part of the character. The
force of example is much less doubtful, and the colonies of Persians
settled in the Afghan dominions still retain the love of wine for
which their ancestors were noted.
128. Very many wild shrubs and wild trees furnish materials for
dyeing, but the natives seem to have no secrets in this art. The cul-
tivated dyes are chiefly indigo, turmeric, bastard saffron,* and
madder. Indigo is unknown in the countries of the west, which are
supplied from Mooltan and the neighbouring countries. ‘TurmerictT
is raised in Peshawur and many other places on the east side of the
hills, but Bunno and Beer, a district of Pukhlee, are the most famous |
for it. It is not raised in the cold countries, or in the west. Bastard |
saffron, a more valuable product, is not raisedin very warm situations,
and indeed seems confined to Kushmeer and Ghaeen. The plant in—
India called Al} is found wild in Bajour and many other places
on the east side of the hills, but is not used as a dye, though |
valued for its cathartic quality. The madder plant does not seem |
adapted for warm climates, yet some is cultivated in Gunduwah. It
is raised at Kilat and Mungoochur, in Bulochistan, and some parts
of Toorkistan, but its chief seats are Zumundour, and the country |
from Cabul to near Candahar. What comes to India chiefly passes |
through Candahar and Shikarpoor. Logwood, or rather sapan$ wood, |
grows on the mountains of Kushmeer, but whatever conjectures
may be formed, I have found no evidence of its existence beyond |
the Indus until we reach Mazunduran. ‘Toorkistan is supplied with |
it and kermes from Russia. |
129. For tanning and colouring leather the bark of the almond, the |
leaves of the Kushnar|| tree, a shrub called Barik, and many others
are used. In all cases a lye of lime and alkalies is required. Leather |
is il] prepared in Afghanistan, and the people of thé hills are fond of !
* Carthamus tinchorious. Linn. ~ Morinda cihifolia. Linn.
f Curcuma longa. Linn. § Caexilpina sappan. Linn.
|| Bauhinia sp.
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 695
wearing shoes of undressed leather. Still simpler are those called
Chuplee, woven from the leaves of a plant which the Afghans call Muzir,
and the Peshawurees, Putha ; it grows to the height of a man, but in
general is under that height. It is not found in the cold countries,
but extends to a certain height on the east side of the hills, beyond
which is Khoorasan and Toorkistan. To the south it is found in
some parts of Seeweestan, and to the east it is not known beyond the
longitude of Husan Abdal. It is of the palm kind, and perhaps is yet
undescribed. It bears a small fruit, which ripensin July. An Afghan
will make a pair of chupleesin asingle hour during a halt ; they are tied
on the feet like sandals. The Kushmeerees make sandals of rice
straw.
130. The Assafetida* plant is produced in great abundance to-
wards the source of the Ghorbund river, and also near Isfizar (which
is three days from Furah), and some other places in the west of
Khoorasan. It prefers a cool climate, and the only cultivation bestow-
ed: on it is to shield it from the sun. Assafcetida is more consumed in
India than in the countries of its production, where however it is used in
food and also medicinally. Many other shrubs furnish articles for the
native materia medica. Blisters are made with the leaves of Kureel, a
plant well known in India and-also in Peshawur. The plant called
Akt or Uk, has a white corrosive juice, which the Rajpoots give to their
infant daughters as a poison, when they do not intend to bring them
up. This plant yields charcoal, and is good in tanning, dyeing, and
pharmacy. The sacred Toolseet is found in all these countries among
shrubs famous for the beauty of their flowers, but the most remark-
able is that called by the natives Urghuwan, or Anemone shrub. It
grows in some parts of Cabu], Budukhshan, and Durwaz. In Durwaz
it grows to the height of twenty feet ; spears are made of its wood,
and it is a common fuel.
131. Shrubs are the chief fuel in these countries, generally consi-
dered, though there are some districts where more use is made of
forest timber or the branches of large trees, and others in which the chief
resource is the dung of animals. Caravans sometimes find a difficul-
ty in procuring fuel at uninhabited stages, but few towns can be men-
tioned where this article is dearer than in our provinces. It is dear in
Candahar and Cabul; and in the latter a great quantity being re-
quired, it forms an important part of the expenditure of the poor.
* Ferula Assafcetida. + Asclepias gigantea. Linn.
t Ocimum sanctum. Linn.
396 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. LNov.
The rich Cabulees chiefly burn the wood of four trees—the mulberry,
mastich, oak, and bulhuk, a tree so called in Cabul, and by the Persi-
ans kurghuna. The poor content themselves with a fuel of shrubs
or dung, and the dung of horses is eagerly carried away from the streets.
The pasturing tribes bring the dung of sheep for sale, which in the
city is used as fuel, but in the villages as manure for grapes. The
capital was a good deal distressed in the winter of 1801, when the
Ghiljies of the neighbourhood interrupted the usual supplies of fuel.
132. In the Indian desert there is abundance of the plant which, after
the Arabians, we call Kali, and the same is found in some other
quarters. By the Persians it is called Ishkar, but I apprehend this name
is given to some other alkaline plants, particularly to that known to the
Hindoostanees under the name of Lance, and which is plentifully found
in the Indian desert, and also in the wastes of Khoorasan, Bulochistan,
and Toorkistan. In these quarters are at least two other plants of an
alkaline nature; the pasturing tribes wash by means of the leaves
and flowers of these plants. The Lance is thus used in Jellalabad. A
common practice is to burn them and use their ashes. Near the
Indian desert great use is made of the ashes of Kali, and many in
Toorkistan and Khoorasan use those of the Lance. By the addition of
fat a true soap is formed, and this is preferred by the more civilized
part of the population. The soap of Hindoostan is superior to that
of all those countries, but Toorkistan and Bokhara are noted for
this manufacture. In Kushmeer and Bajour meal of the Oord ©
is substituted for an alkali, ‘but in all cases a proportion of lime
is added. |
3rd. Of Trees.
133. The trees best known in India, for example—bamhboo, mangoe,
tamarind, neem, bukaen, seesum, sal, the banyan tree, peepul, firs,
peeloo, kudum, lusora, bel, jamun, khinnee, kuchnar, umlats, tota,
semur, pakur, moursuree, senjhna, jand, dhak, babool, kyr, burhur,
kuthur, aoonla, gondee, kumrukh, toon—are quite unknown in Cabul
or the countries beyond it, and very few of them are to be seen
in Kushmeer or Peshawur. The bamboo is not known beyond
Khanpoor of the Gukhurs, nor is it found in any part of Sindh,
or even of the Sooba of Ajmeer. The mangoe is cultivated in Sindh,
but Tymoor Shah unsuccessfully attempted to introduce it at
Peshawur. The mangoe is cultivated at Keech, in Bulochistan. The
plantain does not bear fruit beyond the 33rd degree of latitude ; it is
unknown in the cold countries, and does not extend far into Bulochis-
1839. ] Lieut. Inwin’s Memoir of Afghanistan. 897
tan. The tamarind and neem become rarer as we leave our provinces,
and are unknown in Peshawur, as are the kudum, bél, khinnee, tota,
moursuree, jand, kyr, burhur, kuthur, kumrukh, dhak, and some
others. In Jellalabad are lost, in addition to those, the seesum, banyan
tree, peepul, lusora, jamun, kuchnar, umlats, semur, senjhna, babool,
peeloo, aoonla, and some others. The date tree reaches Jellalabad, but
extends no further in this parallel. In the south it extends through
Bulochistan into Perna ; and in Bulochistan it is very abundant, and a
main support of the population. In Kilat however it is not found by
reason of the cold, nor is it seen in Toorkistan or in any part of the
north of Khoorasan.
134. In India gum is extracted chiefly from various species of the
genus mimosa, which includes the kyr, babool, jand, and chhokur,
of which the last only reaches Peshawur, but there is a species of
mimosa, bearing a great resemblance to the first, but not found in our
provinces. It is very common on all the low hills between the
Hydaspes and Indus, and is called Pholoo, and yields gum, which
besides being useful in medicine is sometimes eaten. It does not
grow in the cold climates. It has been used with great advantage as
a hedge round a fort. In Cabul and the countries of the west where
none of this genus are found, gum is extracted from the cultivated
trees of orchards, the jujube tree, the wild almond shrubs, and the
mastich. In Toorkistan the gum mastich is used for fixing colours in
the dyeing of chintz. These are not the only trees from which gum is
extracted both towards India and in the west. The jujube is not seen
east of the Indus, perhaps is not seen east of the valley of Cabul, but
there, and in the west, it exists both wild and cultivated. The mastich
is not very abundant on this side the Indus, but beyond that river it is
found on most of the hills, except the warmest, and it bears the cold of
the Huzara mountains. To the west it extends to. Persia, and in
a northern direction it crosses the Jaxartes. It is seldom found far
from hills.
135. There is a certain plant in Toorkistan, and elsewhere, which is
called Seehuk, and its roots yield a coarse resin. The pine species
yield the best, and tar is also extracted from them. In remote
situations it is more common to rive the tree with wedges than to saw
it into planks. Pines are not found in all] situations even of the cool
countries, but prefer the steep sides of hills, never being found indigencus
to plains or tame featured hills. There are some now growing at Herat
planted by the late Nooa Moohummud Babunee. They are plenti-
fully found on the sides of the great northern range, and the Bebur,
398 — Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. LNov.
(with their various branches of asteep character and moderate height. )
in the middle of the range of 34°, in nearly the whole of that of 323°, in
the beginning of the salt range, on the mountain called Tuchti-Sooli-
man, on the lofty mountain Bunseekurn, and the Jadran range, on the
Ootman Khel hills, on the Aktan hills in Toorkistan, and some of the
mountains of Chinese Toorkistan. Pines are also found in some spots of
the Kokur country; Cabul is supplied from the mountain of Kulkucha,
about three days tothe east. Bameean, Ghuznee, the Huzaraand Ymak
countries have no pine trees. Some are found in a few spotsof Bulochis-
tan. The natives distinguish at least seven kinds, but all are not found
inthe same quarters. Toorkistan and Kushmeer do not seem to possess
that species which is called Julghoza, and which bears a large cone,
the seeds of which are idly supposed to possess many good qualities.
Another species by the Afghans called Shouty, is remarkable for its
being so combustible that the natives use it as a torch; this too
seems unknown in Toorkistan. I have received no hint of the larch
or any other deciduous species of the pine being found in any of those
countries. It may be observed, that the fall of the leaf does not take
place even in the same species at one time in climates so different. In
Peshawur most trees retain their leaves till near spring, but in Cabul,
Khoorasan, and Toorkistan the autumn frosts shed the foliage. _
136. Evergreens, besides the pines, are but few. It may be con-
jectured holly grows on the lofty mountains, but I have never received
any hint of it. The cypress is chiefly khown as a cultivated tree, but
is found wild in some situations. Excepting it, the natives reckon the
chinar or sycamore, the most beautiful of trees. Some are found at
Lahour, but are certainly not indigenous. There are two species, the
Chinar or Sufeda, which has a broad shade, and the Punja-chinar or
Sufedar, which grows slender and tall. The Chinar is indigenous in
Kushmeer, Khost of Bunnoo, Goorzwan in the Ymak country, Durwaz,
and various other situations. It prefers a moderate climate inclining
to cold, deep valleys, and a moist, fat soil.
137. The same situations are most favourable to willows, but some
of them are seen growing in all climates, from the plain of Peshawur
to the country of the Huzaras. This is perhaps the only tree which
withstands the cold of the Pamer. The willow is banished only from
the hot and dry plains, and some peculiar situations. ‘There are seve-
ral species, but four are the most known, viz.—the weeping willow,
which the natives call Mujnoon, and value for its beauty, the Bedi
Mooskk from which is extracted a perfumed water, the green willow
which is the commonest of all, and the red, which grows straight and
1839. | Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 899
tall. The two last are used in building, chiefly for rafters of houses,
and insects do not eat their timber. All the four species are cultiva-
ted, though some more than others. In Kushmeer and some other
places the twigs of willows are given to cattle. In none of these
countries are osier baskets made.
138. It is probable that the high mountains have some English trees
which we cannot identify from the descriptions of the natives. ‘The
birch is plentiful in Kushmeer, and also many places of the Belur
mountains, yet its bark is imported from Russia into Bokhara, where
it is used to stuff saddles—an article there manufactured of good qua-
lity. The only species of oak is that known in systems by the name
Quereus Bilote, which does not become a great tree. It is not found
in Khoorasan, or Toorkistan, or in the warmer countries towards
India ; the Cabulees call it Buloot. I know not what are the trees
called Seah, Chob, Bulhuk, Pudda, and Gurung.
139. The mulberry grows wild over a vast expanse of country, yet
is rarely seen in the plains. It grows in the vallies of all but the
warmest hills. Its fruit is much improved by cultivation, and it has
varied into at least twelve varieties, all of them good. There is a
difference in their ripening, but the mulberry harvest generally speak-
ing coincides with that of wheat and barley in the same climate. In
various parts of Toorkistan the mulberry is very important to the
natives, furnishing a fruit, a doshab, and when preserved a considera-
ble article of food. Now here is it so important as in Punjsher, where
the natives grind it into flour, and this forms the chief food of
the country. The mulberry plantations are so extensive that they
are not walled in, and some individuals are said to possess ten thou-
sand trees, but this seems an exaggeration. A very good tree will bear
ten maunds of mulberries, and if the average produce be one-third
of this, it is calculated to support a far greater population than tillage.
The produce is little affected by the seasons and is remarkably equable.
Silk is not made except in certain quarters. Kushmeer raises enough
for its own scanty consumption, but Peshawur and other countries of
the east are supplied from abroad, chiefly from Goojrat, and our pro-
vinees. ‘To the west the first place which produces silk is Gundumuk,
in a temperate climate between Cabul and Jellalabad, but there is none
in Cabul or Ghuznee ; considerable quantities are raised in the Afghan
_Khoorasan, but less than in the Persian part of the province and in
Toorkistan. Great quantities are raised in Khootun.
140. The pistachio tree is confined to Toorkistan and that side of the
Paraparnisan which lies towards it, but it is little cultivated. The wild
900 Lieut. Irwin's Memozr of Afghanistan. L Nov.
almond shrub (which when cultivated attains a great size) is very
common in many places, but its fruit is not eatable. An oil esteemed
in medicine is extracted from the stones both of this and the cultivated
sort. The oil of walnuts is so cheap in Kushmeer, that it is more used
in food than any other oil or fat. The tree requires a colder climate
than the mastich, but like it is found in the very cold ones. Where it
is naturally very abundant, it is not cultivated. A good tree in per-
fection will bear, it is said, forty thousand walnuts in a season, and
two thousand in Cabul fetch a rupee when cheap. The wood is good
for some purposes, by reason of its strength and hardness. The natives
are not accustomed to use olive oil in their food, but apply it to
medicinal purposes: this plant grows on most of the low hills.
Though it is not found in Cabul, Toorkistan, or Khoorasan, it is
plentiful in some places between the Euxine and Caspian.
141. Nearly all the species of fruits cuitivated in these countries are
also found natural in some parts of them, chiefly in the vallies of
cool and cold mountains. ‘These are the apple, pear, cherry, plum,
apricot, peach, quince, and pomegranate. The fig, though found in
most of these climates seems yet to prefer the warm. The naring,
a species of wild orange, grow on the hills south west of Kushmeer.
142. Of these countries Kushmeer has probably the greatest variety
of indigenous species, and is at the same time as well wooded as any.
It may be remarked that the same situations are generally well
wooded which have been already described as favourable to the pine
(see paragraph 135), the steep sides of hills being favourable to its
growth, whether it be that forest trees love shelter, or because they are
here best secured from animals. The low hills are not so woody as the
high, being more affected by shrubs and low trees of little use as timber,
than by forest trees. On the whole these countries are but ill wooded,
though superior to Persia. ‘Toorkistan, excluding the deserts of the
west, is on the whole superior to Afghanistan, and the northern
part of that country to the southern Bulochistan has very little
wood. The plains of these countries have naturally but few trees
and (contrary to what takes place in most countries of Europe)
they become better wooded with the progress of cultivation. Few
of the natives plant for timber, but a good deal is yielded from the
numerous orchards of the countries of the west, which have been
planted for fruit.
( To be continued. )
= fi ete
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 901
Art. I].—Journal of a trip through Kunawur, Hungrung, and
Spiti, undertaken in the year 1838, under the patronage of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, for the purpose of determining the geo-
logical formation of those districts —By Tuomas Hutton, Lieut.,
37th Regt. N. I. Assistant Surveyor to the Agra Division..
DPIIPLP LE OLIGO IP PA
Eas Bite) Naa
Towards the close of the year 1837, a proposal was made to the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, to undertake, with their patronage and
assistance, an expedition into the Spiti Valley, where the late Dr.
Gerard, some years since discovered the fossil exuvie of marine mol-
lusca; but which interesting discovery was never followed up by a
close examination of the geological formation in which they occurred.
The proposal meeting with the approbation of the Society, I pro-
ceeded with as little delay as possible to Simla, whence in a few days
having completed my arrangements, and procured all necessaries for
the journey, I started on the 14th of May, 1838.
So many travellers have at various times passed over the first four
stages of my journey, and the appearance and productions of the
country from Simla to Kotgurh have been so often described, that it
would be tedious to repeat the information already published ; and I
shall therefore pass over the four first stages of my trip and commence
my notes from the military post of Kotgurh, where I arrived on the
19th of May.
_ Here previous to starting for Kunawur, I received a visit from a
vuzeer of the Bussaher Rajah, who, at the kind suggestion of Colonel
Tapp, the Political Agent, furnished me with some information re-
garding my route, and also sent with me one of his Churriahs or
Chupprassees, to accompany me as far as Spiti, in order to procure
‘provisions for my followers, and to give any assistance which his
knowledge of the people and their different dialects would enable him
to furnish.
From Kotgurh, the road winds down a steep and somewhat sud-
den descent of about four thousand feet to the bank of the Sutledge,
along which it continues, with an occasional moderate ascent and
descent, to the village of Dutnuggur, which is generally the first stage
towards Rampore.
To avoid as much as possible the heat of the march, which along
the bed of the river is little inferior to.that of the provinces, I took the
DZ
902 | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [ Nov.
pugdundee, or village road across the brow of the hill, by the village
of Logo, where iron is procured, which is also a nearer route than by
the descent to Kaypoo. A walk of about three miles and a half brought
me gradually down to the Sutledge, where the thermometer which at —
Kotgurh at sunrise stood at 54°, now rose at ten o’clock a.m. to 98°;
this sudden change of climate from temperate to torrid was by no means
an agreeable transition to a pedestrian traveller, with more than half
his march still before him. Passing the village of Neert or Neertnug-
gur, a few miles farther on brought me to Dutnuggur, and the end of
my day’s journey, right glad to seek a rest and a shelter from the
burning sun, beneath the grateful shade of a large burgut tree.
The presence of this beautiful tree is of itself sufficient to stamp the
character of the climate of Dutnuggur, and looking around we find
along with it the peepul, the bukkine, the pomegranate, and the plantain,
with many shrubs abundant in the hot provinces of India. All these,
with the exception of the burgut, are indigenous to the soil, but that
noble tree was long since brought from the plains by some traveller
now many years dead and gone, and the date even of its arrival is
now alike forgotten with the name of him who brought it.
Beneath the shade of its spreading branches I pitched my tent, and
amused myself until the arrival of my baggage, with watching the
parrots and minas as they threw down in showers the red fruit with
which the tree was loaded ; even in this delightful shelter the thermo-
meter stood at 92°, while in the sun it rose to 120° at 12 o'clock.
Those who have figured to themselves the valley of the Sutledge to
consist of a large river winding beautifully through a broad and fertile
vale, well cultivated and studded with habitations and villages, will |
feel a degree of disappointment and surprise, on finding it in reali-
ty to be no more than a steep and rugged mountain glen of unusual
grandeur, with a broad and rapid torrent roaring and foaming as it
rushes impetuously along the bottom over the fragments of rock, which
everywhere strew its bed, causing its waters to curl and rise in waves,
which hurl the white spray on high, and give to the surface of the
stream the appearance of a ruffled sea.
Broad and fertile valley there is none, but in its place are frowning
hills rising high on either side from the water’s edge, clothed, and that
scantily, with tufts of grass and shrubs, while near their ragged crests
are scattered dark groves of bristling pines, giving to the scene an air of
stern and bold magnificence, which cannot fail to impress the travel-
ler with an idea that some vast and more than usual agent has been
the means of stamping the landscape with unwonted grandeurs.
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunanur. 903
The banks and bed of the river are thickly strewed with rolled
and water-worn fragments of every size, from the pebble to the mass
of many pounds in weight, and seemingly brought down from great
distances, as many of them evidently belong to formations which do
not occur in these lower parts.
Boulders of quartz of gypsum, hornblende and mica slates, porphy-
ritic gneiss, sienite and sand stones, are heaped together in confusion
along the river’s course, while here and there above the stream are
vast beds of the same rolled stones embedded in clay and debris.
These are situated solely at the lower part of the valley, commencing a
little above Rampore, and increasing in magnitude from thence down-
wards; they are chiefly, if not altogether, situated at those places
where the river takes a rapid turn, and have evidently been thrown
up or deposited in the back current or still waters of the deep floods,
which must have brought down the sediment and stones of which
they are composed. These vast deposits of alluvial matter are horizon-
tal, or rather preserve the line of level of the river, and upon their wide
| and flattened surface the traveller is pleased to see a rich and smiling
| cultivation. These beds are sometimes far from each other, at other
places they extend along both banks of the river, by the action of whose
current they have evidently been severed. Upon such are the villages
of Neert, Dutnuggur, Kaypoo, and many others on both banks built,
and surrounded by a beautiful and luxuriant vegetation.
Rivers of the present day are known to accumulate and deposit
large beds of sand and other debris in the eddies or back waters
which they make when winding through rocks or strata of unequal
hardness, but these deposits of the Sutledge are not the gradual accu-
mulations of months and years, but from their massiveness and the
| enormous blocks or boulders which they contain, must evidently owe
their origin to a larger body of water than is now supplied even in the
| rainy season ; they must owe their origin to some vast and perhaps oft-
repeated floods from the upper parts of the district, such as the sudden
outpouring or bursting of some extensive lake, which has brought
down and deposited vast fragments of rocks, whose true site is situated
many miles from the deposits which now contain them, and which
tower up for two and even four hundred feet above the river’s present
level.
To state here the causes from which these beds have sprung would be
to anticipate, and we shall see as we travel onwards into Spiti, that
a solution is presented in the appearances which that valley exhibits.
Towards evening, the clouds began to gather thick and heavily, and
904 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [ Nov. >
thunder growled nearer and nearer, preceded by a gale of wind that
nearly tore my tent away. The rain came drifting up the valley, and
curiously, but very civilly, kept the opposite bank of the river to
where I was encamped, shrouding the mountains from my sight as it
passed along, without even giving me a sprinkling.
The harvest had commenced at Dutnuggur as also at Kotgurh, and
the sickle was in the field. In some instances the reaper and the
‘plough were at work on the same ground, the one preparing the soil
for the second crop, almost as soon as the other could gather in the
first one. The first crop here consists, as in all these lower parts, of
barley, wheat, poppies, and some minor grains, which are ripe in the
months of May and June, when the fields are again made ready and
sown with the autumn crop.
On the morning of the 2lst, I resumed my pilgrimage by a good -
broad road along the left bank of the river, and a walk of nine miles
brought me to Rampore, the capital of Bussaher.
After leaving Dutnuggur, there is scarcely any cultivation on the —
left bank of the Sutledge, owing to the rocks rising more abruptly from
the stream, between which and their own base there is sometimes
little more breadth than what is occupied by the road; at Rampore,
although the town stands upon a broad flat at a turn of the river,
there is no cultivation, except a few gardens in which the burgut
again appears. |
This place is therefore strictly speaking a manufacturing town,
where those of its inhabitants who are not engaged in travelling with
grain into Ludak and Chinese Tartary, are employed in the manufac-
ture of pushmeena chuddurs, which are made from the under wool
of the Tartar goats, called by the people “ pushm” whence the word
“‘pushmeena”. These chudders or shawls are sold according to
their quality and texture at from fourteen to twenty-five rupees each.
Rampore is also the winter residence of the Rajah; and is selected —
on account of the mildness of its climate at that season. To avoid
the great heat which it experiences in summer, he usually repairs with
his court to Sarahun, which from its greater elevation is free from
such intense heat as is felt at Rampore, whose elevation is only
3,400 feet above the sea, while Sarahun is rather more than 7,000
feet, or about the height of Simla.
It is here that in the beginning of November the great fair is held,
which draws together the people from the upper hills to barter the
produce of those elevated tracts for that of the Jower hills and plains.
Here may be seen commingled in one grotesque assemblage the Tar-
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 905
_ tars of Hungrung, of Spiti, of Ludak and Chinese Tartary, with the
inhabitants of Kunawur, of the lower hills and plains, and sometimes
also with those of Europe.
Among these different tribes little or perhaps no money is exchang-
ed, but the dealer in tobacco or grain offers to the seller of wool: or
woollen cloths an equivalent quantity of merchandise for that which
he requires, and thus in a very short time the produce of either coun.
try or district has changed masters.
The greatest good humour and mirth prevails at this periodical
“ gathering of the clans,” and few quarrels occur. Should two dealers
however happen to fall out, or, as sometimes occurs, should the wine
cup have been used too freely and broken heads ensue, the Rajah
levies on the disturbers of the peace a fine according to the circum.
stances of the delinquents, which is paid in anything they may pos-
_ sess, whether money, sheep, or merchandise.
At this season the articles brought into the market from the upper
hills, are blankets and sooklat from Lubrung, Khanum, Soongnum,
and other places in upper Kunawur ;—raisins, neozas, cummin seed,
sheep, goats, and ghee from the lower parts ;—chowrees, birmore,
pushm wool, byangee wool, silver and gold dust in small quantities,
borax and salt, numdahs, &c., from Ludak and different parts of Tar-
tary.
These are exchanged for opium, celestial barley and wheat, tobacco,
iron, butter, ghee, treacle or ghoor, linen cloths, brass pots, &c. all
of which meet with a ready and ancien sale in the upper parts
of the country.
Within the last three or four years, the traders from Ludak have
purchased opium, which they did not take previously. Ghee is not
purchased for Ludak or Tartary, but butter is taken instead, and forms
a great ingredient in the mess, which they make of tea and flour, and
which forms their food, as the chupattee or bannock does that of the
low country people. It is purchased at Rampore at about eight seers
for the rupee, and sells again in Tartary at four and five seers, so that
cent per cent is no uncommon profit on this one article. Tobacco is
also in great demand, and always brings a good profit to the trader.
Of the different articles manufactured in the upper parts, I shall
again have occasion to revert in speaking of the several places where
they are made, and I shall therefore pass on to the Rajah and his
court, ere I take leave of the capital, and plunge into the woods and
forests of Runawur. The Rajah is an ugly, common looking fellow,
of about thirty years of age, and is of the Chuttree caste of Hindoos.
906 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. | Nov.
He is married, but has no legitimate offspring to succeed him, although
he has a son and a daughter by some mistress or frail damsel, who
~ doubtless, like a highland lassie of the olden time, would have
thought it a crime to refuse the laird anything in her power to bestow.
Should he die and leave no legitimate heir to succeed him, his terri-
tories will fall to the British Government.
He has three chief vuzeers who manage the affairs of his territories,
and who in time of war would take command of his forces, as it is
contrary to the custom of the country for the Rajah to do soin person.
These three are equal in rank, and their office is hereditary.
Below them are several inferior officers also called vuzeers, whose
office is not hereditary, but who are elected or rather nominated by
the Rajah annually, and they seem to be thannadars of different
pergunnahs; among this class is Puttee Kaur, Dr. Gerard’s friend,
who has lately been appointed vuzeer of Hungrung. ‘The personal
attendants or immediate household of the Rajah, consists of two sets
of men called Churriahs, and Hazrees.
The Churriah derives his name from part of his duty being to carry
the Churree, or silver stick, on occasions of ceremony before the Rajah.
His duties are chiefly those of a Chupprassee, and he is sent into dif-
ferent pergunnahs to collect the revenue, to report any misconduct, and
to see that the people are equitably assessed, that is, to point out who
may be taxed more heavily, and who should be excused,—and in fact,
to ferret out and report to the Rajah the conduct and circumstances
of all his subjects.
Those who are smart, and acquit themselves to the satisfaction of
their chief in this system of espionage, are usually high in favour,
and receive occasional substantial presents in token of his approbation,
while those who are lukewarm, lazy, or who are wanting in tact, get
nothing but their trouble, for the Rajah gives no pay to his sige
their services on the contrary being compulsory.
The Churriahs form a body of from sixty to eighty men, never exceed-
ing the one or falling short of the other number ; they have three officers
who, in the language of the country, are called ‘“ Pulsur,” “‘ Buttoong-
gee,” and “ Naigee,” answering to Soobadar, Jemedar, and Burkun-
dauze. They are exempt from military service, and remain with the
Rajah. They are drawn from the district of Kunawur, and are
compelled to obey summons, unless it graciously pleases his Highness
to excuse them, in which case however he takes good care to exact a
fine for their non-attendance. :
Some wisdom is shown in the selection of this body, as none are
1839. ] Journal of a-trip through Kunamwur. 907
taken but men in easy circumstances, who possess either lands or
flocks, the Rajah rightly thinking that those who are well off, will be
more likely to keep a sharp eye on the discontented or troublesome
characters, than those who have all to gain, and nothing to lose.
He has also the satisfaction of reflecting that in case of misconduct
they possess the means of paying a heavy fine.
The Hazrees are a larger body of men than the Churriahs, and they
sometimes perform the same duties, but in general they act as Chow-
keydars or guards to the Rajah, being distributed round his camp or
his palace by night, in a chain of sentries. They consist of one hun-
dred and forty men, and have one officer called a ‘‘ Gooldar”
Of their number, however, no more than forty or fifty of the smart-
est are required to be in attendance ; the others are suffered to remain
at home. They are fighting men, and in time of war would join
the forces.
There is no standing army or any regular soldiery since the British
Government extended its protection to Bussaher, and even before that
time it resembled an half-armed mob, rather than a military force,
having no uniform, and each man being armed according to circum-
stances, some with matchlocks, some with swords, and others who
possessed neither, arming themselves with sticks and branches of
trees.
This rabble was commanded by the three vuzeers if the enemy
was in force, or by two or one according to the exigency or trifling
nature of the disturbance.
The Rajah pays a tribute of 15,000 rupees annually to the British
Government, which is levied in coin on the inhabitants according to
their circumstances, some paying two annas, others four annas, and
onwards to ten rupees, which is not exceeded except by the three
vuzeers who pay twelve rupees each annually.
The amount of private revenue which the Rajah himself derives
from Bussaher is very uncertain, and cannot be fully ascertained as
it is paid in kind, consisting of lambs and kids, blankets, and other
manufactures, wool, neozas, raisins, and rice from Chooara, across the
Burenda pass, which is I believe the only grain he receives. If the
season be bad and the flocks are sickly, or the young ones die, that por-
tion of the revenue is excused for that year, and so likewise if the
_ fruits or crops fail, so that his revenue varies according to the goodness
or unfavourableness of the seasons. It may perhaps be roughly com-
puted at from fifty to fifty-five thousand rupees annually.
For crimes and misdemeanours, fines are levied according to the
908 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov.
nature of the offence and the circumstances of the offending parties,
these fines though nominally amounting to a certain number of rupees
are always levied in goods.
Thus when the village of Junggee in Kunawur neglected to furnish
me with coolies to carry my baggage, the Rajah ordered a fine of
one hundred rupees to be levied on the inhabitants, which was to be
realised in anything they had to give. Thesame punishment would
have been inflicted on the Churriah who accompanied me to Spiti,
had he refused to go. When the Rajah ordered him to prepare for
the journey, he was on his way to Simla, to be present at his master’s
interview with the Governor General, and having already been in
Spiti he felt no desire to return to it, consequently he declined going,
and offered to pay a fine of five rupees if the Rajah would excuse
him and appoint somebody else; but the Rajah turning to him said,—
No, no, if you disobey my orders I shall not ask for five rupees, but
make you pay one hundred. This was enough, for bad as was the
prospect of a journey into the dreary district of Spiti, far worse for the
Churriah would have been the infliction of such a fine, and he there-
fore departed without another word.
From Rampore to Gowra, the next stage is a long and fatiguing as-
cent all the way. The road winds up the side of a very steep hill,
and is strewed with blocks of stone, so thickly in some places as to
resemble the bed of a torrent rather than the high road between the
Rajah’s summer and winter residence.
The first part of the ascent is overa nearly bare hill, but the scenery
improves farther on, and the way is cheered by the occurrence of a
scattered forest of oaks, mulberries, rhododendron, and the “ Pinus
excelsa” or Cheel. From the crest of the ascent, a pretty view is
obtained of the surrounding country ; a small amphitheatre is spread —
beneath, the foreground consisting of gradually sloping hills shelving
away towards the river, which winds along unseen below. ‘This slope
was studded over with the bright hue of the ripening crops, while round
them rose thickly wooded hills, backed in their turn by the dazzling
splendour of the snowy range.
From the brow of this hill the road dips suddenly down again into
a thickly wooded dell, from whence it rises on the opposite side to the
village of Gowra. Thinking to avoid this second ascent, I followed a
bye path through the forest, and a precious scramble I had of it.
The soil was so thoroughly impregnated with decomposing chlorite,
that it was with some difficulty I could manage to keep upon my feet,
from the greasy saponaceous nature of the rock ; and when at last I
1839.] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 909
reached the stream at the bottom of the glen, from which the road
again ascended, I found that the pugdundee I had chosen to follow
_ led along the side of a hill which was daily yielding to the weather,
and falling down in masses, which left a nearly perpendicular mural
cliff to scramble up. Hands and knees were in some places necessary
in order to avoid slipping back again, and this by the greatest exertion.
We passed over some masses which the weather had detached, and
which were actually tottering to their fall, and were hanging almost by
nothing over the deep glen below. On my return to this place, two
months and a half afterwards, in the rains, these masses had all been
hurled down, and their fragments were scattered in the bed of the
stream ; yet another pathway had been made by the villagers tosave a
mile or two, and it is doubtless doomed, like its predecessors, to fall at
no distance of time into the glen. This time I preferred the steepness
of the road, to the wet and slippery pugdundee. We managed how-
ever to get over safe enough, and my people gave me Job’s comfort, by
telling me there were far worse roads ahead! Save me, thought I
from bye paths in future, and I felt by no means inclined to exclaim
with the courtier in Bombastes, “Short cut or long, to me is all the
same !”
Gowra is a small village, and contains but few houses. It is situated
far above the Sutledge, which winds along unseen in the depths below,
and the hoarse roar of its turbid waters is even scarcely heard. Here
were apples, apricots, mulberries, and citrons bearing fruit, and the
barley was nearly all carried from the fields.
In the woods around the village plenty of game is found, such as the
monal, college pheasant, black partridge, and chikore. At this place
I halted on the 22nd of May, and the next morning after a walk of an
hour and a half arrived at a small village called Mujowlee, where I
again encamped, as the rest of the way to Sarahun, which is the proper
march, was all up hill, and had I attempted it, my baggage and tent
would not have arrived until night, and I should have got no dinner
into the bargain, which to a traveller in such a country is by no means
either pleasant or comfortable. The road from Gowra to Mujowlee is
very good indeed, and vies in some places with those of Simla ; it lies
through very pretty woods of oak, firs, mulberry, and many others
common to the lower hills; the wild dog-rose with its snowy flowers,
spreading over the tops of the underwood or climbing high into some
tall oak, was in abundance, and almost every villager had a thick roll
or necklace of the flowers hung round his neck, or stuck in a bunch on
one side of his bonnet.
6a
910 Journaé of a trip through Kunawur. [Nov.
‘From Mujowlee we descended into a steep khud or glen, at the
bottom of which by a frail and ricketty sangho of twigs, whieh is con-
tinually carried away by the rise of the waters, we crossed a stream
which runs down and joins the Sutledge about a mile or two lower.
From this we toiled up a long and steep ascent on the side of a hill,
very prettily wooded with oaks, firs, horse chesnuts, walnuts, peaches,
apricots and bukkines, intermingled with the raspberry, blackberry,
and white dog-rose. The number of fine mulberry trees which for
the last few marches had every where occurred near villages, led me
to inquire if the silk-worm was known to the people, and if so, why
they did not import and cultivate it. Such an insect it seemed had
been heard of, but nobody appeared to know what it was like, nor had
any one ever thought of introducing it to the hills; and the reply was,
“ We are hill people, what do we know of silk-worms?”
Nevertheless I see no reason why the insect should not thrive well
in these villages along the Sutledge, where the summer enjoys a
warmth unknown to Europe, and where the winter is certainly not so
severe as in our native land. Food for the insect is in abundance,
and is at present useless. At Simla, in the summer of 1837, I saw
many caterpillars of a species of silk-worm feeding on a mulberry tree,
in a garden there, which shows that very little care would cause it to
become an useful article of trade in the lower hills. It is indeed
very probable that the insect does already occur in the places I have
alluded to, although it is at present unknown to the inhabitants, who
are too busily employed in the cultivation of their fields to bestow a
thought on “ Entomology !’’
Were the insect introduced, and the people instructed in its manage-
ment, which could be easily done by sending skilful hands from the
plains, I have no doubt, from conversations which I held with them
on the subject, that they would gladly give their attention to its culti-
vation; but the introduction of it must be made by those who are in ~
some authority, as the people themselves are far too poor to run the
risk of expense which any experiment might entail upon them.
After gaining the summit of the ascent from Mujowlee we leave
the pergunnah of Dussow, and drop over the frontier ridge of the
district of Kunawur, arriving by a short and gradual descent at the
town of Sarahun.
_ This is the usual summer residence of the Bussaher Rajah, who
flies from the heat of his capital in the month of May, and returns
again in time for the annual fair of November.
The elevation of Sarahun is about 7,300 feet above the sea, and it
1839. } Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 911
is situated in a beautifully wooded recess or amphitheatre formed by
the hills advancing round it in a semicircle behind ; while in front they
slope down in the direction of the Sutledge, from which again on the
opposite bank rise the dark and usually barren hills of Kooloo.
The heights all round were in the month of May still deeply
covered with snow, which however does not remain, but melts away
as the rainy season sets in.
The village of Sarahun, for it cannot be called a town, has a
shabby and ruinous appearance, and except at the season when the
Rajah honors it with his presence, is nearly deserted. It boasts of
no manufactures. At the time of my arrival the Rajah had gone to
Simla to wait upon the Governor General, and having on this occa-
sion drawn around him his retainers, the place was left with scarcely
an inhabitant, except a few old women and children.
Journeying onwards from Sarahun, the road was at first tolerably
level and easy, but after a mile or two it changed to a steep ascent
over stones of all sizes, and sometimes overhanging the khud at places
where the weight of snows had caused the whole to slip down, and
where a plank or the trunk of a tree had been thrown across the gap
to supply the deficiency.
The whole way was however very pretty and well wooded, and we
erossed two or three streams which came rushing down from the
snows on the heights, to join the Sutledge below us. One of these
streams at eleven a. m. had a temperature of 45°, while the air at the
same time was at 89°. From the ridge of the hill we descended for
some way through a beautiful forest, in which at last, after a walk of
eight good miles, we encamped at noon, surrounded by oaks, rhododen-
dra, walnuts, horse chesnuts, apricots and mulberries; many of the
horse chesnuts were magnificent trees, and covered with their conical
bunches of flowers, which with the scarlet blossoms of the rhododen-
dron arboreum, gave a pleasing effect to the surrounding scenery. In
one part of the forest we found vast beds of a large flag iris in full
bloom, and quite distinct from the small species which I saw on
my way to the Burrenda pass in 1836. It is not perhaps generally
known that the fruit of the horse chesnut produces a beautiful and per-
manent dye, and as it may be procured in some abundance in the hills,
the following recipe, taken from the Saturday Magazine, may not be
‘unacceptable to those who residing in the hills, may wish to avail
themselves of the produce of the country.
“The whole fruit of the horse chesnut cut in pieces when about the
size of a small gooseberry, and steeped in cold soft water, with as much
912 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov.
soap as will tinge the water of a whitish colour, produces a dye like
anotta; the husks only, in the same manner with cold water and
soap, produce a dye more or less bright according to the age of the
husk. Both are permanent and will dye silk or cotton, as much
of the liquor as will run clear being poured off when sufficiently dark.”
During the past night at Sarahun we experienced some heavy show-
ers of rain, accompanied by thunder and lightning which cooled the air,
and gave us a delightful day to travel in. Many of the heights which
before had begun to look black from the melting of the snows, were
now again completely covered with a sheet of dazzling whiteness. The
day continued cloudy with some heavy showers in the afternoon, and
snow appeared to be falling heavily over all the neighbouring peaks.
Several flocks of sheep and goats passed our encampment during the
day, on their way from Rampore to the upper parts of Kunawur ;
each animal was laden with flour, which is carried in small bags
thrown across their backs and confined there by a crupper and band
across the chest, with another under the belly, answering the purpose
of a girth. Each carries according to its strength from six to twenty
seers* in weight, and they form the chief beasts of burthen throughout
the country, travelling ten and twelve miles daily with ease and safety
over rocky parts where mules and horses could not obtain a footing. |
From this encampment we continued our march, still through the
forest, to the village of Tranda; the road in many places was very
precipitous and rocky, and numerous rudely constructed flights of
steps occurred at those places where the ascent was too abrupt and
rocky to cut a road. Before climbing the last steep hill to Tranda we
came to a deep glen, with a roaring torrent hurling itself along
towards the Sutledge with headlong fury ; over this had once been a
goodly sangho bridge, composed of three trees thrown across from
rock to rock, with planks of wood nailed transversely across them,
but the weight of the winter snows had thrown the bridge all on one
side with an awkward slope to the gulph below, and had torn half the
planks away, leaving wide intervals at which there was nothing left
to walk on but the round trunk of a single tree ; and the dazzling foam
of the waters seen beneath as the torrent rushed along, imparted to
the passenger the feeling, that the crazy bridge was gliding from
beneath his feet, and made it dangerous to attempt the passage.
Two only of my people crossed it, and they were laughed at for their
folly.
* A seer is 2 Ibs.
1839. } Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 913
A flock of sheep arriving while we were deliberating on the best
method of crossing the stream, decided our plans at once. It was
impossible for even these sure footed animals, laden as they were, to
cross in safety, at least their owners would not run the risk; and in
a short time therefore young trees were felled and placed across a nar-
rower part of the stream, and covered over with bundles of twigs laid
on transversely. Over this the sheep led the way unhesitatingly, and
we followed in their wake. From this we climbed the ghat to Tranda,
where I encamped amidst a forest of majestic Kaloo pines. From
Tranda I proceeded to Nachar, a pretty walk of about eight miles,
some parts being steep and rugged. The road at first ascended for a
short distance, and then turning round the hill brought us to a steep
descent, down which it fell somewhat abruptly in a zigzag manner to
the bottom of a wooded glen. In many parts it wound backwards
and forwards so suddenly, from the steepness of the hill, that on look-
ing upwards it was no pleasant object to behold the long train of my
baggage coolies slowly winding downwards in a zigzag line above my
head, and while thus standing below the crazy looking scaffolding,
which in many places formed the road, I could not help thinking to
myself, “If those fellows with their loads should chance to come
tumbling through, how terribly they would spoil the crown of a cer-
tain gentleman’s hat,”—and the feeling made me hasten on to avoid
- the fancied, but not improbable danger.
Nachar is a small village situated at some height above the Sutledge,
on the slope of the left bank. The thick forests and rocky glens from
this place downwards to Sarahun, may be deemed the head quarters
of the Gooral and Thar antelopes, the latter being known here by the
name of ‘‘ Ezmoo.’ Ther, and black and red bears are also met
with, the first and last inhabiting the higher and colder portions of the
range.
Bears are not found generally throughout Kunawur until the sea-
son when the grasses are ripening, and it then becomes a matter of
great difficulty to prevent the vineyards being robbed at night.
Large dogs and men at this season keep nightly watch, making
a continued shouting and firing of matchlocks to keep off the invader.
They also commit sad havoc in the autumn crop of phuppra. “At
other times they are said to retire to the higher parts of the forests,
_- Where they lie concealed among the deep caves of the rocks, feeding
on various roots and acorns. The Thibet bear is abundant on the
heights above Nachar, as also the red variety. Here they are both
said to attack and kill sheep and goats, and they are often such a
914 Journal of a trip through Kunanur. [ Nov.
nuisance that it is considered a feather in a man’s cap to shoot one.
The elder brother of the Churria who accompanied me to Spiti had
killed no less than fifteen bears, and was looked upon as a Nimrod in
consequence.
The red variety is said to differ in nothing from the common black
or Thibet species, except that it is red while the other is black. Both
are said to possess the white band across the breast, but that it is con-
stant in neither. I strongly suspect that subsequent research will
prove that there are at least ¢wo if not ¢hree distinct species in these —
hills, namely, the Thibet bear, the red bear, and another black species
without the white crescent on the breast, of smaller size and greater
ferocity.
The natives say, both black and red live together in the same haunts,
and that when both come down to feed at night in the vallies, the red
one does not always return to the heights, but remains in the lower
haunts of the black bear. If this statement be correct it would argue
a greater difference in the species than that of colour, for why should
climate act on some and not on all, since all are in turn found equally
near the snows. If colour were the only difference, then the red
one by staying in the haunts of the black bear would resume his
former colour, and the black one by going to the heights would become
red ; but as this is said not to be the case, and that both black and red |
can reside together either high or low, it goes far to prove a specific |
distinction; the red bear is however found chiefly near the summits
of the ridges, while the black one inhabits the lower and more wood- —
ed tracts in the thick forests of oak, where they feed upon the acorns
and other fruits. Both species in the autumn make nightly incursions
into the fields of phuppra, which they destroy in quantities, and they
also in the summer approach the villages and steal the apricots.
In the winter time when food is scarce they are said to tear down |
the wooden hives, which are built into the walls of the houses, and to |
devour the honey, nor is this the extent of their plundering, for they
have been known to force open the door of the sheep house, and run
away with the fattest of the flock. A lad who accompanied me, hearing
the questions I asked regarding these animals, very gravely declared
that when the bee-hives were too high to be reached from the ground,
the bears went to the forest and brought a long pole, which they
planted against the wall and used as a ladder! We all laughed at this
thumping fib, which was evidently made for the occasion, but he
only persisted in it the more, and at last swore that he had seen
them do so!!
1839."] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 915
Some are said to store their dens with grass and herbs, in which
they keep themselves warm during the prevalence of the snows ;
others select the hollow trunk of some large decaying tree in which
they form a similar warm bed. This however I look upon as a fable.
There are not many about Cheenee and Punggee, and above those
places they are not founded ; the greatest numbers therefore inhabit
the lower parts of Kunawur.
During the winter in those parts where the Emoo, the Gooral, and
the Thér are found, it is the custom when the snow has fallen some-
what deeply, so that the animals cannot avail themselves of their na-
tural speed, for parties of eight and ten men to assemble with their
matchlocks and sally forth to the chace, guarding their legs from the
snow by two pairs of woollen trowsers, and a warm thick pair of
woollen shoes. He who is lucky enough to get first shot at the quarry
is entitled by the rules of the Kunawur sporting elubs, provided he
has fired with effect, to the skin of the animal, and the rest of the party
share equally of the flesh, whether they have had a shot or not. The
skin is the most valuable part of the prize, and out of it many useful
articles are made, such as soles for their shoes, bags to carry grain and
flour, and belts, &c. so that to get the first shot at the game is not only
as much a point of honour as getting the brush in a fox hunt at
home, but is also a source of profit to the lucky sportsman.
The bear is not held in much dread by the people of Kunawur, for in
the season when they have young ones parties go forth to the chace
with a few dogs and armed only with heavy sticks. When a bear
with cubs is unkennelled by the dogs she at first makes off in great
alarm, but as the dogs soon overtake and keep the cubs at bay until
the huntsmen come up, she retraces her steps and wages war in
defence of her young. Some skill and agility are now required by the
hunters to avoid a hug, and at the same time to administer some
weighty blows over the animal’s head and snout, until having received
a hearty cudgelling from the party, she once more makes off after
her cubs, who have profited by the delay to get well ahead. The
dogs however again overtake them, and again and again the poor
mother returns to defend them, and receives a thrashing, until tired
and exhausted she secures her own escape and leaves her offspring
in the hunter’s hands. Bears and leopards are somtimes killed by
constructing an immense bow, charged with one or more arrows.
A bait is placed to entice the animals, and connected with the bow
_ string in such a manner that when seized the arrows are dischar-
ged into the animal’s body, and with such force as often to pierce
916 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [Nov.
it through and through. The skins are cured and sold at a rupee
and two rupees each to the Tartars and Lamas, who take them
to the upper districts and dispose of them at a profit, or make them
into shoes, &c; opposite to Nachar, on the Kooloo side, the wild dog
is also said to be abundant, but so difficult is it to get a sight of
the animal that the natives never go in quest of it, and indeed they
have such a fear of it that even if they found one, they would not
fire, as they say if only wounded the whole pack turn upon the hunter
and destroy him. In this there is doubtless much exaggeration, but
nevertheless the idea, however erroneous, is sufficient to deter the
shikarre from the chace. ‘hese dogs are also found in the forests of
Chooara, where, hunting in packs, they destroy deer and other game;
even the leopard and the bear are said to fly before them, and will
not remain in the same jungles. They also attack the flocks, and
commit great havoc. I heard of an instance where a shepherd lay in
wait for their coming, armed with a matchlock, with which, from the
shelter of his hut, he intended to shoot or scare them away from his
fold, which they had on a former night attacked. Alas, however,
for the weakness of human resolves, no sooner did the pack arrive
than the shepherd’s courage vanished, and like that of Bob Acres in
the Rivals, fairly oozed out at the palms of his hands, and he was
afraid to fire; for said he, very prudently, “Who knows if I only
wound one but that they may pull down my house and attack me;
no, no, let them eat their mutton in peace ;” and so in truth they did,
for the next morning the coward found twenty-five sheep killed and
mangled by his midnight visitors. This animal is also said to exist in
Chinese Tartary, and is called ‘“‘ Chungkoo.”
It is in the forests of these lower hills, that the various beautiful
species of the pheasant tribe are found, and none but the Chikore and
gigantic partridge are seen in the upper portions of Kunawur.
On the 28th of May I left Nachar and travelled for a mile or two
over a capital road, descending to the Sutledge, which I crossed by the
Wangtoo bridge. This although dignified with the name of a bridge,
is in truth no more than a good broad sangho; it is constructed en-
tirely of wood, and consists of three or more long trunks of trees thrown
across the river, the ends resting on buttresses of stone masonry, and
supported by three rows of projecting beams or slanting piles. On
these buttresses stand two covered gateways through which the
bridge is entered on from either side; across the trees, are nailed
planks of wood, and the sides were formerly protected by a slight rail-
ing, though it has now almost entirely disappeared.
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 917
The space of the sangho is the breadth of the river, or eighty feet,
and its height from the water, which I measured with a plummet, was
fifty-seven feet.
In former years before the invasion of Kunawur by the Goorkhas,
a good bridge existed here, but it was broken down by the inhabitants
of the districts, to cut off the communication across the river and
check the advance of the enemy. It was never afterwards rebuilt,
until the time of Capt. Kennedy, when the present sangho was thrown
— across.
According to accounts received from the natives, the present bridge
was built by them, and Captain Kennedy on the part of Govern-
ment furnished the means, to the amount of two thousand rupees.
Others say that it was built at the suggestion of Capt. P. Gerard, when
stationed as commercial agent at Kotgurh, with the view of facilita-
ting the communication with Chinese Tartary and the upper portions
of Kunawur, as the fleece of the Choomoortee sheep, called byangee
wool, was then in demand, and purchased for the British Government.
The glen is at this point very narrow, and confined by the dark
rocks of gneiss rising up abruptly on either side, and affording merely
space sufficient for the bed of the river. Beneath the bridge the river
rushes like a sluice, and has such a deafening roar that the voice of a
person speaking on it is scarcely heard. From this, ashort quarter of a
mile brought us to the Wungur river, which runs down from the
Kooloo side to join the Sutledge a little above the Wangtoo bridge ;
we crossed its stream by another sangho, and then addressed ourselves
to climb the hill, which rose above us to the height of 2000 feet.
‘Up this ascent we toiled in a temperature of 98° over a road
strewed thickly with the sharp cutting fragments of gneiss and granite,
| and wearied with the heat and. fatigue of climbing in a midday sun.
We felt vexed and disheartened on arriving at the top, to find that our
| Jabour had been all in vain, for on the opposite side of the hill the
road again dipped down to the very edge of the Sutledge, while
far away in the distance we could see a second long ascent to be tra-
velled up ere we could find shelter and refreshment at the village of
Churgong. The heat and length of this day’s march were very painful,
as the read often lay along the very brink of the river, the glare from
| whose waters was almost insufferable, which added to the fatigue of
walking, or rather scrambling over the rocks and stones that were
Strewed along the banks, and the hoarse incessant roar of the foam-
ing stream, completely fagged us all, and it was late in the Se
ere my tent and baggage made their appearance.
6B
918 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov.
Scarcely had we arrived at the end of the march, when to add to
our discomfort a heavy thunder storm suddenly broke over us, obli-
ging us to seek shelter where we could, and soaking my bed and
other things which were still far in the rear. In the evening I wit-
nessed one of the most beautiful rainbows I had ever beheld ; the sun :
was just dipping to the ridges of the hills, and shining on the vapoury
clouds that were floating up the valley, caused the bright colours of
the rainbow to stand forth most brilliantly, one end resting on the |
river’s brink while the wide arch was thrown across the valley and
was lost beyond the snow-clad summits of the other bank.
It was nearly opposite to this village, on the left bank of the Sut-
ledge, that the conflict took place between the Goorkhas and Kuna-
wurrees, in which the advanced guard of the former experienced so
warm a reception as to make them glad to come to terms, and a treaty
was accordingly entered into, stipulating that so long as the Goarkhas
refrained from entering Kunawur, a yearly tribute should be paid
to them. This treaty, I believe, was never infringed, and remained in
force until the expulsion of the Goorkhas from these hills by the Bri-
tish forces.
My people were so tired with the long march from Nachar, that they
begged hard for a halt at this place: as I was anxious to push on
however, and the next stage was said to be a short one, I did not com-
ply with the request, and accordingly proceeded on the morrow to
the village of Meeroo. |
Nearly the whole way was up hill, and in some places steep and
rugged, but it got better by degrees, until entering a forest of prickly
leafed oaks it became very good and continued so, although still up
hill, to the end of the march. The heat and consequent fatigue of |
climbing steep hills under a burning sun were almost intolerable, and
I wished many a time that we were among the snows which capped |
the range along whose sides we were toiling. Few things are more
calculated to strike the naturalist, in wandering through the grand and
beautiful scenery of these stupendous hills, than the almost total —
absence of living creatures ; days and days he may travel on, through
woods that seem to promise shelter for every various form, so diversi-
fied are the trees and plants which they produce; yet, save the crow,
or the swallow as it skims along the open grassy tracts, scarcely @
living thing is met with ; all seem to shun the intermediate heights ;
and while the bear and leopard, deer, and goats, flock to the higher
ridges near the snow, the various species of the feathered race cling to
the lower woody tracts, where sheltered and secure they rear their
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunanwur. 919
young. At Meeroo the temple was adorned with about twenty pairs
of horns of the sikeen and wild sheep; the former animal is an ibex,
and is said to have been once plentiful here among the snows, but
of late years it has entirely disappeared from the neighbourhood.
: Some of the horns on the temple are of large size and were placed
there by the fathers and grandfathers of the present generation, none
of whom recollect seeing the living animal near the village, although
there are some old men among them too. I inquired if I might take
some of the horns, to which they replied with feigned astonishment,
“ they are presented to Devi, and who will dare to rob her temple?”
I disclaimed, of course, all intention of robbing her, but suggested that
as she had now possessed the horns for some time, she might perhaps
be willing to take something else 2m exchange! To this they said, she
could have no objection ; and after a little bye play among themselves,
a hoary headed old sinner stepped forward and informed me that ‘‘ the
devil was willing to sell his horns at two rupees a pair!” I agreed to
give it, but on examination it was found that the whole batch of them
were worth nothing, being quite rotten and decayed from age and ex-
posure to the elements, so I declined taking them. The wild sheep
is still occasionally found on the heights above the village, and some-
times also a stray jahgee, or horned pheasant. I had made repeated
inquiries regarding the actual existence of an unicorn in any part of the
hills, but although I found many who had heard of such an animal,
and believed in its existence, I could meet with no one who had ever
seen it.
Here however I encountered an old man who had travelled much in
the interior, and various parts of the mountains, and who declared that
he had once beheld the unicorn. I was of course all attention, and on
the tiptoe of delight with the idea that I should now have an opportu-
nity of describing this long considered fabulous animal, and of ending
discussion. past, present, and future, as to its existence. Alas, my visi-
ons were doomed to fleet away, for after a long and close examina-
tion, in which it was necessary to listen to a rigmarole history of the
old man’s birth, parentage, and education, and his never ending travels
into Tartary to purchase wool, which he had done regularly every
summer of his life for forty years, it turned out to be nothing more
than an ugly clumsy rhinoceros which he had seen in the possession
of the Rajah of Gurwhal, and which he described as being like an ele-
phant without a trunk, and having a horn on its nose.
- From Meeroo we had an up hill march all the way, and crossed the
| first snow at a stream over which it formed an arch, so hard and solid
920 Journal of a trip through Kunanur. [ Nov.
that it did not yield to the tread, though the sun at 10 a. m. was
shining on it at a temperature of 82°, while the stream beneath was as
low as 38°. |
From this spot commenced a long ascent over the side of a grassy
hill, strewed with sweet smelling violets and the little scarlet “ phea-
sant’s eye,” and near the summit of which we encamped, being about
three miles from Rogee, which is the usual stage, but being situated
off the road at half a mile down the Khud, I preferred staying where
I was for the night. From this place we had a good view of the
Burrenda Pass which was indeed apparently only separated from us
by the deep glen through which the Sutledge flows; it was still —
thickly covered with snow, and looked like a deep notch cut in the
snowy range. The hill above our encampment was also heavily
eovered with snow, from which throughout the day, immense beds or —
avalanches, loosened by the heat of the sun, were constantly precipi- —
tated into the glen below, or falling from rock to rock with a heavy —
and deadened roar like distant thunder, and resembling in their course
some mighty cataract. Towards evening as the sun dipped behind
the range and the first chills of night were coming on, these sounds
gradually died away, and the snow became once more bound up by
frost. The height of my camp here was 9,897 feet, and the little
lagomys and the chough were now first seen among the rocks that —
overhung us; here too, I once more found the purple iris, discovered —
in my trip to the Burrenda pass, but it had not yet put forth a single
bud. On the 3lst of May I continued my march towards Chini, by
a good road that continued to ascend for some distance, and at length
brought us to an elevation where many beautiful plants of iris were
in full bloom ; it was the same as that found at my last encampment,
and among them was a single root bearing a pure white flower, show-
ing modest!y among the deep purple of the neighbouring plants, like a
fair bride surrounded by the gay and glad attire of the bridal train.
A little farther up the ascent, at about 10,500 feet, I took some
splendid specimens of a new species of peepa, the largest of that genus
I have yet seen belonging to our Presidency. They were adhering
by a thin viscous plate to the stalk of a coarse grass, growing at the
roots of juniper and a species of furze bush, the latter beautifully
covered with yellow flowers. The species being new to science, I have
given it the name of “ Peepa kunawurensts,” from the district in
which I obtained it. Here too the rhubarb was growing abundantly,
and as I had now tasted no vegetables for many days, I gathered some
of the stalk and had an exceilent stew for my dinner.
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 921
About three miles from Chini we came to a place where the whole
hill-side had slipped away into the Sutledge, forming a mural precipice
of several thousand feet from its base to the summit. The rock was
thus a prependicular cliff, and the road which leads along the face
of it is a mere scaffolding, somewhat resembling that used by builders
against the side of a house. Looking down from this exalted station
the Sutledge is seen, narrowed by the distance to a stream, as it winds
along below at the perpendicular depth of 4,000 feet. This though an
awkward place to look at, and somewhat like walking in the gutter
of a fourteen storied house in the ‘‘gude town o’ auld Reekie,” is
nevertheless perfectly strong and safe, and almost capable of allowing
two people to walk abreast, so that unless one wishes to look below
into the yawning abyss, it may be passed over without having been
once seen. That it is safe, may be gathered from the fact that flocks
of sheep and goats laden with attah and grain, pass over it almost daily
during the summer months, as also men ; in fact it is the high road in
every sense of the term between Rampore and Tartary.
Much has been said and written concerning the dangers of the way,
but the road, taking it on an average, has hitherto been excellent, and
though here and there, from stress of weather, it is at times a little
broken and perilous, yet those places are so few, and continue for such
short distances, that they cannot be allowed to characterise it, or to
admit of its being called dangerous or even bad.
True enough it is, that one of these bad places may be the means of
breaking a man’s neck if he chance to slip, but the answer to that
is, that he who cannot keep his feet, or who grows giddy at the sight of
the depths below, has no business to travel over ‘“‘ bank and brae.”
The road is kept in repair by the zemindars of villages, by order of
the Rajah, and much credit is, I think, due to them for the manner in
which they perform the task; for with very little additional care
to that which is now bestowed upon it, it might vie with any of those
of the lower hills, and is even now superior to them in many parts.
_ There is no spot, in fact, even the worst, which a man ought to
turn away from, and though I would not recommend a lady to try
them, I can safely say, that I have crossed many a worse place in the
khuds near Simla, while in search of objects of natural history. But
after all, the difficulties of a road will be always estimated according
-to the imagination or temperament of the traveller; for he who is
accustomed to mountain scenes, or to scramble over all places as
they may occur, will laugh at that from which another man would
turn away; habit is a great thing even here, and that which seems
922 Journal of atrip through Kunawur. [ Noy.
dangerous at first, becomes nothing when one is accustomed to it.
Thus it may happen that others shall follow in my path and laugh at
that which I have called bad or dangerous.
The scenery from Meeroo to Chini is beautifully grand and im-
posing, the snowy range on the left bank being spread along the whole
way like a fair white sheet, and raising its ragged outline far above all
vegetation, till it attains, as in the bold giant peaks of the Ruldung
group overhanging Chini, an elevation of twenty-two thousand feet
above the sea.
The right bank of the river presents a marked contrast to this bold
and awful grandeur, the hills receding more gradually and with a less
shattered look, being thickly clothed to their very summits with:
noble forests of pines of many species, as the Kayloo, Neoza, Spun,
and Cheel.
Chini, though a tolerable sized village for the hills, has a poor and
ruinous appearance about it; it is situated in the midst of cultivation
which is plentifully irrigated by streams from the snows above, which
come dashing down in a sheet of foam as white as the snow beds from
which they issue. Chini is rather the name applied to several small
villages or hamlets scattered among the cultivation and resting on the
slope of the right bank, than that of any one in particular. This is
not uncommon in Kunawur, and occurs also at the next stage, where
several are again comprehended under the one name of Punggee.
On the opposite side of the Sutledge, a few miles higher up its
course than Chini, is situated the village of Pooaree, famous for pro-
ducing the best kismish raisins in Kunawur. It is also the residence
of one of the vuzeers, and has a joola of ydk’s hair ropes over the
river from which a road leads up to the Burrenda pass.
On the Ist June I proceeded to Punggee, where a number of my
coolies whom I had brought from Simla became alarmed at the ac-
counts they heard people give of the scarcity and dearness of provi-
sions in Spiti, and refused to accompany me farther. Remonstrance
and advice were alike thrown away upon them, and finding that
neither promises nor threats had any effect, I gave the order to the
Churriah to furnish me with the necessary number. On _ his an-
nouncing my order to them in the Kunawur language, a most amusing
scene took place; men and women, old and young, threw themselves
at once with such hearty good will upon my baggage, each scrambling
for a load, that I fully expected to see half the things torn to pieces
in the scuffle. After much noise and laughter each succeeded in ob-
taining something, and off they all trudged right merrily towards —
“
1839.) Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 993
Rarung with their burdens, joking to each other as they passed the
astonished mutineers, who little expected to see me thus far from
home so speedily supplied with carriage. In fact they had somewhat
reckoned without their host, and thought that as I was so far ad-
vanced into the hills, they might safely dictate the terms on which
they wished to be retained. Five of the number afterwards repented
and followed me to the next stage, begging to be reinstated, which
I granted, but fourteen others went back sulkily to Simla.
In Kunawur the women often carry quite as much as the men, and
| several of them marched along with apparent ease under burdens
| . which the effeminate Simla coolies pronounced to be too heavy. One
| fine stout Kunawuree, whipped up in the scramble four bags of shot,
amounting in weight to 56 seers, or 112 lbs, and carried them on his
back the whole march, which is hilly and over the worst bye paths I
ever saw, even in the hills. ‘Two men had previously brought these
same bags from Simla, and grumbled at the weight which was allotted
to them, namely 28 seers each. The hardy Kunawuree demanded
only two annas for his work, while the Simla men had refused to
earry half the weight for three annas a day. While on this subject
it may not be amiss to inquire why, since throughout Kunawur and
all the neighbouring districts, the coolie demands but two annas per
diem for his labour, those of Simla are allowed to refuse to take less
_ than three? For two months and a half I had occasion to hire daily
| a number of these men at every stage; not one ever dreamed of
asking more than a paolee, or two annas, nor was there hesitation and
grumbling in lifting their allotted loads ; each took his burden on his
back and trudged merrily along with it to his journey’s end. On
returning to Kotgurh not a man would move under three annas, and
| all objected that the loads were too heavy, although the same had
often been carried for long and fatiguing stages by the women of
Kunawur. The weight allotted to each coolie is, by order, not to
exceed thirty seers, but when was a coolie hired within the British
rule, who did not hesitate and often refuse to carry twenty seers?
They will come and lift the load, pronounce it too heavy, and walk
off, and as far as I know, there is no redress for it, or at least I never
heard of any one getting it. It is childish to fix a load at thirty seers
_ and yet leave the coolies at liberty to reject half the weight if it
| 80 please them. The Kunawur coolie carries more, carries quicker,
_ and demands less for his labour, than those within our rule; with
whom the fault may lay, 1 do not presume to say, but it seems to me
that a remedy for the evil might easily be found, by an order from
924 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [Nov.
those in authority regulating the fare of a coolie to be two annas
a day, marching or halting, and that any man plying as a coolie and
refusing to lift a load not exceeding theregulated weight, shall be sub-
ject to punishment, or be turned out of the bazar, and not allowed to
ply again. For the purpose of seeing these orders carried into effect,
a coolie mate or police Chupprassee could be appointed from out of the
many idle hangers on, of the Political Agent, and the coolies might be
ticketed or licensed to ply. From Simla to Bhar, which is in reality
but three marches, a greater imposition still exists, for no coolies will
go either up or down under twelve annas, which is at the rate of four
annas a day, and often the demand, when Simla is filling or
people are returning to the plains, is one and even two rupees. In
former days things were much better managed, for there are those still
living in the hills who remember a coolie’s hire to have been two
annas marching, and one and a half halting. Now, however, every
coolie talks of non-interference, and the rights of a British subject !
and threatens you with his vakeel and a lawsuit, and many other
combustibles besides.
There is perhaps no bazar in India where the European is more at
the mercy of the native than in that of Simla, for there exists no
Nerick of any kind, and I have heard it maintained by those in autho-
rity, ‘‘ that a man may demand what he pleases for his labour or his
goods ;” which is in other words to say, that the native may be as
exhorbitant as he pleases, and the European must pay the piper!
No one can more warmly advocate the strict administration of jus-
tice between man and man, than I do, whatever be his colour, what-
ever be his situation in life ; but it appears to me by no means either
just or necessary to uphold the native on all occasions, or to consider
the European as always in fault. Such a system tends materially to
lower the dignity of the British character without in the least increas-
ing the popularity of him who adopts it, for the shrewd native is ever
willing to join with the European in the cry, ‘‘ ’Tis a very bad bird
that befouls its own nest!”
But to return,—‘ The high road across the ghats from Punggee to
Leepee being impassable from the depth of snow in which it was buried,
I was obliged to change my route and proceed by a lower and more cir-
cuitous road to Rarung. On leaving the main road, we followed a bye-
path which dipped so suddenly and abruptly down the glen that it
was with the greatest difficulty we could keep from sliding down the
slope, so slippery was the ground from moisture and from the pine —
leaves strewed around. In some places indeed a single false step, or a
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 925
fall on the back, would have sent the unfortunate flying down into
the foaming torrent below, at a rate as rapid as that of a slider on
a “ Russian mountain.” We managed however, with much care and
fatigue, to get slowly and safely tothe bottom, where we crossed the
river (which was furnished by the snows above) on a broken sangho,
formed merely of four spars laid close together, and rendered slippery
by the spray which was continually dashing over it. From this we
again ascended by a road not many shades better than the one
by which we had just come down, and it continued thus the whole
way to Rarung.
We had also to cross many smaller snow streams, which being with-
out sangho or stepping stones, obliged us xolens volens to walk through
them, sometimes nearly up to the knee in water, at a temperature
of 38°, or only 6 degrees above the freezing point! It was indeed any-
thing but agreeable, for we felt as if our legs were being cut off, and
I vowed coute qua coute to cross the ghats on my return, whether they
were blocked with snow or not. The forest all along this march was
composed of Kayloo and Neoza pines. ‘These names are only applied
by the inhabitants of the lower hills and plains, the trees being
_ known in Kunawur as the “ Kelmung,” and the “ Kee,” and the fruit
or edible seed of the latter is alone called ‘“‘ Neoza.”
From Rarung we had rather a better road than yesterday, but still
bad, being chiefly over sharp blocks of granite and gneiss. This day
we encamped at Jung-gee, and again proceeded on the morning of the
Ath of June towards Leepee. The hills on the road from Punggee to
Leepee have a shattered and decomposing aspect, vast masses being
annually brought down by the action of the frost and snow, leaving in
_ some parts high mural cliffs rising perpendicularly above the path to
| eight hundred and a thousand feet, while at their base is stretched a
| wide field of disjointed fragments of every size mixed up with beds
| of sand, decomposing mica slates, and felspar. These slope more
| or less gradually down to the river’s edge, often at two and three
' thousand feet lower than the base of the cliffs. If a snow stream
| happens to descend near these accumulations, its waters are turned.
upon them by artificial drains, and in a few short months the former
_ barren waste is seen to smile with young vineyards and rich crops of
| barley. But if, on the other hand, as too often happens, there is no
Stream near, the sands are left barren and dry along the river’s course,
| sometimes increasing from fresh supplies from above, at others parti-
| ally swept away by the force of the river when swollen by the melt-
| Mg snows in June and July. In the -descent of these falling masses
6c
926 — Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [ Nov.
whole acres are sometimes ploughed up, and the trees of the forest
are crushed or uprooted by the rocky avalanche, more completely than
if the axe had cleared the way for cultivation. This devastation
is chiefly caused by the alternations of heat and frost ;—the power of
the sun during the day acting on the beds of snow, causes innumer-
able streams to percolate through the cracks and crevices of the rocks
and earth, which being frozen again during the frosts of night, cause
by expansion the splitting of the granite into blocks, which being
loosened by the heat of the following day from the earth which
had tended to support them, come thundering down with fearful rapi-
dity -and irresistible weight through the forests which clothe the
mountain’s sides. After proceeding somewhat more than half way to
Leepee, my guide, whose thoughts were “ wool gathering,” very wisely
took the wrong road, and led me down a steep glen, at the bottom
of which had once been a sangho across the stream, and the road from
it was a somewhat nearer route to Leepee; but alas! when we arrived
at the bottom the torrent had washed away the bridge, and although
we might have forded the stream, we learned from some shepherds
that it would be labour lost, as the road up the opposite side of the glen
had given way and followed the bridge down the stream, so that it was —
impassable. In this dilemma we had nothing left for it, but to
reascend on the side we were on, and the shepherds gave us some —
comfort, by saying we need only climb up a little way, when we should
find a path. To work we went accordingly, setting our faces to
the hill with a willingness that did not last very long, for we found
that the short way of a Kunawurree was something like the “ mile and
a bittock” of bonnie old Scotland, “ aye the langer, the farther we
went.”
This was truly the steepest hill-side I had ever encountered.
Without the vestige of a path or any track, up we toiled, now
grasping by the rock, and now by the roots of shrubs or tufts of grass, |
until at last it got so bad that we could scarcely proceed at all, partly |
owing to the steepness, and partly to the slippery nature of the pine |
leaves which thickly covered the soil. At several places the first up |
was obliged to let down a rope or a part of his dress to assist the |
others up. After a time, however, as we approached the top of the
hill, and when well nigh exhausted with fatigue and heat, the ascent |
became more easy, and at last we debouched from the forest of pines
upon a large open, swampy tract, immediately below the snows, which |
supplied water for a hundred rills, studded with a small yellow |
flowered ranunculus that I have some recollection of having seen in |
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunamnur. 927
similar situations in Europe. There were here many plants familiar
to me, as the strawberry, the little pheasant’s eye, the mare’s tail, and a
plant in search of which many of us in our boyish days have
wandered through the fields of old England, in order to feed our
rabbits, it is known, if I forget not, by the name of ‘‘ queen of the
meadows,” or ‘‘ meadow sweet,” and grows abundantly, as it does here,
by the side of ditches and brooks. The currant, wild rose, and dwarf
willow were plentiful also, especially the latter, for which the swampy
nature of the ground was particularly genial and adapted. Here weat
length found the path for which we had so long toiled in vain, and
now when found, as often elsewhere happens, it was not worth the
trouble it had cost, being but a mere sheep track along the side of a
decomposing and crumbling hill, where the footing was as insecure as
well could be, and where the prospect below was inevitable death to
the unfortunate who should misplace his foot or lose his balance.
Time and care however took us safely to Leepee, where I was right
glad to find my tent pitched ; and as the Himalayan ibex or sikeon
was said to be found in the neighbourhood, I determined to make
it an excuse for halting a day or two. This measure had moreover
become somewhat necessary, for the toil and fatigue of climbing over
such broken and rugged paths as we had travelled for the last three or
four days, in the heat of the noonday sun, when the thermometer
generally indicated a temperature exceeding 95°, had brought on so
severe a pain in my right side, that often I found it absolutely neces-
sary to lie down for awhile on the ground, until it had somewhat
abated. This, added to a severe cold, caught from the necessity we
were sometimes under, of wading when profusely heated with walk-
‘ing, nearly knee-deep through several streams, whose waters having
only recently left the beds of snow above, caused the thermometer to
stand at the cooling temperature of 38°, made it necessary that I
should take a rest, and while doing so, I determined to dispatch men
into the upper glens in search of the long wished for ibex.
On arriving at my tent I made immediate inquiries for sportsmen,
_ or shikarrees, and heard to my dismay that the only man in the place
who knew how to handle a gun, had gone “ away to the mountain’s
_ brow,” to sow phuppra seed for the autumn crop. Seeing my disap-
pointment at this unexpected piece of bad news, a little dirty, half-
_ ¢lad urchin offered to start off to the shikarree and tell him that a
_ “Sahib” had arrived, which news would of itself be sufficient to bring
_him down. I asked how far he had to go, and when he would be
_ back? to which he replied, “It is eight miles going and coming, but
ql ee
928 Journal of a trip through Kunamwur. LNov.
we'll be here by sunset! At this time it was one o’clock in the day,
and the first four miles were up a hill that appeared in the distance
to be almost inaccessible to anything but the ibex itself, yet the
hardy little mountaineer was true to his word, and returned before
sunset with his friend the hunter. He was a black-faced, short, square-
built fellow, with scarcely any perceptible eyes, so shaded were they
_ by his bushy projecting eyebrows, and high cheek bones. He was
well clad in woollen clothes, and round his waist was fastened a brass
chain, from which was suspended a steel, a powder flask, and a long
sharp knife. He was a hardy looking fellow, and from his frank and
easy manner evidently one who could boldly look danger in the face,
and who knew how to meet it like a man. He was as keen and
anxious for a brush with the ibex, as I was to obtain one, so that
powder and balls being furnished, he declared his readiness to start by —
break of day. As to my attempting to go with him, he laughed out-_
right at the idea, and said at once, unless I staid where I was, he
would not go, for I should infallibly break my neck, and spoil his
- sport into the bargain.
The chase of these animals is one often attended with great danger, —
from the inaccessible nature of the cliffs among which they love to
roam, and there are few who are hardy enough to follow it. Often
the hunter is obliged to crawl on his hands and knees along some
ledge of rock projecting over a glen or chasm of several thousand —
feet in depth, and from such a spot laying on his belly, snake-like, he
draws himself along,-takes aim, and fires on the unsuspecting herd.
If the shot be successful, it is still a matter of much difficulty and
danger to procure the quarry, from the steepness of the rocks among
which it lies, and too often the last struggle of departing life causes it,
when almost within the hunter’s grasp, to slip off the ledge, and fall
headlong with thundering crash down into the yawning gulph, a prey
to the vulture and the crow. These animals are sought for chiefly for
their skins, which are either sold or made into shoes, &c. and the
horns are presented as an acceptable offering to the deity, and nailed
upon the walls of the temples. —
Matters being soon arranged, my sturdy friend departed to the
hunting ground, accompanied by a shikarree whom I had brought
with me from Kotgurh, promising to do his best, but saying that |
most likely he would get nothing, as the summer season coming on,
caused the animals to retire to the last ridges of the mountains, where
no man could follow them.
About sunset on the following day, my own shikarree returned |
:
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 929
with a long and rueful countenance, and announced the unsuccessful
termination of the day’s sport. They had found a small herd, chiefly
of females, and had each a shot, but with no other effect than that of
scaring away the game, and nearly throwing the Leepee hunter over
the cliff, for the English powder I had given him caused his match-
lock to recoil so violently, that both were nearly taking flight to the
depths below. On inquiring for my flat-faced friend, it appeared that
he was ashamed to face me again empty handed, and therefore had
stopped on the hill-side for the night, at a shepherd's hut, from whence
in the morning he could easily repair to his sowing in the heights.
I sent him next day a large clasp knife, with a message to be
ready for me on my return, when I would give him a chance of
retrieving his character as a shot. His son, who undertook to deliver
the knife, seemed highly delighted with the present, and declared that
I should have a specimen of the sikeen on my return, but alas, as will
be seen hereafter, these promises were fated to be broken.
On the 6th of June I resumed my journey, somewhat recruited by
the day’s rest I had enjoyed, and proceeded by a steep ghat to
Labrung and Khanum. Descending to these places from the sum-
mit of the pass, the road lay through a scattered forest of Neoza and
Kayloo pines, intermingled here and there with the cedar of Kuna-
wur, the first specimen of which we saw at Leepee. It appears to be
a species of juniper, and sometimes attains a goodly size, though
generally it is dwarfish, and crooked in the extreme. The names by
which it is known in Kunawur and Hungrung are “ Lewr,” and
* Shoor ;” its wood is esteemed as incense, and offered by the Lamas
to their gods. Small quantities of it are also burned to charcoal and
used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The planks obtained from it
are used in the construction of temples, and they are sometimes also in
demand at Simla, to make boxes with. Scattered over the more open
parts, were beds of juniper and tilloo (also a species of cedar used as
incense) and the yellow flowering furze already seen near Chini.
After an easy march we encamped at Labrung, a small and filthy
looking place, built on the edge of a shelving hill. The town of
Khanum is of goodly size, and stands opposite to Labrung, the two
places being merely separated by a narrow glen. In this town many
Lamas reside, but at the time of my arrival the principal of them had
gone to Simla in the train of the Rajah, or in other words, “ the chief
had put his tail on,” and their presence was required to form part of it.
The season here appeared to be far behind those of the lower parts
of the district, the barley being yet green and far from ripe, while
930 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov. .
below it had long been reaped and housed. Khanum is said to pro-
duce the best sooklat, or woollen cloth, of any town in Kunawur; it is
made chiefly of the byangee wool, or fleece of the Choomontee sheep,
in Chinese Tartary.
From Labrung there are two roads to Soongnum, the next stage,
one lying along the base of the hills, which is very bad, and merely
a bye path ; the other crossing the Koonung pass, which although quite —
practicable, was represented as being still deeply buried in snow.
My people however declined attempting the heights, and preferred
taking the lower road, so I started alone with the Churriah and a guide
across the mountain path.
The ascent is long and steep, as may be gathered from its crest
being 5,212 feet higher than our last encampment; it is however far
from difficult, and the road is excellent, but unfortunately at this —
season we saw nothing of it above 13,000 feet, as it lay buried in the
snows, which were spread in a broad white sheet over the whole range.
Following the traces of a flock of sheep which some days previously
had crossed the pass, we managed to do well enough without the road.
From Labrung we first ascended through a forest of Kayloo and —
Neoza pines, beneath which were spread vast beds of junipers and
furze, with here and there a few fine currant and gooseberry bushes
loaded with small green fruit, but as yet far from ripe. Farther up,
these beds of junipers increased, and were intermingled with another
species growing more like a bush, and the same as is known at Leepee
by the name of Tilloo.
Gradually as we mounted up the hill, the pines decreased in numbers
and in size, dwindling at length to dwarfish shrubs and ceasing al-
together at about 12,500 feet of elevation. Here first began the snow,
lying in large fields or patches, and uniting at about 13,000 feet into
one broad unbroken sheet, from whence to the summit of the pass, or
1,500 feet more, it continued so. The depth generally was not great,
though in some places up to the middle or even higher ; where it had
drifted or had been hurled down in avalanches from above, of course
the depth far exceeded the stature of a man.
The only danger in crossing these fields of snow at this season,
when the thaws commence, is for loaded people, for if they fall in deep —
or broken snow, they run a risk of either being smothered beneath
the weight of their burdens, or of losing the things they carry. The
fatigue however, even to us without any loads at all, was great and
distressing, owing to the steepness of the latter part of the way, for the
path which winds gradually to the crest being lost to sight, we. were
1839. ] . Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 931
obliged to steer for the top of the pass by a direct line upwards, and
the uncertain footing we obtained in the snow, which constantly gave
way beneath our feet, caused us to slide backwards down the hill for
many yards before we could stop ourselves again. The sheep track too,
which had hitherto been our guide, at last failed us, and we journeyed
on by guess; we had however the whole day before us, and a bright
unclouded sky, so it signified little how long we took in ascending.
About 800 feet from the crest of the pass, I observed in the snow the
prints of feet, which at first I thought were those of a man, but the
deep holes made by long claws at last arresting my attention, I found
on a closer inspection that they were the traces of a bear. Well know-
ing that in dangerous places the instinct of a brute will often lead him
safely through difficulties where man with all his knowledge would
fail, I hailed these traces as an assurance of our safety, and at once
unhesitatingly committed myself to bruin’s guidance ; nor was I wrong,
for following his footsteps, they gradually led me beyond the snow,
and were lost.
The crest of the ridge was uncovered for about 50 feet on the south-
ern slope, and here we again found the road, which was visible just
long enough to assure us that we were in the right direction for
Soongnum, and then again disappeared beneath the snows on the
northern side. JI have often been told by shikarrees that there are
two species of bears in the hills, a black one which feeds on fruits and
grain, and which is the common Thibet species, (Ursus Thibetanus)
and another of a reddish sandy colour, which is only seen on the con-
fines of the snow ; this species is said to feed on flesh. It is curious that
the traces of the bear on Koonung pass should have been exactly on
the line of direction taken by the flock, whose dung being scattered oc-
easionally on the snow shewed that they too had gone the way that
we afterwards by bruin’s direction followed. It would seem at least
to give some colour to the assurance that this bear lives upon flesh, for
from the foot of the pass on either side, that is, from 12,500 feet to its
erest, which is 14,508 feet above the sea, there was not a blade of grass
perceptible, and only here and there, where the snows melted or slip-
ped away, were a few plants of a species of ‘‘ Potentilla” beginning to
show themselves. If then this bear lived upon vegetables, he had no-
thing here but the junipers and furze. It could scarcely be possible
that he had scented the grain with which the sheep were laden. The
Churriah who accompanied me from Rampore, and who lives near
Nachar and Tranda in Kunawur, declared that the two bears were of
the same species, and that both lived on flesh as well as vegetables,
a
932 Journal of a trip through Kunanwur. [Nov..
often attacking the flocks and even cows diring the severity of winter,
and that he himself possessing flocks, knew it to his cost. In this case
it is most probable that the animal had left the forest below the pass,
and traced the sheep by the scent they had left on the snow.
On gaining the summit of the pass, the thermometer only indicated
a temperature of 45° at 10 a. m., and a cold keen wind was blowing ©
from the southward. From this elevated spot we looked back over the
snow-clad mountains, beneath whose summits or along whose sides we
had for several days been travelling.
Viewed from this height they appeared to be nearly on a level with
ourselves, and wearing a look of cold and dreary solitude, which
gave a sternness to the scene not altogether pleasing to behold, as
one could not help experiencing a feeling of loneliness and melancholy
at the thought of losing the way, or being benighted on their hoary
summits. Rising conspicuously above the rest were seen the mighty
Kuldun peaks, presenting in the glare of noon a dazzling whiteness
that pained the eye to view; beneath this group we had encamped
at Chini. © .
“Far as the eye could reach, or thought could roam,” all was
one broad unvarying waste of snowy peaks, unbroken by a single
shrub or tree, except in the depths of the darkly wooded glen, which
stretched along the bottom of the pass where we were standing. Not
a sound nor a rustle even caught the ear, save the rushing of the keen
wind that was drifting the snow in wreath or spray before it; not a
living thing was seen to stir amidst this wild and majestic scenery.
All was so calm and still that it chilled one to behold it, and but for
the ragged and shattered peaks around, which told of the fearful
warring of the elements upon their crests, the traveller might almost
suppose that the elevation had carried him beyond the strife of storms,
to which this lower world is subject. It is amidst scenes like these,
where words cannot be found adequately to describe the grandeur
and magnificence that every where delight the eye, that man is lead
involuntarily to acknowledge his own comparative weakness and
significance, and as he views the stern cold majesty of the wintry
and never fading waste of snows by which he is surrounded, spite of
himself his thoughts revert to Him, the impress of whose mighty
hand pervades the scene, and by whose merciful care alone, he is
guided safe through countless and undreamed of dangers.
From the crest of this pass, looking north-easterly, we beheld far
below us, at the depth of 5,000 feet, the town of Soongnum, to attain
to which we had still before us a tolerable day’s journey. On making
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 933
some remark on the length of the route from Labrung to Soongnum,
the guide now for the first time informed me that it was usually
made in two marches, but fearing that I should feel it cold if I slept
a night on the pass, he had not told me so before, least I should have
halted there. Tired with the ascent, and the toil of climbing over the
slippery snow, I did not feel the least grateful to him for his consider-
ation, which I plainly saw was more on his own account than on
mine; however, as revenge is sweet, I had some consolation in the
thought that he had eaten nothing that day, while I had already
-breakfasted, and that he would consequently be preciously hungry
before he reached Soongnum. However, there was now no help for
it, for the baggage had gone by a different road, so onwards and down-
wards we must go.
From the spot where we stood, to fully two miles and a half below
us, was spread one pure unbroken sheet of driven snow; beyond this
for half a mile more it was broken and lying in detached masses.
No vestige of a road was seen of course, until far below where the
snow had ceased. There was however no danger, although the des-
cent was somewhat steep; and the guide setting the example, we
seated ourselves on the snow, gave a slight impetus at starting to set
us in motion, and away we went on the wings of the wind, at a rate
which seemed to the inexperienced to argue certain destruction. I
had not gone very far, when I began to feel my seat rather mozs¢t and
chilly from the melting of the snow, and by no means pleasant to the
feeling, so I dug my heels well in, and brought myself to a stand still.
Another of the party wishing to follow my example, and not sticking
his heels firm enough into the snow, toppled over from the rapidity
with which he was descending, and rolled away heels over head a
‘eonsiderable way down the hill, amidst the shouts of laughter, which
We sent after him. He got up as white as a miller, with his eyes,
mouth, and ears, crammed full of snow, and affording a capital repre.
sentation of “ Jack Frost.”
Walking, although requiring some care to keep myself from falling,
was far preferable to the chilly seat; and after sundry slips and slides,
I succeeded, much to my satisfaction, in reaching a spot where the
snow had melted away. But my situation after all was not much
mended, for the cutting wind that was blowing from the pass, soon
converted my moistened inexpressibles into a cake of ice, which was
infinitely worse than the melting snow, and my legs and feet soon
became so benumbed by the cold, that it was painful to move at
all. Seating myself once more, by direction of the guide, I took off
6 p
934 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov. |
my shoes and socks, and proceeded with a handful of snow to rub my
feet and ankles, which although somewhat painful at first, soon restor-
ed them to a healthy glow, and then by jumping and fast walking
backwards and forwards, I was enabled shortly to start again, and
proceeded downwards by a path infinitely more uaa ee than the»
snows we had just quitted.
Junipers and furze were the only signs of vegetation until we again
entered a thin forest of pines lower down, through which we continued
to descend until we crossed the Kushkolung river below by a capital
sangho, and soon after arrived at Soongnum fairly fagged.
The fatigue of this double march may be readily conceived by those
who have scaled the rugged sides of the hoary headed Ben Nevis
of our fatherland; the height of that mountain above the sea does |
not exceed that of Subathoo in the lower hills, or about 4,200 feet, and
its ascent and descent, if I recollect aright, occupies from 34 to 4 hours.
Here we ascended from Labrung to the height of 5,212 feet, over
snows which were incessantly giving way beneath the feet, and
causing us to slip backward many paces, added to which was the glare
from the sun, which tended not a little to increase our fatigue and
discomfort. From the summit of the pass our descent was 5,168 feet
in perpendicular height, but the sinuosities of the road made the actual |
distance travelled from Labrung to Soongnum at least 15 miles.
When we recollect also that from the snow to Soongnum we travel-
led in a temperature of nearly 90°, the fatigue of the whole march can |
scarcely be conceived by those who have not experienced it. Our ascent |
and descent each exceeded that of Ben Nevis by one thousand feet, |
and there are few who have performed that journey who were not
right glad to get a rest and a bit of fresh salmon, (to say nothing of |
the whisky toddy) at the snug little inn at Fort William. We left
Labrung at six o’clock in the morning; at 10 a. m. we reached the |
pass ; from thence to the bottom of the snow occupied us till noon, |
when the thermometer indicated 89°, and from thence we arrived at |
Soongnum at half-past 2 p. m., making the whole time from Labrung |
to Soongnum, eight hours and a half ; or allowing at least two hours |
for resting and looking at the scene, we performed the actual distance |
in six hours and a half.
The coolies who had gone round by a lower and somewhat longer |
road did not arrive until 5 p. m., when they begged for a halt the
next day, which I readily granted, as much on my own account as |
theirs, for the nature of the road from the snow to Soongnum was |
as if all the sharpest stones in the country had been collected there, |
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunanur. 935
by which not only were my shoes cut to pieces, but my feet blistered
and swollen also.
On entering the town of Soongnum I was met by a son of the
-vuzeer, who welcomed me with a plate of raisins, and escorted me to a
small bungalow of one room, built long ago by a Dr. Wilson. Short-
ly afterwards the vuzeer himself paid me a visit, and proved to be no
fess a person than the frank and honest Puttee Ram, the friend of
Dr. Gerard, and the source from whence he derived much of his infor-
mation regarding the higher portions of the hills towards Ladak and
Chinese Tartary. He has only lately been raised to his present rank.
Time has not slept with him, nor failed to produce upon his hardy and
once active frame its usual effects. He is now grey and bent with
age, and his sons have succeeded him in their trade with the people of
Choomontee and Ladak. The old man entered at once into a history
of his acquaintance with Dr. Gerard and Mr. Fraser, and talked with
pride over the dangers he had encountered with the former in their
i
|
rambles through Spiti and its neighbourhood. He asked me if I had
ever heard his name before, and the old man’s eyes actually sparkled
with delight, when pointing to an account of one of Gerard’s trips, I
told him his name was printed there. He has not only been a great
traveller through the upper hills, but has also visited Kurnal, Delhi,
Hansi, and Hardwar, though like all true mountaineers he sighed for
home, and saw no place in all his travels to equal his own rugged hills ;
and truly I commend him for his choice. He is a tall, strongly built,
| broad shouldered fellow, but hideously ugly, his eyelids being large
|
)
|
4
|
|
and sticking out over his eyeballs like cups, beneath which his eyes
are scarcely visible. He has indeed, a face as like a mastiff’s as I
ever saw one.
_ From him I obtained a man who understood the Tartar language,
| to accompany me through Spiti, and he assured me I should experience
no difficulties, as there was now a road across some parts of the moun-
tains where, as in the days when Gerard first visited those parts, there
was none at all. He informed me also that the lake called Chum-
_mor-rareel was only four days’ journey from Dunkur in Spiti, so I de-
_ termined if possible to get a peep at it. On inquiring for fossils, he
said that Spiti produced but few ; chiefly ammonites (Salick ram)
which were found near Dunkur, but that the best place to procure
them was on the Gungtang pass, near Bekhur, but the Chinese were so
jealous of strangers looking at their country, that if I went there
I should not be allowed to bring any thing away. SBesides this, the
pass was at the present season impassable, and from the lateness and
936 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [Nove
quantity of the snow which had fallen, it could not be open before the
middle of August. Hearing that the ibex was found at Koopa and at
Poo,ee, in the neighbourhood of Soongnum, I again distributed powder
and balls, and sent people to hunt them, telling them to have some
ready by the time of my return. I made also some inquiries regard-
ing the “ excellent limestone” which Gerard says he discovered in this
neighbourhood, and which the natives told him they should henceforth
use in the construction of their buildings.
Puttee Ram said he recollected the circumstance I alluded to, but
added that Gerard had failed in his attempts to convert the stone into
lime. He had brought some fragments of it from the Hungrung pass.
behind Soongnum, and having made a small kiln, he burned the
stone, but instead of producing lime it melted down into a hard slag.
The experiment failed, and it has never been attempted since. At
Soongnum during the winter months, the weather is sometimes very
severe, the whole of the surrounding hills being enveloped in one
white sheet of snow, often to the depth of several feet. The town, |
standing at an elevation of 9,350 feet, is completely buried during
heavy falls. At such times the inhabitants assist each other in clear- |
ing their roofs from the weight of snow, which not unfrequently yield |
to the pressure, and are converted into a heap of ruins. To guard |
against the rigours of such a climate, is therefore the business of the |
summer months, at which season, accordingly, houses are stored with |
fuel and grass, and the leaves of trees are accumulated for the sheep |
and cattle, which are safely housed till the severity of the winter has |
passed away. At this season there is little, often no, communication |
between village and village, the inhabitants contenting themselves |
with clearing a track from house to house in their own villages, but :
not venturing beyond. This does not last, however, throughout the
winter, but frequent thaws take place, succeeded by fresh falls of |
snow. :
This description is generally applicable to all places in Kunawur, |
and the Churriah who accompanied me said he recollected three differ- |
ent years in which the snow had fallen ten feet deep, even so low |
down as Tranda and Nachar. At Simla, in the winter of 1835-36, the |
snow is said to have been upwards of five feet, and I myself saw on |
the 10th May, 1836, some of it still lying on the northern side of
Jacko, on which Simla is built. }
On the 9th of June I left Soognum, and proceeded towards the first |
Tartar village of Hungo, by the Hungrung pass, which rises up be- |
hind Soongnum to the height of 14,837 feet above the sea. The road
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunanwur. - 937
led us up a glen by the side of a stream which had its origin as usual
among the snows on the pass. The ascent although greater than that
from Labrung to the Koonung ghat, was more gradual, and conse-
quently much easier; nor had we so much snow to climb over, as at
the former pass. The bushes in this glen, (for trees had ceased to
grow) consisted of a great number of rose, currant, and gooseberry
bushes, which yielded as we ascended higher on the mountain’s side
to furze and junipers. ‘Towards the summit of the pass these were
so thickly spread around, and the hill had such a gradual slope, that
substituting furze for heather, the scene had much of the appearance
of a Highland Muir, nor was this resemblance at all lessened when
with a loud whistle up sprung before us from the covert some beauti-
ful large partridges, whose plumage is very like that of the ptarmigan
in its summer dress, being a mottled mixture of white and grey
minutely pencilled on the back. These birds are known in the lan-
guage of Kunawur by the name of ‘ Bhair.” They are found in
abundance near the snows among the covers of furze and juniper,
retiring as the season advances to the extreme heights of the moun-
tains. They delight to perch upon some high projecting crag, from
whence, surveying the country below, they send forth at intervals a
loud and peculiar whistle.
On the crest of the pass, which we reached at half past 10 a. m., the
wind was piercingly cold, and quite benumbed our fingers, the ther-
mometer again standing, as at Koonung, at 45°.
The view from this spot was dreary enough ; the town of Soongnum
was lost sight of behind an elbow of the range, and on either side
therefore nothing but cold bare hills were to be seen; neither village,
cultivation, nor trees appeared to break the chilling waste of snows
which spread around and far below us over every mountain’s side ;
no signs of vegetation were to be seen, save the brown and withered
looking furze, which even at this advanced season of the vear had
scarce put forth a single leaf.
The summit of this mountain is, as Gerard has truly stated,
composed of limestone; but the reason of his failing to convert
it into lime for economical purposes was apparent enough. The rock
is one of those secondary limestones which contain large portions
of clay and sand unequally distributed through them, sometimes
occuring in detached nodules, at others disseminated through the
whole. These limestones therefore from containing this foreign mat-
ter, refuse to burn into lime, but usually form a hardened slag,
or vitrified mass within the kiln, which exactly corresponds with
938 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [ Nov.
the account given me by Puttee Ram of the results of Gerard’s
experiments.
Our path now again lay buried deep beneath the snows which
were spread on the northern face in a sheet from the crest of the
hills to many hundred yards below us. Here too, although it was both
deeper and extending farther down than on Koonung pass, the gradual
descent of the mountain’s side made it far less fatiguing to walk over.
We left the pass at eleven o’clock, and though we ran at a good jog-trot
sort of a pace down the hill, it took us nearly three quarters of an
hour by the watch ere we had cleared the first unbroken field of snow.
Beyond this it was lying in patches, and here and there quite sloppy, so
that my shoes, stockings, and half way up my legs were wetted through
in a few minutes ; lower down still, the water was running in deep ©
streams from the snow, and as the track which had been dignified with
the name of a road, was somewhat hollowed out on the mountain’s
side by the action of the feet of sheep and men, it of course formed a
capital aqueduct, and accordingly a pure crystal stream ran along it,
in which we were obliged to walk ancle deep (for there was no other
safe footing to be had) for a couple of miles nearly, the temperature
of the water being 43°, while that of the sun was burning over our
heads at 90°. After about three hours walking and sliding by turns,
we reached Hungo, a miserable ruinous village situated in a dreary
glen at the foot of the pass, on a large and nearly flat tract of well cul-
tivated land, at an elevation of 11,413 feet, and about 3,624 feet
below the crest of the Hungrung pass. The snow was lying in a solid
mass from the top of one of the glens arising from near the summit of
the surrounding heights, down to within 150 feet of Hungo. This is
however a most unusual occurrence at this season of the year, the snows
having generally all disappeared from these heights by the beginning or
middle of May, excepting in some of the deep recesses and ravines at
the very summit of the range. Not a tree was to be seen, even at this
elevation, except a few sickly looking poplars on the banks of a stream
below the village, all of which had been planted there by the hand of
man. The hills rising immediately behind this village are not
however bare and barren, but are well covered with the furze already
mentioned, which was just beginning to put forth its beautiful yellow
flowers. Along with it was another species which until to day
we had not noticed; it is smaller than the other, bears the same
yellow flower, and extends to a much greater elevation ; both are
called “‘ Tama,” but the last mentioned is distinguished as ‘“‘Cheenka
Tama” or Chinese furze. The other species is termed by Gerard
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 939
“Tartaric furze,” but the name is scarcely appropriate, since the
plant is equally abundant over the higher hills of Kunawar, as
on those of Tartary ; and from the extensive range it takes, the name
of *‘ Himalayan furze” would suit it better. Besides which the
species most common to the heights of Tartary is that known to
the natives as the “Chinese furze.”” Both these species are cut and
dried in the summer months, and form nearly the only fuel the
Tartars are possessed of.
Lower down the glen, the hills assume a more desolate appearance ;
the furze grows scantily and at last fails altogether, leaving a bare
and crumbling soil, which is annually precipitated in quantities by
the action of the weather into the stream which winds it way
down to join the river Lee. Over the upper part of these hills the
furze is also abundant, as well as an aromatic plant, which furnishes
an excellent pasturage in most of these elevated regions, where grass is
either scarce or not at all procurable, to large flocks of sheep and
goats, as also to the cows and yaks, which are seen sometimes, to the
travellers danger and dismay, scrambling along the whole hill-side,
and hurling down stones and fragments of rocks directly on his path.
It often happens too that large masses are detached by the action
of the frost, and come tumbling down with a thundering crash
into the glens below, rending and tearing up the soils in their descent,
and scattering the fragments in vollies into the air. One of my
eoolies had a narrow escape from a fragment of rock, below the
Hungrung pass; a mass that had hitherto been supported by the
bed of snow into which it had alighted from above, was now by the
thawing of the snow again let loose, and came bounding down the hill
with horrid crash, until striking on a projecting crag, it was shivered
into fifty fragments, one of which fell in a direct line for the coolie,
who frightened at the sight, and hampered by his load, fairly stuck
fast to await the coming blow. By the greatest good luck he escaped
unhurt, though the stone alighting full in the kiltah on his back
rolled him head over heels down the side of the hill. He soon re-
covered himself, however, when it was found that the only damage
done was a crushed leg, not of the coolie, but of mutton ; my pro-
_ visions being in the unfortunate kiltah.
On crossing the Hungrung pass a most remarkable alteration is
observable in the aspect of the country. The range on which the pass
is situated forms part of the northern boundary of Kunawur, separa-
ting it from the Tartar district of Hungrung, now forming a portion of
Bussaher, although evidently at some former period it has been sub-
940 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. L Nov.
ject to, and constituted with the Spiti district an integral part of
Chinese Tartary.
The change in the nature of the country is most sudden; looking
from the summit of the range in a northerly direction over Hungrung,
the country is seen to wear a sad and sombre air of cheerless deso-
lation ; not a tree is to be seen, and the black and crumbling hills are
either wholly barren, or clothed with nothing of larger growth than
the dwarf willow and the dog-rose. The hills are chiefly of the
secondary class, and being more rounded in their outline, want the
grand and almost terrific beauty of the towering granitic peaks which
so strongly characterises the scenery of Kunawur. Villages are situ-
ated at wide intervals from each other, and cultivation is wholly con-
fined to the immediate vicinity of them, and usually upon a confined
patch of alluvial soils, evidently the deposits of some former lakes:
The practice of cultivating in steps upon the mountain’s sides, appears
indeed to be almost universally neglected, which however is most
probably owing to the nature of the hills themselves. —
On the southern side of this range lies the thickly wooded district
of Kunawur, where cultivation is often carried in steps nearly to the
summit of the mountains, and presenting a rich and cheerful picture
which delights the eye, and imparts a feeling of joyousness and
security to the traveller, as he wanders on through forests of majestic
pines.
From this difference in the appearance of the two districts and their
inhabitants, it would seem as if nature had elevated or interposed —
the Hungrung range as a barrier between two countries, destined, for
some purpose, to remain distinct; and furnishes to the inquisitive a
source of speculative thoughts, from which it is difficult to draw any
satisfactory conclusions, for the mind is almost involuntarily lead to
ask while contemplating this marked contrast, hy, on the one side
the forests should be allowed to advance actually to the mountain’s
base, while on the other not a single tree should be allowed to grow.
From Hungo, on the morning of the 9th of June, I proceeded to
Leeo, which is a small village situated on the right bank of the Sing
Pho or Lee river, in a basin or valley entirely surrounded by high
granitic rocks. The spot has evidently formed part of the bed of a
deep lake, the different elevations of the water being still apparent in
the lines of rolled stones, which are seen on the hill-side, far above the
level of the river.
The bottom of the lake, now furnishes a broad and level tract of
land which is well cultivated, and from its warm and sheltered situa-
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 94]
tion in the bosom of the hills, is highly fertile, producing in favor-
able seasons two crops, consisting of wheat, celestial, beardless, and
common barley, with beans and peas. Apricots too are abundant,
but this is the last village towards Spiti where they occur. The
elevation is however only 9,362 feet, or about that of Soongnum in
-Kunawur.
_ From Leeo, I proceeded towards Chung or Chungo, leaving the
village of Nako on the heights to the right. At Leeo we crossed the
Lee by a crazy and not very agreeable sangho, the planks being so far
apart that the water was seen rushing along at a fearful rate beneath,
dazzling the eyes with the glare of the foam, as one looked down to
secure the footing ; a very necessary precaution, as the bridge from the
‘bank slopes with a disagreeable curve towards the centre. From this
we ascended to about 2,000 feet above the stream, which was a steep
pull up, though luckily we had a cool and cloudy day. The road,
which is very rocky and leads along the left bank of the Lee, lies
generally over immense beds of fragments brought down by the ele-
ments from the heights above, and after one or two moderate ascents
and descents, dips suddenly down, at the distance of nine miles from
‘Leeo to the village of Chungo.
_ On the 12th of June I halted at this place for the purpose of laying
in several days supply of grain for my people, in case we might not be
able to procure any in Spiti, which, according to accounts we had
received at Soongnum and other places in Kunawur, had been plun-
‘dered of every thing by Runjeet’s troops, after they had expelled the
Rajah of Ladak. The Tartar guide, however, who accompanied me,
declared the rumour to be false, as he had lately been in Spiti and
found no lack of grain, and he therefore advised me not to burden
myself with more coolies, which would be necessary if I carried sup-
Plies. . In order to be safe I thought it advisable to carry a few days
provisions in case of emergency, and lucky it was that I did so, for
Without them my people would on more than one occasion have had
no food at all.
Chungo is situated in a basin somewhat similar to that of Leeo,
but much more extensive ; it is walled in as it were on every side by
lofty hills, whose sides in many places bear witness to the former pre-
Sence of a lake. Large beds of clay and sand enclosing rolled and
Water-worn pebbles of every size occur on all sides, while the flat and
level bottom of the vale again furnishes a broad tract for cultivation.
The elevation of Chungo is about 9,897 feet. It was once a populous
and thriving place, containing nearly one hundred people, but for some
OE
942 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [ Noy. |
years past it has been on the decline, and is now halfin ruins and de- |
serted by most of its former inhabitants. The reasons for this falling |
off are entirely attributable to local circumstances.
The soil is a mixture of clay and sand, the latter predominating, |
and is a deposit from the waters of the lake which once filled the |
valley. The whole area formerly under cultivation might probably —
have exceeded one and a half mile square, although at present it /
scarcely equals one. Celestial, beardless, and common barley, wheat,
phuppra, beans, and peas, constitute the crops, and one harvest is all |
that is obtained ; which is not to be wondered at, when we consider |
that on the morning of the 12th of June, at sunrise, the thermometer
indicated a temperature of 35°. Snow was still lying on all the sur-
rounding heights, and fell throughout the day on the 10th and 11th of |
June. In former days ere the cold soil was exhausted by the constant |
growth of the same crops, Chungo was at the height of its prosperity, |
and could even export grain to other parts, so abundant were its
harvests. But alas! too soon “a change came o’er the vision of its |
dream,” and those days are gone, now never to return.
The constant drain upon a soil naturally poor and cold, soon |
changes its hitherto smiling and prosperous state to one of want and |
poverty. The barrenness of the surrounding hills, yielding not even
a scanty pasturage to sheep and cattle, at once destroyed the chance of |
recruiting the soil, by depriving the cultivator of the only source from |
whence manure might have been procured ; and thus, from gathering }
an abundant crop, the villager was first reduced to a bare suffici-
ency for the wants of himself and family, and finally obliged |
to leave his fields untilled, and to seek employment and subsistence |
in a happier clime. Many have thus emigrated into Spiti, Chinese |
Tartary, and other places, and their once well cultivated fields |
now exhibit a bare and hardened sand without one blade of grass, and |
strewed with the fragments of rock which the weather has hurled |
upon them from above. Could these people command annual sup-
plies of manure, as is the case in many parts of these hills, Chungo |
would possess perhaps a finer cultivation than any village in Hung- |
rung. In Kunawur it is a common practice to mix up leaves and the |
young shoots of the pine trees with the dung of cattle, and this forms |
a capital manure for their fields, which would otherwise, in many |
parts, soon become nearly as impoverished as the soil of Chungo. They
have moreover in most parts of Kunawur a rotation of crops, by which
the soil is recruited, whereas at Chungo, one crop, and that the same
|
for years, is all that can be produced. This village has not a tree near |
)
}
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 043
it for two or three days’ journey, save the usual sickly looking poplars,
which are planted on the banks of rivulets and streams ; thus they
are deprived of all manure both animal and vegetable, and their lands
will in consequence go on dwindling from bad to worse until the place
shall become barren and deserted.
The lands which are now under cultivation are coaxed to yield a
seanty crop, by the annual small quantity of wheat and barley straws
which are ploughed in, and by the addition of the small portion of
dung which is obtained from a few goats and cows which graze on the
edges of the fields, where grass and a yellow flowering lucerne spring
up abundantly along the banks of the little rills, with which the fields
are irrigated.
On the 13th of June, I again proceeded towards Spiti by a road
which led us up the heights above Chungo. Many places on this day’s
march indicated the former existence of a deep water over the hills, at
a height of 2,500 and 3,000 feet above the present channel of the
Yiver, which winds along beneath. Here the road stretches along the
sides of hills shelving gradually towards the stream, along whose
banks are wide and extensive level plains of several miles in area,
and the hills receding on either side form a wide valley, bare of
“every sign of vegetation save the furze, the dog-rose, and the wil-
low, with here and there a few dwarf bushes of the cedar. Trees
| there are none, and villages are now not seen for many days. All
| around seems cold and cheerless ; not a living thing to break the deep
‘silent melancholy which pervades the scene, and the traveller feels
| chilled, and his spirits flag, he knows not why, as he wanders on
through the dreary and ibaaneti waste.
How marked a contrast does the scene present to the rich and
| wooded regions of Kunawur; here all is black and charred, and a
‘mournful silence reigns around, unbroken save by the hoarse roar of the
‘mountain stream, or the shrill whistle of the Bhair among the snows.
i” Journeying onwards from our last encampment, we came suddenly
| Upon a deep rent or chasm in the rocks, through which at some depth
| below ran a rapid stream. Over this, from rock to rock a few loosely
twisted ropes or withes of willow twigs were stretched to answer for
| the purpose of a bridge, and on these were placed large flat slabs
| of mica slate, apparently sufficient by their own weight alone to break
| through their frail support. Over this we walked, and though some-
| what springy and unsteady to the tread, it was nevertheless perfectly
| strong, and is the only bridge for passengers and cattle. At a little
distance from where we crossed, alarmed by the noise we made, up
|
:
944 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [Nov. :
started from among the rocks a small flock of Burl, or wild sheep,
which began leisurely to scale the steep sides of the glen, springing
from ledge to ledge till they attained toa place of easy ascent, when, as
if satisfied that they could bid defiance to pursuit, they stopped to
survey our party. A shout from some one in the rear, again set them
in motion towards the summit of the mountain from which we had |
just descended ; the direction they took, lay right across the path,
and just at the moment when they gained it, my shikarree came in
sight, on a part of the hill above them, a shrill whistle from one |
of the Tartars caught the ear of the hunter, who was soon instructed —
by signs to blow his match and give chace. ie
From his greater elevation he was able to bring himself near the |
line the animals were taking, and at the same time to screen himself —
from their view until just within gun-shot, when they perceived him. |
In an instant a flash was seen, and the sharp crack of the matchlock, |
ringing in echoes among the rocks, told that the quarry had come
within reach, and at the same moment off bounded the flock towards |
the most inaccessible part of the mountain, The shot however had |
not been fired in vain, for suddenly the leading sheep was seen
to turn downwards and avoid the rocks, as if conscious that he
had not power to scale them, and taking an easier and more slanting |
direction along the side of the cliff, he soon slackened his pace and |
laid down. The rest of the flock losing their leader turned down-
wards also and rejoined him. The shikarree in the meantime had |
reloaded, and was again warily stealing on from rock to rock upon his |
game, but they were now fully on the alert, and once more leaving |
their wounded companion, bounded up the rocks at a rapid pace. |
Again the bright flash of the matchlock was seen, but alas, this time |
there followed no report, and ere the hunter could reprime, the sheep |
had won the mountain’s brow and disappeared. Nor had the wounded
animal failed to avail himself of the chance afforded for escape, |
but scrambling along the side of the rocky glen, he was fast gaining
on a place where a turn of the mountain would have screened him |
from our sight, when scrambling up a rugged and projecting ledge
his strength failed him, and falling backwards with a ery of terror, |
we saw him, for a while quivering as he fell headlong from rock |
to rock, and was lost in the rush of waters at the bottom of the |
chasm.
No village occurring this day to bless our longing sight, we at |
length encamped, after a long march, on the side of the hill, at a spot |
where sheep are usually penned for the night when travelling with
1839.] Journal of a trip through Kunarwur. 945
grain. This spot was called by the Tartars Chungreezing, and here I
pitched my blanket-tent at the height of 12,040 feet above the sea.
We passed a cold and comfortless night owing to the high keen wind
which came whistling down from the snowy peaks above us. At
sunset the thermometer stood at 48°, and at sunrise on the morning of
the 14th of June, again at 35°! <A nice midsummer temperature !
what must the winter be? On the 14th we descended by a very
rugged and precipitous pathway to the bed of the Paratee river, a
branch of the Lee, which comes down from lake Chummor-rareel,
through Chinese Tartary, and joins the latter river above Skialkur.
This we crossed by the “‘ stone sangho,” as it is called, which is formed
by several enormous masses of granite which have fallen from above,
and become so firmly wedge into the bed of the river, as to form a
safer and more durable bridge than any that could be constructed by
the natives, and which from its great weight the waters are unable to
remove. A small stream which runs down into the Paratee, a little
distance below this bridge, is said to be the boundary line of Bussaher
and Chinese Tartary.
Here then we were in the dominions of the celestial emperor,
and as we crossed the sangho we were met by a deputation from
the Chinese authorities, who demanded to know what were our in-
tentions in entering their country, and how far we had determined
to travel through it, intimating at the same time very politely, that
vhey would ‘ prefer our room, to our company,” by telling us that
we need expect no assistance or supplies of any kind. I had no
intention of penetrating farther than was requisite into their coun-
try, but this being the only road yet open into Spiti, I had been
necessarily compelled to follow it, as after all it merely ran across
a corner of their territory for about a mile or so. Wishing however to
ascertain whether, after having gone through the ceremony of prohi-
biting our advance to satisfy their rulers, they could not be prevailed
upon to wink at our proceedings, I told this rough ambassador that
I would require no supplies, nor take anything from the country, if
he would allow me to proceed as far as Choomontee. His reply was
evidently borrowed from the Chinese officers, and was worthy of
the great Bombastes himself ;—‘‘ When horns grow from the heads
-of men, and wool is gathered from the rocks; then may the Fe-
ringee advance,—but not till then!” This was too ridiculous to be
withstood, and we enjoyed a hearty laugh, while the dignified officer
strutted away, pleased with the assurance that I was only crossing
into Spiti.
946 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. . [LNov.
His words brought to mind the old Scotch ballad,
«* The swan, she said, the lake’s clear breast,
| May barter for the eagle’s nest ;
The Awe’s fierce stream may backward turn,
Ben Cruachan fall and crush Kilchurn,
Our kilted clans when blood runs high,
Before the foe may turn and fly ;
But, I, were all these marvels done,
** Would never wed the Earlie’s son.’’—
And I thought it by no means improbable that the sequel might turn
out after the same fahsion ;—
** Still, in the water lily’s shade,
Her wonted nest the wild swan made ;
Ben Cruachan stands as fast as ever,
Still onward foams the Awe’s fierce river ;
Before the foe when blood ran high,
No Highland brogue has turned to fly ;
Yet Nora’s vow is lost and won,
She’s married to the Earlie’s son.
and so it may be hereafter that the “‘ Feringee” shall tread those now
forbidden scenes, though his head be unadorned with horns, and wool
be not gathered from the rocks. |
It appears however from the accounts of the people, that so many
travellers have at different times wandered through the upper hills,
without any apparent object, save that of looking at the country, that
the suspicions of the Chinese have been kept on the alert, and they
are more particular than ever in enforcing their orders, especially
since Runjeet’s troops in Ladak have thrown out some hints of paying
them a visit, when they have settled the affairs of their late conquest.
There is however little chance of their carrying the threat into execu-
tion, as Chinese Tartary holds out to them no chance of plunder save
its splendid flocks of sheep, which would easily be driven far beyond
their reach, and leave them a barren waste for their portion.
Having crossed the stone sangho, we proceeded up the side of a hill
by what the guide termed a road, though I could not distinguish it
from the surrounding mass of crumbling soils. It got better, however,
as we gained the top, and a short distance brought us to a small
stream, across which we stepped out of Chinese Tartary into Spiti, de-
pendent on Ladak. From this we travelled for some miles along the
side of a bare black hill of decomposing shale, and then descending to
a level plain of clay and rolled stone, we crossed a river which the
Tartars called “ Gew,” from its passing a village of that name in
Chinese Tartary. Above this river on the opposite bank, the beds of
>
1839. | Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 947
alluvial clays towered up to some height, and the surface being flat and
studded with a few bushes was pointed out as the usual halting place.
As by halting here however we should have had a long and fatiguing
march on the morrow to Larree, I thought it advisable to push on for
another level spot, a couple of miles farther, where the Tartars said
there was a stream of good water, and shelter beneath the rocks for all
my people. The road now ran along the left bank of the Spiti river,
at about 3500 feet above its level.
The Spiti is a larger and finer looking river than the Sutledge, and
the people of the country, as well as the Kunawurees who have seen
the two, say that it is never equalled by the latter, except during the
winter months, when the severity of the frosts in the districts through
which the Spiti flows, causes a less plentiful supply of water to fall
into it.
Its waters though rapid and muddy, have in general far less of that
dashing violence which the Sutledge exhibits. This is most probably
to be attributed to the nature of the country through which it flows.
The Sutledge winding its rapid course among hard rocks of the
primary formation, must often meet with obstacles, which cause it to
break in impotent fury on its banks, in waves which hurl the spray
far on high, curling and bubbling as it flows along over stones and
boulders of various sizes.
The Spiti, on the other hand, though sometimes violent and rough,
more generally glides along in a broad and rapid sheet through rocks
belonging to the secondary class, and whose less firm and solid texture
yields to the action of the current, which sweeps their crumbling frag-
ments irresistibly before it.
The observations of Dr. Gerard also serve to corroborate the infor-
mation furnished by the natives relatively to the two rivers. Accord-
ing to that traveller, the greatest breadth of the Sutledge at its narrow-
est parts where bridges occur is 211 feet, while at other places he mea-
sured it 450 feet across. This however is low down, and after the
river has received the additional waters of the Spiti and Para, united
in the Lee ; the true comparison therefore cannot be formed, after the
junction of the two rivers, but before.
At Skialkur, according to Gerard, the Lee in breadth was ninety-
two feet, and in August he thought it contained fully as much water
as the Sutledge, than which it was broadest, the latter river being at
their confluence but seventy-four feet. The true comparison of the
Spiti and the Sutledge, must be institued however, before the junc-
tion of the Paratee with the former, and of the Lee with the latter,
948 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. [Nov.
and we consequently find from the measurements of the enterprising
traveller already mentioned, that the general breadth of the Spiti
was from 258 to 274 feet across.
In October, he states the quantity of water to be less than that of
the Sutledge, which being the season when the rigors of winter have
begun in Spiti, is exactly a result corresponding to the information
derived from the inhabitants of the district.
After the waters of the Spiti and Paratee rivers have united to form
the Lee, the Tartars usually apply to it the name of “ Singpho,”
which in their language appears to signify ‘‘ a river’ ; while smaller
streams and muddees, are called ‘‘ Rokpho,” or nullahs. Each river
is therefore distinguished by the name of the country through
which it flows, or sometimes even by that of a village on its
banks. Thus the Lee evidently derives its name from the village of
Leeo, and is the “ Lee-ka-Singpho”; the Paratee, rising from lake
Chummor-rareel, and flowing through Chinese Tartary, is called the
“‘ Cheen-ka-Singpho,” or “‘ Para-ka-Singpho,” derived from the Para or
Paralassa mountains ; and the Spiti is the “ Spiti-ka-Singpho.” The
word Para signifies lofty, and thus Paratee is literally, “ Lofty-—
water,” or a “ river of high source,” “ tee” signifying water in Ku-
nawur. Paralassa would therefore appear to signify a lofty moun-
tain range, as ‘‘ Kylas” is known to signify lofty peaks in Kunawur.
The Lingtee, a minor stream which joins the Spiti above Dunkur, but
of which Gerard makes no mention; andthe “ Gew” flowing down
from Chinese Tartary into the Spiti below Larree, receive the names
of ‘‘ Lingtee-ka-Rokpho” and ‘“‘ Gew-ka-Rokpho” both derived from
villages on their banks. After resting awhile beneath the shade of an
overhanging rock and refreshing myself with a few hard biscuits, and .
a drauhgt from the turbid stream, we again set ourselves in motion, and
a walk of two or three miles brought us to an extensive piece of level
ground, where the guide said we were to encamp, and accordingly we
halted, right glad to get a rest and shelter from the sun, in the shade
of the rocks around us.
Creeping into the caves which are scooped out by the wandering |
shepherds as a place of shelter for the night, most of the party soon
fell fast asleep, for we had travelled several miles in a temperature of
120°, and the glare from the rapid waters below our path, in con-
junction with the heat from the rocks, tended to induce a feeling of
Jangor and fatigue, which from the proximity of the snow on the
heights above us, we had little expected to feel. We had thus wiled —
away about two hours in the arms of Morpheus, when we were aroused
|
|
1839. ] Journal of a trip through Kunawur. 949
by the noisy‘arrival of some of the people with my tent and baggage,
and proceeding in search of water, we now first ascertained to our
dismay that the stream was dry; fuel, too, another most essential
necessary, was likewise wanting ; so bestowing a few hearty growls on
the Tartar for his stupidity, we once more proceeded in search of a
snow stream and some bushes.
Luckily we soon came to a spot which furnished the latter, but as
there was no stream near we were obliged to content ourselves with
the water of the muddy river.
Here then we encamped once more on the hill side, without having
seen the vestige of a habitation throughout this second day of our
wanderings in Spiti. Around us, however, were plenty of rocks to
afford shelter to my people in case of a storm or bad weather, and as
the day was fine and warm, we managed to make ourselves tolerably
comfortable in spite of muddy water, and a scarcity of fuel, which
latter consisted solely of the dried stalks and roots of a small shrub
growing among the rocks near us.
During the day’s march we -had passed over many level tracts of
alluvial soils which seemed so well adapted for cultivation and
villages, that I remarked to the guide my surprise that so much level
land should remain neglected, while so much trouble was expended
in Kunawur on strips on the hill side. He replied that many a long-
ing eye had often been directed to these plains, but the difficulty or
rather impossibility of conveying water to them, had deterred all from
settling there.
These broad alluvial deposits are now all high above the river's
course, and from the precipitous nature of the rocky banks within
which it is confined, no aid could be derived from it.
Rain is here almost unknown, falling only like angel’s visits, and
even then so sparingly as to be of no use except to allay the clouds
of dust for a few hours.
The only season, then, in which much moisture is obtained, is pre-
cisely that in which no vegetation can be produced, namely in the
winter months, when falls of snow are both heavy and frequent, and
continue often, more or less, from August till the end of April.
Of these broad flats the people would gladly avail themselves could
water be procured to irrigate them, and smiling fields and prosperous
villages would soon appear where all is now barren and desolate. On
similar deposits are the villages of Leeo, Chango, Soomra, and Larree,
built where streams flow down from the surrounding heights to
fertilize the soil. They are, however, almost all subject to a great
6 F
950 Journal of a trip through Kunawur. LNov.
want of manure, and their fields in consequence soon become impover-
ished, and do not yield a suitable return for the care and labour which
are bestowed upon them.
Thus at each of these places, with the exception of Leeo, many fields
once under cultivation are now left barren, and their owners have
been compelled to seek that subsistence for their families in some
more favoured spot, which their native soil denied them.
THOMAS HUTTON, Capi. |
CANDAHAR, Assistant Paymaster and Commissariat
8th December, 1839. Ofit. SSF.
Art. III.—Notes on various Fossil Sites onthe Nerbudda ; illustra.
ted by specimens and drawings. |
In the following paper I propose to place on record the progress —
made in fossil discoveries from Hoshungabad up the Nerbudda river, —
to Jubulpoor, a distance of some 200 miles. |
Hoshungabad has already been brought to the notice of the Society as _|
a large deposit, a field zealously followed up by Major Ouseley, then in :
charge of that district, by whose exertions the upper jaw now laid
before the Society has been brought to light, having served for years, _
unknown, as a Dhobee’s board for washing clothes on, ere a cognoscent |
eye lit upon it; for at first, it had the appearance only of an oblong —
square mass of the conglomerate of the river, excepting at one small |
point, which led to its development and present form. I am sorry to |
say that some of the teeth were injured in entrusting the chiselling to
a country gentleman, whose geological notions of matrix and fossil, —
were not matured. The teeth of this elephantine head are thought by
a friend of mine, to belong to that species denominated African. |
The second specimen laid before the Society, is that of a slender
tusk, imbedded in the conglomerate of the river, the several pieces of |
which, joined together, amount to a length of five feet nine inches and
a half. To what animal did this belong? The portion of tusks of
elephants that we possess, being at least treble the present in circum-
ference.
Next are drawings No. 3 and 9, frontal and base of a Buffalo skull,
from the same locality ; exhibiting in one, the condyles of the foramen
magnum, orbit; portion of horn, and general base of the skull; the
other shewing the massy forehead, (nearly eleven inches between the
orbits), and angle of the horn in contrast with the Bovine skull to be
noticed hereafter.
Foss Bifffaloc - ead poor ;
Mosungabad-in the collection oe Kouret at Seernpicr onithe Bhufal ard thowrfuliue Boundary ay
of Mer Faber Aor iaght bah Nrbudda Raver:
208 17% enohes. Fon Mag hon
Lrvlevior Gf molar B brancth His on:
= hele lanaglhe 1s on
Breath belsten wrbld TE wth..
spon: Cate of herr
Front vie of AX,
She batcedlbe beluior tlie erbdiimbyys
deme Stor. Horta the thacemmen! IS,
Che wpehtr theuded foavd sh rrvvibrvtr.
Corl andl tonanue eine th ae pane,
On Slime by S Bannste,
Prntad by T Whaake E hag” Biases fe thet Drepr, Cat. Mio.
Hrenlal wisn of NS. for A to B. bxcawlth 3 ti inchs, or
wey tcety Uncles poor orb ls orbel
Aeynetis dale — or Mine by LBomnlt:
ATE
AH ialer nl sexe
Pound al belharee left bank,
AMirbudade. rian Shans: Ghat:
Geloler 1839.
win
aT
TMUOWy.
WL”
Found near boat, Ghul, Nwbedda Hay 1339.
Ih.
racers wrtet below Bevah Ghost Jogse Hor, «
oA tie Serbuclda Sane 139.
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SS
1839.] Notes on various Fossil Sites on the Nerbudda. 951
No. 4, are drawings of the vertebree of the Mammoth ; the centre one,
which is extremely perfect, was found imbedded in the same matrix
as the foregoing, near the village of Bikore, some fifteen miles up the
river from Hoshungabad. On the same paper a convex and concave
view of another vertebra of considerably larger dimensions has been an-
nexed, with their different measurements on the same scale, shewing
their relative size. The latter was found in this neighbourhood.
No. 6, is portion of a ruminant jaw from near Niaghurreea, on the
Barun) Nulla, and about a kos from Beltharee Ghat,* on the Ner-
budda. The specimens brought in have been chiefly similar jaws and
cylindrical bones of either buffalo or bovine genus. ‘This site has not
yet been visited by us.
No. 7, a drawing of a Bovine skull, exhibiting some of the molar
teeth. No. 8, is a frontal view of the same. This skull was for a long
time unique, and was dug up at Heerapoor, on the right bank of the
Nerbudda, at the junction of our boundary and the Bhopul state ; but
since this, numerous skulls from near Jhansee Ghat have been sent
in; they are characterized by very large molars, and a great square-
ness of the occiput, a point not shewn in these drawings; the horn is
imbedded in matrix, so that its actual circumference is not easily
determined, but it appears to fall short of the buffalo skull No. 3, and
as it does considerably in breadth of forehead.
No. 10, 11, 12, are specimens from Brimhan Ghat, of two skulls
and a cylindrical bone. This site was first brought to notice by myself
in 1833, subsequently explored by Captain M. Smith, then in charge
of the Saugor district, and latterly by Mr. C. Fraser, the Agent. The
chief speciment was the head of a mammoth ; the dimensions of which,
as compared with a recent skull of an animal seven feet high, were
enormous. ‘The foramen magnum of the occiput was three inches and
a half; diameter of tusk at base, six and a quarter inches; and as it
stood on the occipital condyles, the height was thirty-three inches ;
breadth of the molars four inches. The fossil remains here have
been chiefly those of the elephant and bovine classes.
From Brimhan Ghat, proceeding upwards, we come to Sagounee and
its neighbourhood—sites from which I sent numerous specimens that
have been laid before the Society, and among thema buffalo head with
horns (a delineation of which was promised in my preceding com-
Munication) with one sent down by Serjeant Dean from the Jumna.
* From this Ghat, in 1834, I forwarded fossil specimens, pronounced to be those
of a horse.
f It has been sent to Capt. Cautlay for comparison with those of the Siyalik range,
952 Notes on various Fossil Sites on the Nerbudda. [Nov. :
Our next site is Jhansee Ghat, where the bivalves (drawings of |
which were lately forwarded for inspection) have been found. This
place and its neighbourhood has yielded a large collection of fossils, but
chiefly buffalo and bovine ; vertebre and leg bones of the first, and large |
skulls of the latter, bearing the same character as that delineated in |
No. 7. From this ford all the way up the river fossils have been |
found. At the Jogee Ghat, three miles below Berah Ghat, the upper —
portion of the head of a young hippopotamus was discovered, as shewn |
in No. 14. The upper coloured drawing gives a view of the entire |
fossil on a reduced scale, and the pencil one below a profile, natural |
size, from the anterior to the posterior molars of the left side. This is
the first and only one of the kind; almost all our collections being
derived from the elephant, horse, buffalo, and latterly a large bovine |
class, as noticed before.
In the ravines of the Nerbudda, close to Berah Ghat a fine lower
jaw of a mammoth was excavated and brought in, of which No. 15 |
gives an accurate facsimile, and some idea of the stupendous animal |
it was originally attached to.
Above Jubulpoor, as far as our present researches extend, but few |
fossil remains of quadrupeds have been found, the perfect head of a_
horse (drawings of which were laid on the table some two years ago)
forming one of the few exceptions.
From Chewlea upwards, fossilized trees of various kinds and shells
alone reward the zeal of the philo-geologist.
For the interesting fossil discoveries from Jubulpoor to Jhansee :
Ghat the lovers of this pursuit are indebted to Mr. C. Fraser, the pre- |
sent Agent to the Governor General in these territories, who from the
time of his rejoining this agency, has been most indefatigable in _
bringing to light these treasures of a former age.
I cannot pass over the aid I have derived in my illustrations* of the |
fossils for the present notes (as well as those lately submitted of the
different kinds of shells, chiefly found in these territories,) without |
saying how much I am indebted to the pencil of Captain Reynolds,
whose kindness and readiness to devote his time and talent to the deli-
neation of the numerous specimens sent to him, have been unwearied.
N. B. Just as the foregoing was concluded, a fossil crab was
brought in from near Jhansee Ghat, a drawing, No. 16, natural size,
exhibits this as yet unique specimen.
JuBuLPooR, lst Nov., 1839. G. G. SPILSBURY.
* No. 3 is by Mr. M. C. Ommanney—not the first instance, by many, that I haye
had of his ability and kindness,
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 953
Art. 1V.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
(Wednesday Evening, the 5th February, 1840.)
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read.
His Excellency Sir Jasper Nicotits, Commander-in-Chief, &c. &c. and Maha-
Rajah Raumur Avi Kuan, proposed at the last Meeting, were ballotted for, and duly
elected Members of the Society.
The Society then proceeded to the election of Vice-Presidents and the Committee
of Papers for the ensuing year, when the following gentlemen were chosen :—
Vice-Presidents.
The Honorable Sir J. P. Grant. The Honorable H. T. Prinsep, Esq.
Colonel D. McLeop. The Honorable Sir H. Seton.
Members of the Committee of Papers.
W. Grant, Esq. Dr. D. Stewart.
Major W. N. Forsss. D. Hare, Esq.
Dr. J. M‘CLELLAND. H. Torrens, Esq.
Dr. N. WaLLicu. Dr. Grant.
Mr. James CoLquHouwn proposed by Mr. SuTHERLAND, seconded by Dr. O’SHaucu-
NESSY.
Captain SwETENHAM proposed by Major Forsss, seconded by Mr. SuTHERLAND.
C. K. Roxpison, Esq. proposed by Major Forsss, seconded by Mr. SuTHEr-
LAND.
Mr. Thomas Charles Capocan proposed by Mr. BaasHaw, seconded by Sir
H, Seton.
Mr. R. H. Matuews proposed by Mr. Bacsuaw, seconded by Mr, H. T. Prinsep.
_ The officiating Secretary informed the meeting that the Committee of Papers propose
M. Renavupas an Honorary Member, in succession to the late illustrious M. SILvEsSTRE
DE Sacy.
Read the following letter from Professor H. H. Wixson, dated East India House,
3rd December 1839, intimating his having forwarded through Messrs. ALLEN and Co,
the busts of Sir W. Joneses and Mr. H. T. CoLesrookg.
East India House, 3rd Dec. 1839.
My pear Sir,—I have an opportunity of acknowledging your late, as well as your
former overland letter at the same time. As the letter of the 27th August reached me
‘this morning, just in time for to-morrow’s mail, there will not be time to attend to any
of its contents before the dispatch is made up, but I will make the inquiries respecting
the anatomical plates without delay. There would be no difficulty in printing the
work altogether in this country, and both for the sake of science and my friend MopHu-
suDAN Gupta I should willingly act as editor; he would probably, however, prefer
correcting his own work.
954 Asiatic Society. [ Nov.
I have recently dispatched to you, through Messrs. ALLEN and Co., the busts of Sir —
W. Jones and Mr. CoLEBRooKE, which I doubt not will afford the Society much |
satisfaction. The bill remitted by you of 1367, has been realised, but the charge is |
a trifle more, being 1427. 10s. including the expense of reducing the bust of Sir W. |
Jones from the more colossal proportions of the statue in St. Paul’s, and the expense |
of packing. I have paid the balance. The funds you have placed at my disposal
will probably allow it to be deducted from them without inconvenience, if not, I
can draw upon the Society for the amount.
Mr. James PrinsEp, I am sorry to state, continues in the same condition. There is
no sensible improvement, but he is not apparently worse than he was six months ago. :
Yours very sincerely, H. H. WILSON.
To Dr, O'SHAUGHNESSY.
Resolved—That the amount advanced by Professor WiLson, for the purposes above :
mentioned, be forthwith remitted to him, with a suitable acknowledgment of the |
trouble he has taken in forwarding the busts.
Library.
Read a letter from the Secretary to the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries of —
Copenhagen, acknowledging the receipt of two specimens of ancient warlike weapons, |
presented by the Society through Dr. Canror, and intimating his having forwarded |
several articles for the use of the Society. |
Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries,
Copenhagen, 18th October, 1838.
Dear Srr,—We received by Dr. Cantor your letter of 18th October last year,
together with two specimens of ancient warlike weapons of copper, for our Museum.
These we consider as of importance for our collection, and we shall take a future |
opportunity of writing more particularly on this subject. It would be very interesting
if we could obtain a few more such matters of different sorts from India. Dr. Cantor
is a good judge of northern antiquities, and knows what will be of greatest interest to us
in a scientific point of view.
I take the present opportunity to inform you, that I have dispatched from our Society |
to yours the following articles, which I hope will arrive safely.
By Peter Hansen, Esq. Chief of the Establishment at Serampore (8th Novem-
ber, 1837.)—
The Annals of the R. S. N. A. 1836-1837, &c.
By Capt. Rass, to the care of Colonel ReHxiine, Governor of Tranquebar (18th
April, 1838, and 18th October, 1838. )—
1. My work entitled, “‘ Antiquites Americane,’’ published by our Society.
2. My Memoir, separately published in French ‘“‘ Sur la déconverte de l’ Amérique
au dixiéme siécle.”’
3, My general Chart or Map, in illustration of the voyages of discovery to America,
performed by the Scandinavians.
My special Map of Greenland.
Sundry other Maps published by the Society.
. Some facsimiles of Icelandic Vellum Codices (skinnbekr. )
. R. K, Rasx’s Samlede Afhandlinger, 3 die deel.
NOB
1839. _ Asiatic Society. 955
The great importance of the literature of India to the Scandinavian north, and con-
versely the importance of that of the latter to India, prompts to a more intimate con-
nexion of our Societies. I have the honor to be, Sir,
With sentiments of respect and esteem,
Jas. Prinsep, Esa. Your most obedient servant,
Secy. As. Soc. Bengal. CHAS. C. RAFRY, Secretary. R. S. N. A.
Library.
Read a letter from J. P. Grant, Esq. officiating Secretary to the Government of
India, Revenue Department, forwarding the following Books :—
Illustrations of Indian Botany, No. 12.
Dr. Wicut’s Illustrations of Indian Plants, Nos. 11 and 12.
Read a letter from the Messrs. BowpitTcH, sons of the late Mr. N. Bownpitcu,
forwarding for presentation the 4th volume of the ‘‘ Mécanique Céleste, by La Piace,’’
translated by their father, with a commentary.
Boston, August 18th, 1839.
S1r,—We send you, for the use of the Royal Asiatic Society, the first and last
volumes of our father’s commentary on the ‘‘ Mécanique Céleste’’.
Before his death Mr. Bowpitcu prepared a few notes to the fifth voltime, but
they are imperfect, and therefore will not be published.
May we be allowed to refer to your notice the Appendix to the memoir of the
translation, wherein you will find the disposition we have made of his library.. In
England our determination to make the ‘‘ Bowditch Library’’ a free public institution,
has been received with approbation by Sir Joun HerscueEv and others, and thefe-
fore we have taken the liberty of mentioning it to you.
We remain respectfully, yours,
N. J. BOWDITCH,
J. BOWDITCH,
F. D. BOWDITCH,
W. G. BOWDITCH,
Children of Nathaniel Bowpitcu.
To the Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
Resolved—That the thanks of the Asiatic Society be conveyed to the Messrs. Bow-
pitcu, for their valuable donation; and that the Society further offer their cordial
approval of the generous resolution regarding the disposal of the Bowditch Library.
Read a letter from Major Jervis, Provisional Surveyor General, conveying a bro-
chure by M. Rernuarp. Bombay, 10th Dec. 1839.
Sir,—On my way through France by the overland route to this country, I was
charged by my distinguished friend Monsieur Rernnarv, Membre de I Institut, to pre-
sent the accompanying volume in his name to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. And
although not as yet a member of your distinguished body, I venture to assure you
956 Asiatic Society. [ Nov.
of the very warm interest which he and many other celebrated orientalists in France,
Members of the French Institute, take in every thing connected with the objects of
your Society. I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
To the Secy. Asiatic Society. T.B. JERVIS, Major of Engineers,
appointed Provisionally Surv. Gen.
Read a letter to the President from M. DurroulsLiy, Treasurer of the Académie
Royale de Bordeaux, presenting copies of the Actes de la Société, requesting the
Journal in exchange, and inquiring after the state of Mr. Jas. PRinsEp’s health.
Académie Royale des Sciences, Belies-Letires et Arts de Bordeaux.
MownsIEuvR, Bordeaux, le 28 Aout, 1839.
L’ Académie me charge de vous adresser les deux premiers numéros de ses
Actes, elle vous prie de les offrir, de sa part, 4 la Savante Compagnie que vous pré-
sidez, elle se fera un vrai plaisir de lui adresser réguliérement les fascicules 4 fur
et 4 mesure qu’ils paroitront, elle espére que la Société Asiatique voudra bien lui
continuer l’envoi de son journal.
L’ Académie me charge aussi, Monsieur, de vous adresser un exemplaire de ses
Actes, elle vous prie de l’agréer comme un hommage rendu a votre zéle éclairé
pour les Sciences et les Lettres.
L’ Académie a appris avec peine que l’honorable Monsieur Prinsep l’un de
vos Membres avait été dangereusement malade, comme elle n’a requ aucune nou-
velle de sa santé, et qu’elle 4 appris seulement qu’il avait été au Cap pour la retablir ;
y auroit il de l’indiscretion, Monsieur, 4 vous prier de vouloir nous donner de ses
nouvelles. Le service qu’a rendu a la science M. Prinszp, le rend cher a tous
ceux qui la cultivent, et particuliérement 4 l Académie.
Veuillez, je vous prie, Monsieur, agréer et faire agréer a la Savante Société Asia-
tique 1’ assurance de la haute considération avec laqu’elle J’ai |’ honneur d’étre.
Monsieur, ;
Votre trés-humble et trés obéissant serviteur,
DUTROUILLY,
Trésorier dev’ Académie Royale des Sciences
Belles Lettres et Arts de Bordeauz.
Resolved unanimously,—That the thanks of the Society be offered to the Académie |
de Bordeaux, and the Journal regularly forwarded as desired. The Secretary was i
further instructed to communicateto M. DurrouIrLty the latest intelligence regarding |
Mr. PRINSEP.
The following Books were presented :—
Outlines of the Topography and Statistics of the Southern Districts of Oudh and
of the Cantonment of Sultanpore, Oudh, by Dr. D. Burrer,——by the Author.
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. 18, in 2 parts, —by the Academy.
Description of an Observatory established at Travandrum, by His Highness the
Rajah of Travancore, by John Catpecort, Esq. Astronomer to His Highness,
—by the Author.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 957
Annuaire des Marées des Cétes de France pour L’an 1839, publié au Dept. de la
Marine. Par A. M. R. CuHaya.ton.
Mémoire Sur les Divers Moyens de Se Procurer Une Base. Par A. M. R. Cuay-
ALLON,
Nieuwe Verhandelungen der Erste Klasse, Van het Konin Glijk Nederlandische
Institut, vol. 6 and 7.
Solemnia Natalitia Regis Augustissimi ac Potentissimi Frederici Wilhelmi III.
ac Aug. III edited by Professor A. G. ScHLEGEL, Bonn 1839,——by the
Author.
Mémoire sur le systéme Grammatical des Langues. Par M. P. et Du Ponceau,
L.L.D.—by the Author.
The American Almanac and Repository for 1839-——by the American Philosophi-
cal Society.
The East Indian Journal, No. 2, by R. C. Woops, L.L.D.—by the Author.
A Sketch of the Argument for Christianity and against Hinduism, (Sanscrit) by
J. Muir, Esq. B.C.S.——by the Author.
Meteorological Register for December, 1839-——by the Surveyor General.
The following books were received from the booksellers :—
Journal des Savans, for May and June, 1839.
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia—History ; vol. 2.
Illustrations of Ornithology, by JarpinE and SELBy, purchased from a number
for Co’s. Rs. 100.
Iiterary.
Mr. Secretary Prinsep forwarded on the part of Government the following papers
for publication in the Society’s Transactions, or in its Journal :—
Dr. J. W. Herer’s third and fourth Report on Tenasserim, the surrounding
nations, inhabitants—natives and foreigners, character, morals and religion.
Dr. RicHarpson’s Proceedings on his Mission to Siam and the Shan states, with
a Map of Siam.
Dr. CampsBeELt’s Notes on the Mechis, with a Vocabulary of their language.
The officiating Secretary apprized the Meeting of his having received from Lieut.
'T. Hutton the first part of his ‘‘ Journal of a trip through Kunawur, Hungrung, and
Spiti,”’ to the expenses of which the Society had contributed a sum of 1000 Rs. pursuant
to the resolution passed at the Meeting held on Ist Nov. 1837, (J. A. S. vol. 6 p. 898.)
Mr. J. W. Laipvay forwarded a paper on Mohammedan Coins.
Museum.
The officiating Secretary then requested the attention of the Meeting to a very
important dispatch recently received from the Court of Directors.—This dispatch
rendered it necessary to assign 250 rupees per mensem to the salary of a Curator.—The
Committee of Papers had taken the subject into their serious consideration, and their
Minutes are accordingly appended to the official letter.
6G
$58
To W.
No. 1280.
General Dept.
Letter from the Honble. Sir E.
Ryan, Kt. President of the
Asiatic Society, dated 2Ist
June, 1837.
Ditto to ditto, dated 28th June,
No. 261.
Dittofrom Secretary Asiatic So-
ciety, lOth July.
Ditto to ditto, dated 26th ditto,
No. 328.
oe ae ditto dated 12th ditto,
Ditto to ditto, dated 18th ditto,
No. 844.
(Para: 81 to 87)
Asiatie Society. [Nov.
B. O’SHavueunessy, Esq. M.D.
Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic Society.
Sir,—With reference to the correspondence no-
ted in the margin, I am directed to transmit to you,
for the information and guidance of the Society,
the accompanying Extract from letter No. 17, of
1839, from the Honorable the Court of Directors, in
the Public Department, dated 18th September.
Iam, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
CounciL CHAMBER, H. T. PRINSEP,
26th December, 1839. Secy. to Govt. of India.
Extract from letter No. \7 of 1839, from the Honoruble the Court of Directors in the
Public Depariment, dated the 18th September.
Applications fromthe Asi-
atic Society of Calcutta to
the Government for assist-
ance. ;
Letter of 30th Aug. 1837.
Forwarding _ correspon-
dence with Sir Edward
Ktyan, the President of the
Society, soliciting the aid of
Government, to the amount
of rupees 200 per mensem,
in maintaining the museum
of antiquities and natural
history already commenced
by the Society, but which
must fail without such aid;
also requesting permission
to purchase antiquities, ma-
nuscripts, and objects of na-
tural history and science
to the extent of rupees 800
per mensem, on the engage-
ment that the objects shall
be placed at the disposal of
the Government if the Court
should decline to sanction
the measure. The subscrip-
tion of rupees 200 per men-
sem was sanctioned, and it
was intimated, with regard
to the latter application, that
the Government declined a
fixed grant, but would be
ready to receive recommen-
dations for the purchase of
objects of more than com-
mon interest.
Letier of 12th Sept. 1838.
Reporting that the Go-
vernmert had acceded to
the application of the So-
ciety by giving retrospec-
Para. 81. Your letter of the 30th August, 1837, for-
wards an application from the Asiatic Society of Cal-
cutta soliciting the aid of the Government for the exten-
sion and maintenance of their Library and Museum,
submitted to you with a letter from Sir E. Ryan, the
President of the Society.
82. The objects of the Society, as set forth in their
resolution of the 7th June, 1837, and their President’s —
address, are the means of providing for the services ofa |
professional naturalist to superintend and systematize |
their collections—of defraying the cost of preserving—of
displaying the collections of curious and instructive |
articles already made—and of procuring additional ob-
jects illustrative of the geography, antiquities, statistics,
mineralogy, conchology, botany, and natural history —
of India. In order to accomplish these purposes they
estimate that in addition to their own available resources, |
an annual expenditure of 10,000 rupees is necessary. |
Although however specifying this sum as the amount of |
the aid which they are desirous of receiving, they leave |
it to you to fix the extent of any grant which you may
deem it expedient to afford.
83. In your reply to the President of the Society you
acknowledge the claims of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
to the gratitude of the public, both in Asia and in Europe,
for the persevering and successful efforts it has made, for
more than half a century, to investigate and illustrate the
literature, science, and natural and artificial productions
of the East. You recognize the advantages which may
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 959
tive effect to the monthly be expected to result from the extension of the Society’s
Eioliy pt Count fs s a Library and Museum, and you admit the impossibility of
publication of orientalworks, this extension being effected, unless the Society be aided
as the Society had publish- Jjberally by the Government, in like manner as similar
ed several works beforethe . ... |: : ;
receipt of the Court’s sanc- institutions in HKurope are supported by the Public
tion, and had thereby incur- Treasury. At the same time you declare yourselves pre-
Bn anebt of rupees 2,500. eiuded-from giving an immediate sanction to the specific
annual grant suggested by the Society in this instance, without previous reference
being made to us, engaging to support such reference with your recommendation.
84, In a subsequent address from the Society, dated 10th July 1837, you were
solicited, pending the result of the reference to us, to assist the Society with a monthly
grant of 200 rupees, and a further sum of 800 rupees, a month, for the purchase of ad-
ditions to the Library and Museum, on the condition that if the disbursement should be
disapproved of, the articles so purchased should be relinquished to the Government.
With the first of these requests you complied, but declined to make any specific
appropriation of funds for the objects proposed in the latter suggestion, although you
stated your willingness to receive from the Society recommendations for the purchase,
or other procurement, of such articles as the Society might think it desirable to possess,
and provided they were not of a perishable description. i
85. The independent and useful activity of the Asiatic Society of Bengal during so
long a period, entitles it justly to your consideration, and looking to it as the only insti-
tution in India, which offers any analogy to the great national libraries and museums
of Europe, it is a legitimate object of public support. We therefore approve of the aid
and encouragement which you have given. We think, however, that the extent to which
you have gone is fully adequate to all purposes of public utility. The Society is al-
ready in possession of a library and museum of some extent, and the additions
that may be made to either must be occasional and progressive. It does not happen in
India as in Europe, that large public or private collections of a rare and valuable
description are offered for sale, and all accessions which the Society will have an
opportunity of acquiring must be of limited extent and incidental occurrence. From
the character too of the persons who are likely to contribute to the Society’s col-
lections, it is very improbable that a pecuniary equivalent will in all cases be desired,
and it seems to us, on various grounds, unnecessary and objectionable to assign to
the Society a permanent grant for the purpose of effecting occasional purchases. When
an application from the Society comes before you for any definite outlay, it will
be time enough to take into consideration the expediency of granting the particular
assistance that may then be required. We shall not object to your granting to
the Society funds for special purchases, as occasions arise, as far as may be compatible
| with a due regard to public economy. On all such occasions, you will forward to our
Museum a selection from the articles which may have been so procured.
_- 86. The more immediate and permanent want of the Society is the superintendence
of a qualified person to preserve its collections, and arrange them in a scientific
and systematic manner, so that they may be readily consulted, and be at all times sub-
servient to the diffusion of useful knowledge; such a person may no doubt be met with
| at the Presidency, and we do not object to your allowing to the Society the
| monthly sum of 200 or 250 rupees as the salary for his services, with a further sum of
90 rupees a month for the cost of preparing specimens, and maintaining the
960 Asiatic Soctety. [ Nov.
collections in order. It would however be an unprofitable waste of money to attempt
the preservation of many of the objects of natural history in the climate of Ben-
gal, and these when considered valuable should be transmitted to our Museum.
87. We do not object to the retrospective effect given to the appropriation of
500 rupees a month for the publication of oriental books, under the circumstances
stated ; and we take this opportunity of intimating our wish, that as soon as the
work in hand shall have been completed, arrangements should be adopted for applying
the grant to the printing of the text of the Vedas, with a commentary, as the oldest and
most authentic record of the language and religion of the Hindus, and therefore
indispensable to the history of opinion and of man.
(True Extract) H. T. PRINSEP,
Secretary to the Government of India.
Minute by Sir Eywarp Ryan.
It appears from the copy of the dispatch of the Court of Directors, communicated
to the Society by the direction of Government, that 200 or 250 rupees are to be allowed
monthly to the Society for the salary of a qualified person to preserve its collections,
and arrange them in a scientific and systematic manner, and an additional 50 rupees
a month for the cost of preparing specimens, and maintaining the collections in order.
I think it is desirable that the Society should state the time they will require any —
Curator they may appoint to devote to his charge, and the periods at which he ‘should —
report to the Society upon the state and condition of their Museum. I think upon —
the fixed salary that will now be devoted to the person, that the Society might reasonably —
expect two or three hours in each day shall be devoted to the Museum—that reports —
should be made at each monthly Meeting—and the office of Curator should be held, —
like most of the offices of the Societies, for the year only; that is, subject to annual re- —
election. If the Society approves of the conditions there named, I would further propose, i
that the office of Curator be offered, in the first instance, to Dr. M‘CLELLAND, who has ;
so kindly, for some time past, discharged the duties of Curator without salary. If he
will accept, the office, I am sure the Society will be happy to avail itself of his most ‘
valuable services. I beg our Secretary to circulate with Mr. Secretary Prinsep’s letter —
and enclosure this memorandum.
January 25th 1840.
EDWARD RYAN.
co
Circular from officiating Secretary, to the Commitiee of Papers, Asiatic Society. —
GENTLEMEN, i
I beg leave to circulate an important dispatch from the Honorable the Court
of Directors, regarding our Museum, and directing a salary of 200 rupees per mensem ~
to be paid to the Curator. I also circulate a Minute on the subject by our President.
I take the liberty of expressing my concurrence in the opinions of the President, and
at the same time my hope, that Dr. M‘CLeLLanp may be enabled to command
sufficient leisure for the duties of the office. It is quite impossible at present to find
a competent and available individual to fill Dr. M‘CLeLLaNp’s place. The accom-
plished officers who have recently entered the service (I allude chiefly to Drs. WALKER,
Jameson, and CanrTor) are too eagerly sought for by the Government for scientific
missionary duties to justify our indulging the least hope of their being soon placed im
Calcutta. ‘
1839.] Asiatic Society. 96]
I am satisfied, at the same time, that should Dr. M‘CieLvanp feel his time pre-oc-
cupied to such an extent as to prevent his attending closely to the Museum, he would be
the first to propose measures for the securing the entire services of a competent person.
I think with the good salary we are now enabled to offer, that we can very easily
procure such an individual from England. I accordingly propose,—
1. That in the event of Dr. M‘CLEeLLanp declining the curatorship on the terms
allowed by the Honorable Court, and under the stipulations of our President, the Com-
mittee of Papers address (through the President) an application to the proper scientific
personages at home, requesting their selection and appointment of a competent naturalist
for the office of Curator on a salary of 3002. per annum.
2. That the Committee of Papers at the same time forward a memorandum of the
Curator’s duties.
3. That the person appointed in England be bound to serve the Society for five
years.
4, ‘That an outfit allowance of five hundred rupees be allowed him, and his passage
paid for, and that the necessary funds for these expenses be provided by allowing the
Honorable Court’s monthly donations to accumulate from the date on which these reso-
lutions may be agreed to, until the arrival of the Curator.
5. Lastly, that these resolutions be submitted to the consideration of the next general
meeting, with the recommendation of the Committee in their favor.
Your’s faithfully,
26th January, 1840. W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY.
Minute by Dr. M‘CLELLAND.
Having fully considered the responsibilities of the office of Curator, I shall be happy
to continue to discharge its duties, if it be desirable to the Society I should do so.
As the Museum of Natural History at the India House is alluded to in the Court’s
dispatch, I take the liberty of putting into the circular a letter from Dr. HorsFiecp,
the superintendent of that collection, by which it will be seen that the Court of Di-
rectors are promoting at the India House the very same object that we have here in
view, in endeavouring to establish a collection of natural objects.
Under these circumstances, it will no doubt be agreeable both to the objects and
wishes of the Asiatic Society, to promote as much as possible, without detriment to our
own Museum, the objects of the home collection, with which view the grant of 200 to
250 rupees as salary to a Curator, seems partly to have been made.
In my opinion the great, and indeed the only security the Society can possess in re-
gard to a Curator, is scientific reputation ; for without acquirements of a high order as
a naturalist, (by which I do not mean a stuffer, nor the mere namer of objects) his
assiduity would be of no avail, while his monthly reports, were he to engage to supply
them, might bring discredit on the Society.
It is for these reasons, and because of a want of confidence in my fitness for an office
so interesting and important as our curatorship is now likely to become, that I cannot
enter into any engagements as to periodical reports, or hours of attendance.
We may at present have few in Calcutta qualified for the office, but of the number
of eminently qualified individuals who have recently entered the Medical Department,
we may hope that ere long the services of some of them will be required in Calcutta,
962 Asiatic Society. Nov. —
when our Museum will have the aid of curators of far higher qualifications than the
Society could obtain from Europe for any small sum we can ever hope to be able to offer. —
29th January, 1840. J. M‘CLELLAND.
P. S.—I was afraid that in sending home for a Curator it might be forgotten that we
have eminently qualified persons in India, and am therefore the better pleased to find
that since my remarks were circulated, the names of three to whom I particularly al-
luded, have been incorporated in the Secretary’s Minute. Iam however, very sanguine
as to soon seeing several qualified scientific men in Calcutta, for offices of this nature,
J. M‘CLELLAND.
Minute by Mr. H. T. Prinsep.
I wish to see this question fairly discussed at the meeting on Wednesday next. [
see no other arrangement that can be proposed, except to place Dr. M‘CLELLAND in
the office for the coming year; but I think unless he will pledge himself to daily atten-
dance, and monthly reports, that he should be considered, as he himself suggests, as
officiating until we can find a qualified person who will give more time to it.
I think with him, that it will be preferable to look out for a Curator amongst the
. highly qualified persons we have in India, rather than take the chance of obtaining a
good man from England. 300. per annum, or 250 per mensem, is not enough to satisfy
aman of science. Indents for Editors, and even for Schoolmasters, from Europe have
not ordinarily been successful.
H. T. PRINSEP,
D. STEWART,
30th January, 1840. W.N. FORBES,
D. McLEOD.
On the day of the meeting Dr. M‘CLELLAND submitted the following
additional Minute.
As the Museum at the India House is alluded to in the dispatch of the Honorable
the Court of Directors, No. 17 of 1839, dated the 18th September, the following re-
marks on that collection is extracted from a private letter addressed by Dr. HorsFiELD
to Mr. M‘Crectxanp, Bengal Medical Service, dated Library, East India House,
August 3lst, 1839.
**The Museum itself is not very extensive, but it is nevertheless of much importance
in connexion with Indian zoology, as it contains several extensive local collections.
‘It consists mainly of the following Faunas, which are more or less perfect :—
** Firstly. A collection of upwards of 200 species of birds from Java, and a propor-
tional number of quadrupeds. This was formed by myself, and brought to England in
1819, when it constituted the nucleus of our Zoological collection.
“« Secondly. We have a pretty complete series of Birds collected in Sumatra by Sir
STAMFORD RAFFLES, and some of his Mammalia.
‘* Thirdly. We have a similar collection made by the late Dr. FINLAYsoN in Siam
and in the Indian Archipelago.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 963
‘* Fourthly. We have anearly complete series of Mammalia and Birds collected by
Colonel Sykes in the Dekun, of the importance and extent of which you can judge
by the respective catalogues contained in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society
for 1831 and 1832.
** Fifthly. We have a few specimens from China, Nepal, and the Upper Provinces
of Bengal, but these are imperfect and fragmentary.
** To these has now been added a series, almost complete, of the Mammalia and Birds
collected by yourself in Assam, which have been mounted, and form a valuable addi-
tion to the specimens exhibited in our Museum.
** All these separate Faunas are neatly arranged in our natural history department,
which consists of a large room well lighted, and provided with excellent cabinets for
the preservation of the subjects. ;
** This Museum I may say is established on a modest scale, and without the pretension
to extent or elegance of the national collections (such as the British or Hunterian, or
even the Zoological Societies) but our specimens are generally good, being prepared by
the best London artists, and my endeavour is to have them correctly labelled.
‘‘Our collection consists mainly of Quadrupeds and Birds; but we have also a smali
collection of Fishes, Reptiles, and Serpents, which have recently been examined by
Dr. Canror, who has prepared a list of them, agreeably to which they are arranged.
’ “© Tt is my intention as soon as possible to prepare a general list of the Mammalia
and Birds which are arranged in our Museum for transmission to you, so that you may
form an accurate idea of what we have, and be enabled to judge of what we want.
*‘T have no doubt the nature and importance of natural history is more considered
and appreciated now, than it was in former times ; and I cherish the hope that the coun-
tenance and support of Government will ere long be extended to it in an effectual way ;
but this I can at present only allude to as a wish or expectation. Meanwhile I may
enumerate some of the subjects which would be particularly desirable. We want, for
instance, many of the birds of Bengal. All the rarer species, and some of the more
common (of these I hope soon to send you a provisional list); we want generally the
Birds of Silhet, the Garrow Hills, Tenasserim, Arracan, Burmah, &c. &c. and dupli-
cates of the new and of all the rarer species discovered by you in Assam.
«“We want a complete seriesof the Birds of Nepal, also Mammalia; the smaller
_ species would suit our purpose best, as we can more easily accommodate them. But
above all, and especially, we want a large, full, and complete collection of all the
Vespertilionide, or Bats of India. This is the most important family, as it has never
_ been sought after ; and I beg and entreat you to have a large collection made generally
throughout all India; and I need not point out to you the localities where these animals
are most likely to be met with ”’
Here Dr. HorsFie tp enters into particulars regarding the genera and species.
; ** But besides these it is in the branch of Entomology that I would at present strongly
; solicit contributions to the Company’s Museum. I am more anxious on this head, as I
have succeeded in bringing an extensive collection of Insects from Java in excellent
condition, and with the exception of these, and the collection of Colonel SyKEs, we
_ have absolutely nothing from Bengal or from India generally.’ On this subject Dr.
HorsFieip delicately alludes to the probability of gentlemen connected with
964 Asiatic Society. [ Nov.
missions still holding collections of Insects unappropriated, under the supposition,
perhaps, that such objects would be less appreciated than the large animals; on the
contrary, Dr. HorsFiE LD states that contributions to this department of the Museum
would be as likely as any other means to promote the interests of science, and to secure
the approval of those who are interested in the collection at the India House.
With regard to Insects. The public collections which remain, I believe, unappro-
priated, are those made by Dr. Wauticu, Mr. Grirritu, and myself, when employed —
on the Assam deputation, and Dr. Hewrer’s collection. That which was made by
the Assam deputation is still, I believe, at the Botanic Garden, and like Dr. HELFER’s
collection has not yet been transferred to the Government. With regard to the former,
perhaps the Society has no authority to interfere; but as the Society has been autho-
rized to take one series of Dr. HELFER’s collection for our own Museum, and to select
another for that of the India House, it might be necessary to address Dr. HELFER
on the subject, particularly as his collection of birds for the Honorable Court has
been packed up for some time in the Museum, and are only detained till the. insects
which have not yet been submitted to the Society should accompany them.
The large collections of birds and insects made by Captain PEMBERTON during
his mission to Boutan, and the officers who accompanied him on that occasion, have
been long almost unobserved in the Museum, owing to the late repairs of the house.
The greater part of the birds composing that collection were previously in our posses- —
sion, bu tsuch as were new to it were transferred to our cabinets, and the rest enclosed
in cases for transmission to the India House. The insects of the same collection which
are numerous, and no doubt rich in undescribed forms, are also in course of being
dispatched with the birds; a series having been reserved for our own collection. The —
pains taken during Captain PEMBERTON’s Journey, to mark the localities in which
the different objects were collected, cannot be too highly applauded, especially as this
very important circumstance has been hitherto altogether neglected on such occasions.
Mr. Lye. in a letter addressed to Mr. M‘CLELLAND, dated 7th September 1839,
states, that he is very anxious for accurate information respecting the geography of
living testacea and Indian tertiary shells, and if furnished with duplicates from the
Museum of the Asiatic Society, proposes in return to supply the Society with fossil
and recent shells in exchange.
The Society, it is to be regretted, has few fossil shells from Indian bala, and a very
imperfect collection of recent species. Indeed the little attention that has been paid
to these important subjects in India, seems to have induced collectors to send their
contributions elsewhere. Several members, and others interested in the advancement
of science, are most favourably placed on the Malay coast, at various points from
Chittagong to Mergui, and we may look, I trust, with confidence for large collections
from this quarter in the peculiar department alluded to. I have myself been already
indebted for a miscellaneous collection of shells from Dr. HEirer, and slight contri-
butions have been made to our Museum from time to time by different individuals ;
but I question if we have as yet a tenth part of the species of the Bay, while we are alto-
gether without the corals, polypes, and radiata, so abundant in all the Eastern seas.
Mr. A. P. Puayre, assistant to the commissioner of Arracan, kindly sent me some
time since a few interesting specimens of the rocks in the vicinity of Akyab, which are
perforated to the height of six feet above the greatest elevation of spring tides, the
same as beneath the level of the water, by a species of Pholas. Mr. Puayre justly
1839. } Asiatic Society. 965
ascribes this to a change of level in the rocks composing this part of the coast, and
regards the perforations as identical to those which have been observed in the sandstone
at Cherra Ponji. With regard to the Cherra Ponji rocks, lam indebted to Mr. H.
Wacker for an observation of very great importance when observing the number of
Echinide in my collection from that quarter; he suggested the probability of the
elongated moulds contained in what seemed to be perforations, being nothing more
than the spines of a Cidaris, a species of Echinus. On this subject, as well as the
Echinide generally, which I find to be very abundant in the Cherra beds, I hope soon
to have a communication to make, being now employed in an examination of the
Indian species, particularly those which I have found fossil.
These departments of the animal kingdom are of the more importance to our
collections, as we can hardly advance a single step in geology until our cabinets are
complete, or nearly so, in recent species.
Mr. Puayre has liberally undertaken to collect for us at Akyab, but we require
equally zealous correspondents at Chittagong, Kyuk Phyu, Sandoway, Moulmein,
Mergue, and at all the different stations along the coast, before our Museum can be
considered in a progressive state.
With regard to fossil species, eur collection is equally defective ; indeed so long as
we are without a complete collection of recent shells, fossil species would be of little
interest in our Museum. Asa proof of the poverty of our collection, I may remark,
that of one striking and numerous family, affording probably some hundred species,
most of them found in the Indian seas, yet two species only are all we have in our
Museum, and these from unknown localities, probably New South Wales.
As animals of this family have been found in a fossil state, in a bed of sand, reposing
beneath the common soil of the Sylhet mountains, under circumstances which we are
bound to investigate, the fact may induce those who reside along the coasts above al-
juded to, to contribute their share towards the inquiry by forwarding specimens of
them to our Museum. The dried testa of Echinida, called sea-eggs, are very abundant,
I understand from Captain Brown, on the shores of Rambree Island, and all the
islands from thence to the Straits, while the living animals usually named sea-hedge-
hogs, from the number of spines with which they are covered, may be had from rocks
in the same vicinity. The bleacher shell is seldom perfect, so that the living animals
when put fresh into spirits form the more valuable specimens ; but from the ease with
which the former may he collected and preserved, as well as from their beauty as mere
ornaments, they ought to form a portion of every collection, and from the philosophi-
cal interest of the subject they would be a welcome addition to our Museum.
_ Enough I trust has been said to induce residents on the Malay coast and other situ-
ations where similar facilities are afforded, to enable the Society to avail itself of the
offer of Mr. LyEwt, and at the same time to enlarge, or rather form its own collections
of Indian species.
The interest now awakening in Europe regarding the natural history of this coun-
try, is calculated to produce a more powerful effect in exciting a spirit of inquiry here.
than any arguments that could be urged on the spot. Thus, we have not only a Muse-
um at the India House, now opened for the exhibitions of animals collected in India,
but the first philosophers are ready to co-operate with us and aid our inquiries.
In addition to the instances of this kind already referred to, Mr. E. CHARLEs-
wortuH and Mr. S. V. Woop have each presented us with collections of tertiary shells,
6 H
966 Asiatic Soctety. [Nov.
to facilitate our examination of the Cherra fossils. With a similar view Professor
REINHARDT has presented the Society (through the medium of Dr. Cantor, by whom
they have been safely conveyed from Denmark to our Museum free of expense) with
the valuable collection of skulls of Cetacea from Greenland, now on the table, to facilitate
the examination of the fossil Mammalia that abound in several districts of India.
We cannot however flatter ourselves that any results we have yet attained are such
as to entitle us to the aid of naturalists in Europe. I therefore refer the interest which
the above marks of attention betoken in favor of our scientific movements, to the per-
sonal influence of one of our members, Dr. Cantor, who has recently returned from
Europe, where he met a reception for his labors among us, from philosophers of every
rank, of which he may well be proud, and which cannot fail to produce a powerful
effect on his future career in India. |
Our scientific progress will however depend so much on the cultivation of a general —
intercourse with scientific individuals and Societies in other parts of the world, that
we ought to take advantage of the occasion by meeting the views of those who are
desirous of exchanging collections with us.
Indeed to attempt to establish a national Museum in India without this kind of
co-operation, would be to reject what has been done in Europe, and to begin the
study of the physical sciences as if nothing had been accomplished beyond the few
scattered publications that reach India. It is by cultivating an interchange with —
other Museums, and thus introducing the known species of other countries as the
standard of comparison for the elucidation of the unknown species of this, that we are
to advance our own collections, and contribute most effectually to the general diffusion
of knowledge, and the progress of science.
oth February, 1840. J. M‘CLELLAND.
Dr. M‘CLELvanp then rose and addressed the meeting regarding the attendance
of the curator for two hours a day, and a monthly report on the Museum, as insisted
upon in the minute of the President, which he objected to. He objected to any
stipulated period of daily attendance beyond what might be necessary to superintend
the persons employed in the Museum, and of this the curator himself should be sup-
posed the best judge. He has been in the habit of devoting more time than two hours,
he might say even five hours, daily to the duties of the Museum, but that was at his own
house, where he-had painters and other facilities which the Museum did not afford, and
where he would continue to employ himself pretty much in the same way whether
appointed curator or not. As to reports, he also thought these should be left to the dis-
cretion of the curator, as it would be useless reporting unless there should happen to be
something of interest to report about.
Sir Epwarp Ryan said, that he thought Dr. M‘CLexLianp did not quite under-
stand him by two hours a day; he did not mean that two hours should be given every
day, but that if he could not give one, four hours could be devoted to it the next, and
so on, only that on an average two hours daily, whether at home or at the Museum,
Should be required by the Society from the curator.
As to monthly reports, it was not absolutely necessary that a long report should be |
furnished every month ; for some months there might not be any thing to report, when
only a letter stating this circumstance would be all that would be required. Monthly
reports were only necessary as public records for future reference for a history of the
Museum, and also that they might have something which they could produce if called
1839.] Asiatic Society. 967
on by the Government for the expenditure of the sum granted by the Honorable Court
for this express purpose. He therefore begged to propose that the office be offered to
Dr. M‘CLELLAND on these stipulations, if he chose to accept of it.
Mr. H. T. Prinsep thought it necessary to inquire, with reference to Dr. M‘CLEL-
LAND’s explanation of his views of the nature of a curator’s office, whether it was
intended to recognize the curator as entitled to remove to his own house any objects
of natural curiosity or other articles he might desire. He thought that the recogni-
tion of such a privilege was inconsistent with the object of preserving always at hand
for inspection every article obtained. He wished the rules of other Museums should
be referred to, for of course it would be expected now that the Honorable Court had
specifically assigned a sum for its maintenance, that the Society should conform to the
practice of other similar institutions in Europe. Of course on the first arrival of any
article, before it was classed and located in the Museum, the curator might do what-
ever was necessary to examine and test it, carrying it away if he pleased for the
purpose. But when once placed in the Museum, Mr. Prinsxr thought the articles
ought not on any account to be removed, and the rooms of the Society afforded facili-
ties sufficient for copying and comparing in them, without any removal being necessary.
Sir E. Ryan then moved that the Committee of Papers be instructed to draw up rules
on which the curatorship should be held, with the stipulation that two hours a day
at least be allotted for the duties of the office—that reports be furnished monthly
of the state of the Museum—and that no specimens be allowed to be removed from the
Society’s apartments. Similar rules in fact have invariably been observed by other
Societies. The President further suggested, that the Committee do make their report
on it at the next meeting. Dr. M‘CLeLvanp then said, that if it was intended that
these rules should be strictly enforced, it would be the means of greatly limiting the
endeavours of the curator, whoever he might be, for the interests of the Society; and he
thought it as well, under these stipulations, to decline accepting of the situation.
Sir E. Ryaw added that the Society were so sensible of the value of Dr.
M‘CLELLAND’s services, that no decision would be formed on his expressed refusal of
the office until the next meeting. .
The annual Report was then presented by the officiating Secretaries, but reserved for
perusal at the next meeting.
ee
The following letters from Dr. Cantor were read.
Sir, Calcutta, January 25, 1840.
I take the liberty to call your attention to the following extract of a letter
which I have received from Prof, RktnHARDT, Superintendent of the Royal Museum’
at Copenhagen.
** In the year 1823 or 1824, I presented a number of stuffed specimens of European,
(mostly northern) birds to the Asiatic Society, Calcutta. From a Calcutta Journal I
have learned, that the specimens had arrived in fine condition, and that the Society
at their monthly meeting were pleased to pass a resolution, that a number of their
duplicates of Indian birds were to be presented to me in return. I have however since
then neither heard any thing concerning this matter, nor have I received the gift of
the Society. If you therefore on your return to Calcutta could procure some informa-
968 Asiatic Society. [Nov.
tion as to what course has been pursued after the Society had passed the resolution,
I shall feel much obliged.’’*
I beg leave to request that you will favour me with nah information upon the
subject as shall enable me to comply with the request of Professor REINHARDT.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
THEODORE CANTOR.
To the Curator, Asiatic Society’s Museum.
Sir, Calcutta, January 25, 1840.
In a letter from the Secretary, bearing the date of October 31st, 1837,
Mr. Jas. PrinsEpP expressed the Society’s wish, that on my arrival in England I
should purchase such works upon natural history for the Society as were most wanted
in their library. To the number of works upon natural history which I have ordered _
Messrs. ALLEN and Co. to procure and dispatch to the Society, I beg to add the
accompanying work upon Infusoria, by Professor EHRENBERG.
In the above mentioned letter, the Secretary further requested me to take charge of
two duplicates from the Society’s Museum, viz. a skull of an elephant, and a ditto of a
rhinoceros, with a view to procure in exchange for those objects others, which from
the knowledge I had obtained by arranging and making a catalogue of the Museum,
I should conceive to be acceptable.
From Professor REINHARDT, Superintendent of the Royal Museum at Copenhagen,
I have received in exchange the accompanying series of osteological preparations,
which with the annexed list I have the honor of laying before the Society. The
collection consists chiefly of northern Cetacea, a class of animals, which, from their
locality, belong to the rarer objects in the European Museums, and which I conceive
of double interest to our Museum, as affording means of comparison to students of the
fossil Cetacea found in the Himalayan beds.
I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
THEODORE CANTOR.
List of osteological preparations received from the Royal Museum at Copenhagen,
in exchange for two skulls from the Asiatic Society's Museum.
1. Canis lagopus,
2. Ursus maritimus,
», 3 Phoca hispida S Adult,
4. Phoca grenlandica g Old,
52 Ditto! sds yee, Adult,
6. Phoca vitulina @ Old,
DitOn sees Lounge,
8. Phoca barbata @ Adult,
», 9. Cystiphora (Phoca) cristata ¢ Old,
7
* Note by the Curator. The articles intended by the Society for Professor Reinhardt were made
over to Dr. Wallich, I believe, who undertook to have them conveyed to Copenhagen.
1839. Asiatic Society. 969
PE Diep isecss Utaes eet ? Old,
Peele Ditto rts P acck tees, Vouhe,
we, 2. DCID® “eielas cess ese» (6 months old,)
», 13. Trichechus rosmarus. Adult,
14 Ditto ..4 eee | YOUNG;
», 15 Delphinus phocena, Adult,
316. Ditto”... Boas aohiry
» 17. Delphinus globiceps. Old,
», 18, Delphinus (Delphinopterus) albicans.
The specimens were procured in Greenland.
THEODORE CANTOR.
To the Curator, Asiatic Society’s Museum.
We have been obliged to forego our intention of publishing CotoneL Luarp’s
admirable sketch of the explosion of the ‘‘ Equitable,’ it being quite impossible in
Calcutta to communicate its effect by a stone drawing.—Eps.
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Arr. V.—Meteorological Register, hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of January, 1840 971
; Minimum Temperature observed Maximum Pressare obeerved ‘Obscrvatfons milolaUAlpparent Noon:
& Tem, Wind.) ‘Temperature. | Wind. = Temperature. | Wind. 5
a a ! z sl ae = 2S a
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51,052, 100] 64,5] 70,0) 65, Clear. 29,980] 65,8] 71,5]65,8|N. ..|Clear.
55,2156, 119] 66,0} 73,5) 67 Cirro-Strati, lightly interspersed. | 30,102) 66,5] 74,2) 68,0)N. E.|Cirro-Strati partially.
59,5)N. 1202) 65,5] 69,5 joudy. 178} 67,6) 71,0] 65,2)N. _..|Clear (Cirro-Strati partially.)
56,3|N. 130] 66,0] 70,8 -|A few fragts. of Clouds | {124] 68{9] 74}0] 68,3|N. W.|Clear.
55,0|Calm, |Cirro-Strati 102} 64,5} 70,0) .|Clear. | 72,8) 65,2\N. W,|Clear.
52,0|Calm. |Clear 64,3) 67,2 | 72,9} 64,3|N. W.|Clear.
52,0/Calm. |Clear 64,0) | 73,0) 64,1/N._.:|Clear.
51,0|Calm. |Clear. 64,2 | 74,5| 66,0|N. W,|Clear.
51,5Calm, |Clear. | 64,3; 74,5) 66,0 Clear.
51}0\Calm, |Clear horee ie ened osc 0
5]52,5|Calm. |Clear. 65,0 N. 75,2| 67,2\W. ..|Light Cirro-Stratus
. (Clear. | 64,8) )N. 74,0) 66,6)N. ..|Clear.
. |Clear. 65,0) IN 76,2| 66,9|W. °,|Clear
Clear | 65,9) )N. 77,9) 68,0|N, |Clear.
. (Clear | 2136] 66,5 N. | 75,0/ 65,2)N. </Clear
. {Clear 65,6) N. 76,8| 67,1/N. :;|Clear.
Clear. 67,0 N. 75,0| 67,1]W. <.|Clear.
(Clear. $107] 66,7) IN. | 79,0) 70,8|N. <.|Clear.
. |Light Fog 1156] 66,9) w. 79,6| 71,0/N, <.|Clear
5 . [Clear 140} 70,0) IN. EE 3 | 81,2] 73,2|B...../Clear
61,5 : |Foggy. 32) 69,5) iS. W. | }104] 75,3) 81,2] 73,9]S. W.|Clear.
60,8 .|Very light Pog | IN. . ‘040| 74,0) 84,5] 75,2)N. [Clear
60,6) .|Clear. 7 Hl \016| 75,4) 83,5] 75,3]W. ..|Clear
63,9 Clear webct 29,970| 76,5| 87,5) 78,0). b. 5 |Clear
63,0 Clear 964 ON. W. :954] 76,9) 87,2] 76,4|N. W.|Clear.
64,6 . |Clear. 30,038] 73,0] 80,5] 72,2|N, E.|Clear 30,018) 76,7| 86,7] 73,8)e. b. n,|Clear
2] 63,0) . |Clear 086] 73,9] 80,0] 72,1|N. E,|Clear 1066] 76,8) 84,7] 74,5|e. b. s,|Clear.
68,5] 63,9 . |Clear *006| 74,0] 81,8] 73,2/S. _. .|Clear 29,980| 78,8) 83,2] 75,2|S, W. |Clear.
2» +950] 69,2] 66,6} E,|Heavy Fog. 29;994| 74,8] 82,1] 74,0/S. W.|Clear. 974] 76,6) 83,0] 75,0}w. b. s,|Clear.
30 30,000] 69,0)| 65,0) -/Cloudy partially. 049] 73,8] 76,8] 72, Lv. b. s.|Clear. 024] 76,8) 82,8] 74,5/E. ..|Clear,
3l 29,936] 69, 5] 69,8} .|Cloudy, 29,962] 73,5] 76,0] 70,2\N. 15,|Cirro-Strati 29,948] 74,7| 77,0] 70,7/E.....|Cloudy.
eety | eee
Mean 30,046] 63,5] 56,9] 57,5) | 30,090] 68,3] 73,6] 67,7 30,061] 70,9] 78,3)
Bo sea ere eee Minimum Pressure observed at 4 r. 1. Observations made at Sun-set. qn
| Temperature.) 32 |Wind.| ‘Temperature. | Wind. A ‘Yemperature. ; Wind, 5
5 ——-—}| 33 |— _———— a SS | a
a = AK _i|2 EE “ _ |e 2 a WE . |& oe
2) 2 Fel 3 lFs| ss] s ble || 2 = £3 Fs] 2 2
= 2 sy Ce 3 7] 2 Est 7 = co
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eo Belle. |(= [eae si z Ele |gal 2 Elec lanl £ = zl
Ala |5 |o|5 |He] 4 4 a6 |Si5 | a ajsis|5]/a 4 5|8
1 | 29,919) 66,2) 72,9] 65,5) 89,0|N. . .|Clear. 29,930| 66,2) 72,0] 65,0|N. 1E.)Lt. Cirro Str. partially. 29,936] 65,5] 71,2| 64,5/Calm. |Generally Clear
2 30,071) 67,8] 74,0) 66,5) 91,2|N. |Cirro-Strati, (sun-shine. 30,060/67,6] 71,9] 63,8|N. ..|Cirro Str. occasional sun-shine.| 30,072| 67,4] 70,0) 63,5|N. «.|Cloudy,
3 | ,1a) 68,5] 73,2|67,0) 90,8)N._<</Cloudy, (sun-shine.) 092|68,8} 73,0] 67,0\N, _-.|Cir. Str. partially, (Zen. Cl.) | ,104}65,0] 70,2) 64,0|N._. .|Cirro-strati
T | ,052/ 69,9]77,0] 69,9! 91,0|N. W.|Cumuli, Zen, Clear 038] 69,9] 76,1] 68,8/N. W-|Clear. 046} 65,2) 20,5) 65,4) Calm. <
5 | ,050/ 68,8) 75,2)65,7) 885|N_..|Clear. 043] 69, 1| 74,5] 65,7|N. ..|Clear. 1045) 65,0] 70,0] 65,0|Calm.
6 | 062) 69,0] 75,0] 65,5) 86,0|N. ../Clear \047| 68,9] 73,8) 64,6|N. ..\Clear. 1054] 65,5] 69,8] 64,0/ Calm,
7 | 102) 70,3] 762/699] 91,0|N. ..|Clear. ,090| 70,0] 75,0] 63,9/N_ .7|Clear. 1096} 64,9) 69,9} 63,0|Calm,
8 ,034] 68,5] 77,5] 67,9) 100,0/W. ..|Clear. ,017| 68,3] 76,2] 67,0|W. ..|Clear. 3023) 66,0) 70,2) 64, [| Calm.
9 | ,020) 68,5] 75,2] 65,2) 99,01. _<.IClear. ,0L0|68,0| 74,6] 65,0|N~..|Clear. 1017] 65,5) 69,9] 64,0) Calin.
10 | (060) 69,0] 76,2] 67,0] 91,0|N. W_|Clear. ,045| 68,8} 75,0] 66,9|N. _°*|\Clear. 1055) 69,2] 70,0} 65,2|Calm. |
11 | (036) 69,4] 75,2| 66,8) 87,0|W_ .:|Light Cirro-Strati. 024) 69,2] 74,9] 65,9|N. W.|Light Cirro Strati. {028} 65,5] 68,9] 63,8|Calm. |
12 | {029] 68,0] 75,8] 67,9] 90,0IN. 7|Clear. {017| 67,5] 74,2] 65,9|N. W.|Clear. 1023] 66,0] 70,0] 64,0|Calm. |
13 | (055|71,4]81,5] 7,0] 99,0|N. W,|Clear. $048] 70,7} 79,9] 70,0|N- W.|Clear. 3056) 67,0) 70,8) 66,0/Calm.
ta | (082] 71,2} 78,8} 67,5] 95,2|N. W.|Partial Hazo. 3077|70,9| 78,0] 67,0|N, W,|Partial Haze. 088} 67,2) 69,9) 65,5|Calm. |
15 | (025) 69,8] 79,0! 67,2] 97,0)N. _..|Clear. ,020| 69,9] 77,0] 66,9|N. W.|Clear, 024) 66,0) 69,7) 65,8)Calm. |
16 | 29,985] 70,4] 79,0] 67,9] 97,0|N. W.|Clear. 29,970] 70,3} 76,8] 66,5|N. W.|Clear. 66,5) 69,0) 65,5/Calm. |
17 |30,016] 71,0] 81,0] 71,5] 100,7/N...|Clear. 30,016) 71,2] 79,0] 71,0|N. . .|Clear. 66,8) 70,4) 67,0/Calm. |
18 | (036) 71,6] 81,5] 21,2) 103,0|N. °:|Clear ,030|71,5| 80,0) 71,0/N. ..|Clear. 67,0) 70,8} 68,1 |Calm. |
19 | {047} 70,8] 82,0] 72,2) 104,1/W. 2|Clear. $042|71,0] 80,7] 72,0|N. _<|Clear. 67,2] 71,0} 69,0\Calin. |
0 060) 7; 06,0} W._..|Clear. ,054| 73,8] 81,5] 74,0|N. W.|Clear. 69,5] 71,8] 70,4) Calm.
(04,2), W.|Clear. ,018) 77,5] 83,0) 79,3]S, ....}Clear. 74,0) 72,9} 71,0) Calm.
N, W.|Clear. ,988| 75,9] 87,0] 77,2lw. b. 59,5} 75,6) 72,8) Calm.
06,0|W._..|Clear 1954| 77,5) 86,9] 77,9] W. 75,0) 76,4} 74,0) Calm.
‘0)N. W.|Clear. 4584) 79,0| 91,0] 77,0)N 76,9] 78,9) 74,6)Calm.
N. W.|Clear. 1890] 78,1] 90,0] 77,5|N 76,5| 78,9) 74,0] Calm.
9|N. E,|Clear. +936) 77,2| 87,5) b 75,9) 76,5] 74,1|Calm.
e, b, s,|Clear, 1964| 78,2) 86,0] 75,2/. ....|Clear. 1974) 75,9] 78,8] 73,0|Calm. |Clear,
S...../A few detached Cum. to the N.| }920|79,0) 85,8] 76,9/S, ....|On the Eastern Hor. Cum. Str,| ,924|77,0) 78,0] 73,5}8...-.| Light Clouds to the South.
Ss ear. 1920|77,5| 86,0} 76,6lW, b.s,|Clear. 929] 76,6] 78,5] 73,8). b.s.|'To the W. & N. W. on the
ON, 1922! 76,6) 84,9] 74,2|N. | Clear, 76,0| 77,9) 73,0|Calm. |Clear. Hor. Cloudy.
V 1390] 7418) 75,5] Scattered Clouds, 74,2| 75,0| 70,0) Calm, |Scattered Clouds.
Mean, 30,010] 72,5 80,8171,0) 95,8 29,999] 72,4] 79,6) 70,4) 30,006) 69,6} 72,9] 68,1
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NOULITC E.
We regret much to observe, that several typographical
errors exist in this number. ‘The severe Epidemic which has
prevailed since our last issue, has seriously interfered with our
arrangements, and rendered mistakes unavoidable; delay in
publication has proceeded from the same cause.* A list of
Errata will be carefully prepared for our next number, and
the errors we allude to corrected in extra copies of each paper
for presentation to the respective authors.
The account of the ‘ Mission to Siam” is from the pen of Dr.
Ricuarpson, and will be illustrated by a very large coloured
map, now nearly ready.
Our Journal from this day falls under the management of
Mr. Henry Torrens, Officiating Secretary to the Asiatic So-
ciety, and of Dr. O‘SHaucunessy, who has retired from the Se-
cretaryship, but continues a Member of the ‘Committee of
Papers.” Important improvements are contemplated in the
arrangement and selection of Papers, and an increased share
of attention will be given to the Departments of Oriental
Literature and Antiquities. The Editors rejoice to say, that
the periodical still enjoys the liberal support of the Public,
and that no diminution has taken place in the list of general
subscribers since the commencement of the present series.
9th May, 1840.
* Extract of a note from Mr, Ridsdale, Superintendent of Bishop’s College Press
‘*¢ The last two months have been the most trying I have had in India, one-half and
** one-third of my office establishment being at times absent from sickness,”’
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JOURNAL
OF
THE ASIATIC SOCIETY.
No. 96—DECEMBER, 1839.
Arr. |.—Third Report on Tenasserim—the surrounding Nations,
—Inhabitants, Natives and Foreigners—Character, Morals and
Religion.—By Joun WitiiaAmM HELFeEr, M. D.
POPP PE LE PPIP PP ED
Position of the Tenasserim Provinces.—The Tenasserim Provinces,
excepting the Malay countries of Province Wellesley, Malacca, and
Singapore, are the only isolated British possessions in India.
They are surrounded by the bay of Bengal, (hitherto the only road
of communication), and by foreign states. The river Salween divides
them from the Burmese kingdom of Pegu towards the north-west ;
the river Thounyee from the Shan states of Zimmay, Laboung, and
Yaihaing towards the north; the range of mountains running from
north to south through the whole Malay peninsula from the kingdom
of Siam to the east; the river Packchan from the Siamo-Malay
states to the south ; the bay of Bengal and the Nicobar and Andaman
islands front their west side.
Surrounding nations.—The nations which encircle the provnices
are, therefore, the two rival nations of Burmah and Siam, possessing
a tolerably consolidated, established, and regulated government, the
tributary and dependent Siamo-Malays, and the Burmah Shans, the
half savage Nicobarians, and the Andamanese cannibals.
The Burmese possessions incorporated with British India.—The
Tenasserim Provinces have been incorporated with the British empire
in the east, in consequence of the war with Burmah in 1824-25.
For the purpose of weakening that insolent and ignorant power, Assam,
Arracan, and the Tenasserim Provinces were wrested from it.
; 6 1
974 Dr. Helfer's Third Report [Dec.
Extent of Tenasserim.—The Tenasserim Provinces consist of a part
of Martaban (now Province Amherst, formerly belonging to Pegu) and
the districts of Ye, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim.
Motives for occupying Tenasserim.—There seems to have been no
secondary motive for retaining these provinces, beyond their affording
facilities to command the bay of Bengal; they could not have then
held out any other apparent, known allurement.
Present relations nith Burmah.—The misapplied generosity of
the British, left their Burmah foes in possession of the most produc-
tive and important part of the empire. This generosity has been
misconstrued into weakness, or inability to retain the conquest ; which
prevailing opinion has acquired greater strength since the usurpation
of the present ruler, and this opinion, strengthened by the peaceable
policy of the British Indian Government in this quarter, is the
reason of the insolence of the present ruler of Burmah.
Formerly prevailing opinion of the Burmah power.—¥ormerly
when all intercourse with Burmah was either cut off entirely to Euro-
peans, or when the notices of the embassies of the British govern-
ment sent to Ava could be but imperfect, on account of their always
proceeding the same way by water, up the Irrawaddy to the capital,
the power and population, the resources and abilities of this empire
were greatly exaggerated.
Now corrected.—Since that time, our knowledge of it has greatly
increased ; the war laid the lower country open to investigation ; and
since the conclusion of the treaty of Yandaboo, several able British
gentlemen have traversed the empire in different directions, and the
conclusion drawn from personal experience has been, that Burmah
could only rank in political importance with second rate Indian pow-
ers. It was found out, that the population formerly estimated at 17
millions of inhabitants, could not be reckoned at more than 5 or 4 mil-
lions scattered over a wide extent of country—that part of the popula-
tion was tributary to the ruler—that, if that prince, be inclined to hosti-
lities, he can but raise a kind of temporary militia, not exceeding at the
utmost, 70 or 80,000 men—that a permanent disciplined soldiery does
not exist—that great part of this militia must be in a sad plight after a
few months’ campaign, placed opposite a disciplined army, commanded
by Europeans, on account of want of ammunition, clothing, food, &e.
&c.—that most of these men are peasants, driven from their homes by
force to fight the enemy—that few of them know even to handle their
arms—and that none of them are able to fight a British Indian army
in the open field.
oe a
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 975
Erroneous opinions of the people.—In the same manner in which
the abilities of the ruling power were misrepresented, an erroneous
opinion was also formed of the character of the inhabitants.
Equally corrected.—Instead of finding the mass of the population
brute warriors, they are in fact a harmless, naturally mild race
of husbandmen, oppressed by a highly tyrannical absolutism.
Reasons of their military excursions.—The love of sudden gain,
and that (to every nation) inordinate desire after adventures, carried
them, under the lead of ambitious men in power, from time to time to
invasions of surrounding states, and rendered them chiefly under the
founder of the present dynasty, Alompra, in the last century, a con-
quering nation. Yet they were destitute of the roaming ferocity of the
Tartars, or the bloody propensity of the Arabs, and of the personal
courage of both. The mass engaged in such expeditions, after a few
months devastation and plundering, returned to their homes to labour
in the fields; and a small part of them continued robbers even in
their own country, often not discouraged by their own government,
perhaps, with a view of conserving in them the stock and spirit of
soldiery, useful for future enterprizes.
An exaggerated military reputation.—The dread of surrounding,
unsettled, petty nations, the never decided superiority between them
and the Siamese, their succeeding even in defeating a Chinese army,
nurtured in them a persuasion of their invincibility; the boasting
of their blinded adulating courtiers, the ignorance of the true state of
the country—a ferra incognita to Europeans—all this contributed
to create a high opinion of their power, and consequently an erroneous
belief of danger to British India, until their own signal defeat in
the last war, followed by the first dismemberment of their empire,
destroyed this delusion.
Other neighbours.—Shans.—The neighbours to the north, the tri-
butary Shan states of Zimmay, Laboung, and Yaihaing, are equally
an agricultural race of people, the nature of their mountainous
sub-alpine country induces them also to partly follow the pursuits of
pastoral tribes. They appear to be weak clans, and profess to detest
the Burmese, but are too insignificant to become independent ; they
have hitherto manifested a spirit of amity towards the British, and
have shewn themselves anxious to be allowed to throw themselves
under their protection. |
Siamese.—The kingdom of Siam, fronting the Tenasserim provinces
towards the east, is established upon the same foundations which are in
these parts universally acknowledged and adopted. The government
976 . Dr. Helfer's Third Report [ Derc.
is likewise an uncontrolled, sometimes very rigorous, absolutism ; yet
it appears Siam is advanced one step farther in civilization than Bur-
mah, for its ruler not only protects agriculture, but encourages com-
merce; its inhabitants are undoubtedly more industrious, and in
consequence, their country more wealthy. The fertility of the great
valley and of the plains formed by the delta of the Meram river,
is highly spoken of. The great number of Chinese settled amongst
them has doubtless contributed to establish a more general and im-
proved cultivation. The custom prevailing to this day of driving
the population of whole districts, when conquered, to remote parts ;
forcing them to cultivate the ground, though in itself for the depopu-
lated countries highly pernicious, seems to indicate that the govern-
ment knows duly to appreciate the value of the labour of husbandmen.
Though no positive data of the whole amount of the revenue are
known, yet it must be, judging only from the duties levied at Ban-
kouk, at least double that of the Burman empire. |
The feelings of the court of Bankouk, manifested towards the —
British Government of India, have been hitherto those of amity and
good-will. These feelings are dictated partly by apprehension for their
own safety, partly by their hereditary enmity towards the Burmese; —
they viewing the British as the natural enemies of that nation. The —
Burmese and Siamese have been for a long time rivals, and in conse-
quence, never friends. The weakening the Burmese gave additional
strength to the Siamese. Before the British war with Burmah,
neither of the two powers, though almost uninterruptedly engaged in |
petty warfare, could subdue the other; their military force and prowess
being equal. |
Their mode of warfare was confined in latter times to temporary |
invasions, accompanied by mutual devastations, generally to both
parties equally injurious. The consequence was, that the confines
of the two powers have been rendered a waste, and hence it is
accounted for that the frontiers of the Tenasserim provinces towards |
Siam are totally uninhabited, desolate, uninterrupted forests, from 4
thirty to eighty miles in breadth. ‘i
It appears from the late accounts of Dr. Richardson, that the high
opinion which the court of Bankouk had conceived of the British
power, and which they knew only to measure by the progress of British
arms in the Jast war, has somewhat diminished, within the last two
years. With the returning belief of their own strength, and dimi-
nishing apprehension of their new neighbours, the feelings of amity,
and the desire of mutual peace, will be lessened.
1839. } on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 977
The Siamo-Malays.—The Siamese are conquerors in the Malay
peninsula. The petty states to the south of the Tenasserim provinces
(whose boundary is formed by the Packchan river disemboguing in
lat. 9° 57’) are under Siamese dominion. The races inhabiting it are
mixed. Those in the neighbourhood of the Tenasserim provinces are
either Siamese, or formerly captured Burmese, or people from the
eastern frontier of Siam, besides others forcibly transplanted from other
parts. The people lower down the peninsula are half Siamese and
half Malays; and nearer to the extremity of the peninsula, of pure
Malay origin. It seems that the Siamese government exercises in these
provinces a much more severe absolutism than within the proper limits
of Siam, and consequently it is proportionably more hated.
Malays.—The Tenasserim provinces have no intermediate inter-
course with the Malays, except with some few people of this race, who
have farmed the edible birds’ nest caves in the Mergui archipelago,
-from government.
Nicobarians.—The people of the Nicobars, apparently the off-
spring of a mixture of surrounding nations, wrecked or dispersed ac-
cidentally on the islands, are totally insignificant in a political point
of view.
There exist some relations between the Burmese of the Tenas-
serim provinces and these islanders, with whom a trade of exchange
is carried on. The Nicobarians furnish ship loads of cocoanuts which
they barter with the Burmese for cloth, tobacco, iron, and earthenware.
They must be called independent at present, for though the Danes
endeavoured repeatedly to take possession of some of the islands, at
present not a vestige is to be found either of their establishment or of
their authority.
Andamanese.—To finish the enumeration of the nations bordering
on the Tenasserim provinces, mention must be made of the Andaman-
ese, perhaps the lowest beings in the scale of civilization belonging to
the human species. They are of the negro variety with woolly curly
hair, of a diminutive stature, almost untameable, even when caught
young, living upon trees, or under a shed of pealed bark, or in
_ the crevices of mountains, subsisting upon the spontaneous produce
of nature; their chief food consists of shell-fish, collected on the
sea-shore. They are reported to be cannibals. No nation has yet
succeeded in forming a friendly alliance with them, they considering
every stranger an enemy, whom if it be practicable they kill, and in
retaliation are destroyed by every stranger without compunction,
whenever accident brings them in contact.
978 Dr. Heifer’s Third Report [ Dee.
The interior of these large and interesting islands is entirely unex-
plored. The sea-shore is visited by the Burmese inhabitants of Tenas-
serim and the Malays, for the purpose of collecting sea-slugs, and edible
birds’ nests. These occasional visitors have no intercourse with the
savage inhabitants, and live during the season of collection either in their
boats, or build a sort of temporary stockade for their defence.
Notwithstanding the favourable situation of these islands in the
bay of Bengal, notwithstanding the beautiful harbour of Port Corn-
wallis, the attempt to form an establishment there, made several times
by the English for the sake of a military and commercial depot, has.
been given up entirely.
The Dutch.—The Dutch is the only European power which has
possessions in the post-Asiatic countries, besides the British (if the
Philippine islands be excepted.) However not only their vicinity, but
even their very existence is unknown to the people of Tenasserim ;
there is no intercourse, no communication whatever with their ports,
and I believe that not a Dutch vessel has even approached the coast of
the territory since its occupation by the British.
The French.—Some old inhabitants remember the French. In the
last war, their fleets had for a time their station in King’s Island Bay,
for the purpose of intercepting the Indiamen trading to China ; and their
rendezvous place, as well as the rivulet from whence they supplied
their ships with water, were pointed out tome by the Burmese. The
French however never ventured upon an inland excursion, and the
inhabitants then having scarcely any notion of the existence of Eng-
lishmen, could of course have no suspicion of the relations which ex-
isted between the two nations.
Intercourse with the Chinese-—Though a number of Chinese are
settled in the provinces as merchants, yet there is no intercourse direct-
ly with China either by land or water. A caravan from the Chinese
province of Yunan approached last year within fifteen to twenty
days’ march from Maulmain, and intended to penetrate as far as
that settlement, for the purpose of trading; however, jealousy, and
apprehension in general, as well as the then already manifest ini-
mical intentions of the Burmese usurper, prevented those enterprising
men from accomplishing their purpose. A considerable loss to them
it is said was the consequence, and probably no other attempt will
be made on their part, until the relations with the petty states to the
north, through whose territories the Chinese have to pass, are based
upon a more secure and solid foundation.
The different nations and tribes inhabiting the Tenasserim Pro-
-
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 979
vinces. Constant changes in Indo-China.—The stability of China
Proper and Japan for so many centuries, forms a remarkable contrast
to the constant and total changes which have happened in the adjoin-
ing countries comprised under the name of Indo-China, the constituent
parts of which, are Cochin-China, Tonkin, Cambogia, Anjam or Loas,
Siam, and Burmah. One race of people destroyed the other, and was
again expelled and supplanted like the former, by subsequent con-
querors. The kingdoms just mentioned as they exist at present,
are erected upon the ruin of vanquished nations, whose history even,
is frequently lost.
Alompra’s Empire.—The territories of the Burmese empire had
the same fate; and the present dynasty of Burmah is but of recent
origin. Alompra, assisted by favourable circumstances, after many
struggles, bloodshed, and devastation, finally overthrew Pegu, and
established a new kingdom at Amarapoora, carrying from thence his
victorious arms over a wide extent of country.
History of Tenasserim.—The history of the Tenasserim provinces is
involved in darkness. Who the first inhabitants were can scarcely
even be guessed at, for it is not known who the inhabitants were four
centuries ago. To judge from the Kareans inhabiting the interior,
who seem to have outlived all revolutions of the successive conquests,
and following analogy, whatever inhabitants there were they seem to
have belonged to Mongolic races. Burmah as well as Siam and
Cambogia, seem to have been originally peopled from the north, and
it is very improbable that the inhabitants of Tenasserim were ever
mixed with Malay blood. The comparatively late arrival of that race
from Menamcaboo in Sumatra, in the Malay peninsula, in the dis-
tricts of Jabor, Malacca, and Queda, where they formed colonies, is now
almost universally adopted as a fact approaching to certainty, and if
so, they had no time to disperse themselves towards the north.
Two hundred years ago the inhabitants seem to have been of
Talian extraction, somewhat related to Siam ; and Martaban is men-
tioned by the Portuguese as a place of great commercial importance ;
the town of Tenasserim was an important fortress. The provinces re-
‘Mained under Siamese dominion until the latter part of the eighteenth
century, when Alompra, the conqueror, took possession of them ; and
notwithstanding the repeated contests and incursions of the Siamese,
they remained a part of the Burman empire until they were incorpo-
rated with the British empire in the east, in the year 1826.
Change of population.—With new conquerors arrived new settlers.
After Alompra’s conquest the Siamese seem altogether to have with-
980 Dr. Helfer's Third Report | Dec.
drawn, and to have been supplanted by the inhabitants of Bur-
mah.
Forcible introduction of people.—In many cases the introduction of
new inhabitants was forcibly effected ; of this we have still a proof
among the Burmese inhabitants of the village of Tenasserim. After
the conquest and destruction of this once important town, the gover-
nors of the province intended to rebuild it. The Burmese however,
transplanted to that place, were more than any others exposed to the
continuing invasions of the Siamese, who used to carry every Burmese
into slavery. The inhabitants returned therefore repeatedly to the
sea-coast, and Mergui became in consequence the chief town of the
province. To force however the inhabitants to remain at Tenasserim,
a number of people, formerly runaways, were marked with a painted
ring round their eyes, and an inscription upon their chests, and many
of the older inhabitants of Mergui and Tenasserim are yet to be found
with these indelible signs.
People now inhabiting Tenasserim.—The people now inhabiting
the Tenasserim provinces, altogether in number not exceeding one
hundred thousand, are Burmese, Talians, Siamese, Kareans, Seelongs,
and foreigners.
1. Burmese.—The Burmese, the former conquerors and lords, are to
this day the most numerous. Their chief seat was Martaban; the
settlement of Mergui was the second in importance; Ye the third.
Maulmain is of recent origin, sprung up since the occupation of the
country by the British.
Situation of their villages.—All villages, hamlets, and even soli-
tary plantations of the Burmese, are near the sea-coast, or on the
banks of navigable rivers, or creeks. They never established them-
selves far inland, even since the time of their first settlement in the
country. .
Apprehensions of Siamese incursions, natural predilection for water,
and the facilities of transporting themselves and their goods through
a country where roads do not exist, and if they exist, are with great
‘difficulty kept in order, will be found the reason.
2. Talians—from whence.—The Talians are the inhabitants of the
kingdom of Pegu, formerly the lords of Burmah, now subdued, and
the slaves of the Burmese, by whom they have been since that time
always treated with severity and barbarity. The greatest part of the
original country of this people consists of plains of fertile rice-ground ;
and from the disposition of the Talians it would seem that nature had
marked them out for husbandmen, and especially rice planters.
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, Sc. 981
Where settled—F¥rom the great tracts of alluvion which the
mighty Irawaddy deposited, and which its numerous branches now
intersect, as well as from the banks of the Pegu and Sittary rivers,
the Talians extended to the Salween, compelled as it seems to spread
and to retire, on account of the oppression exercised by the little
controled Burmese governors.
The province of Martaban, part of which is at present British, and
comprised under the name of the Province of Amherst, was also inha-
bited by Talians, whence they seem to have spread from the banks of
the Salween to the eastward, over the plains which are intersected by
the waters of the Guin and Attaran. The mountain range to the east
(now the frontier between Tenasserim and Siam) divided them from
the river territories of the Menam, and appeared to form a barrier to
their further extension from west to east.
Reasons of their migration towards the east.—But it seems the op-
pression of the Burmese in these districts, distant from the seat of
government, must have been too severe to be borne; and forty thou-
sand people expatriated themselves at once from the Province of
Amherst into Siam, to exchange the yoke of Burmese rule for a milder
despotism. When Amherst Province became British it was almost
destitute of inhabitants.
Sensation and feelings of the Talians towards the British at the
time of their first arrival.—At the commencement of the last Bur-
mese war, the arrival of English soldiers in Pegu created an extraor-
dinary sensation among the Peguans, the greater part of whom never
before saw Europeans, who were represented to them as cannibals.
When the first excitement subsided, and the people of Pegu had
opportunities of perceiving that the foreign invaders were not only men |
like others, but much kinder enemies than they even thought compa-
tible with the character of a soldier ; they began to assist the British
army, their hatred against their old oppressors broke out a fresh and
they sincerely desired the total downfall of Burmese despotism.
The historian must regret to record, that conquered Pegu was
again restored to the court of Ava, at the peace of Yandaboo. By
this, these faithful allies were inconsiderately, and we may say mer-
cilessly, delivered up again into the hands of their irreconcilable
Oppressors ; an act, which they the least expected, as it was a notion
incomprehensible to them, that a conqueror ever gives up voluntarily,
what he once possessed indisputably. Many sought of course a re-
fuge in the Tenasserim provinces, but many, chiefly those from dis-
lant parts, could not remove their families and goods in the first in-
6 Kk
982 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [Dxc.
stance, and were afterwards prevented from effecting their escape by —
the Burmese authorities. The cession of the kingdom of Pegu is
the only reproach which this unfortunate race has to urge against
the English.
Maulmain peopled by Talians.—The new settlement of Mau!main —
opposite to Martaban, now the capital of the Tenasserim provinces, was —
at first almost entirely peopled by Talians, and to this day it is com-—
puted that the number of Burmese to that of the Talians is in the
proportion of one to twenty.
Obliteration of their distinguishing features.—The features of the
Talians do not perceptibly distinguish them at present from the
Burmese, the intermixture between the two races, which has taken —
place since many generations, has probably effaced or obliterated the |
distinguishing characteristics. |
Existence of the Talian language.—That they are however a dis-
tinct people, is proved by their language, which they have preserved to
this day, and which is said to have scarcely any resemblance to the |
Burmese. It is fast declining, and will probably cease to exist should —
the Talians continue to be subject to foreign powers, and there seems
to be no probability of their again becoming an independent nation.
Burmese language generally adopted.—In British Tenasserim the
Burmese language is adopted as the language of the courts, of public
transactions, and of general conversation, which is but fair, as the |
majority of the inhabitants speak that language, and it is no griev-_
ance to the Talians, as two-thirds of them speak Burmese besides |
their mother tongue. The chief and almost sole occupation of the
Talians is agriculture, and almost exclusively rice cultivation ; they |
scarcely ever retire to the mountains, the amphibious life of a rice |
planter during six months of the year being to them the most con- |
genial. |
3. Withdrawal of the Siamese from Tenasserim.—Al|most all the
Siamese retired from these provinces after Alompra’s conquest, except |
two villages to the south of Mergui, Boukpeen, and Lennya, where
the Burmese had never resided ; that part of the country, having al- :
ways remained a disputed district. |
From the time of the conquest, and probably before that time, Sia- |
mese and Burmese never met except as foes, and the system of alter- |
nate petty warfare, accompanied by kidnapping, plunder, and devas- |
tation, was carried on without intermission along the frontier dis- |
tricts, which in consequence, were soon transformed into a waste, and |
such they remain to this day. The Siamese seem to have been the/
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 983
most dexterous in their plundering expeditions, and were, besides their
greater daring, the most numerous ; for the Burmese in these provin-
ces could only be considered as colonies, established partly by force,
and kept up by dread.
Security established since the British occupation.—When security
of person and property were established at the beginning of the
British dominion, the Siamese government was given to understand
that any such marauding excursions as were kept up under Burmese
rule, would be considered as a breach of peace. The Siamese govern-
ment released a number of people, about one thousand from Mergui
Province, carried away during the last incursion, who were delivered
up and returned to their homes.
The Siamese were of course permitted to come to the provinces
on friendly terms. At first they were fearful, but when they per-
ceived the difference between Burmese and English management,
they gained confidence ; as the Burmese subjects once fled to Siam,
to seek shelter under a milder yoke, so the Siamese now seek a refuge
in Tenasserim.
New setilements of Stamese.—The Siamese population, consisting
entirely of recent emigrants, increases, and there are settlements of
these fugitives in several parts of the country; their chief resort is the
Province of Mergui, where they spread along the banks of the greater
and lesser Tenasserim river.
Great difficulties it is said, are thrown in the way, on the part
of the Siamese government, to prevent their migration. If caught,
it is afirmed that decapitation is the inevitable consequence.
To reach the first British Tenasserim settlement, they have (be-
sides the danger of being apprehended) great difficulties in passing
through the pathless wilds ; whole families not unfrequently lose their
way, erring for a month or more in the forests, reduced to the great-
est extremities, living upon jungle-fruits, leaves, and barks, before
they arrive near the sea-coast. It may be imagined that without these
impediments, the influx of Siamese would be much greater than it
is at present.
Their character.—The Siamese are an industrious, hardy race, and
more enterprising than the Burmese, besides being easily manageable,
quiet, obedient, and orderly. They would be, in greater numbers,
a desirable accession in the wilds of Tenasserim.
They are the only people who have introduced the cultivation of the
sugar-cane, for the purpose of making sugar; of course as yet to such
a limited extent, that it has not in any degree become important.
984 - Dr. Helfer’s Third Report (Dec.
Many of them are huntsmen by profession, living for months in the
wildest forests, where they shoot elephants for the ivory; they are
also the trappers, tamers, and managers of elephants in general, to
them in their own country the most important of domesticated animals ;
while in the Tenasserim provinces, under Burmese rule, elephant
scarcely ever known tamed. The greatest part of the Siamese in the pro-
vinces approach more to the Malay than Chinese type in their features,
which are generally very coarse, and their women very ugly, though both
are generally well built, and taller than the Burmese. The huntsmen,
particularly, are very nimble, sprightly, dexterous, and courageous ;
while the peaceful cottagers of the two settlements of Boukpeen and
Lennya, which existed before the British occupation, are on the contrary
dull. We cannot be allowed to judge of the Siamese as they appear
in Tenasserim, for they were before they arrived the poorest class of de-
pressed slaves, whom necessity only drove to seek a peaceable asylum.
The more wealthy and favoured Siamese in the great delta or valley of
Menam, and those towards the gulf of Cambogia, are said to be intellec-
tually much advanced, and the great number of Chinese living among
them, will have communicated to them more civilized manners, and
improved modes of cultivation.
4. The Kareans—their origin.—The Kareans are the inhabitants
of the longest standing in the provinces, who have survived the shocks
of succeeding revolutions. Their origin cannot be traced. Some sup-
pose them to be the aborigines of the country, some affirm they are the
wreck of a great nation, fallen into dependence and slavery, expatria-
ted and spreading afterwards over a wide extent of Indo-China, for
they are found from the 11th to the 23rd degree of north latitude. The
American missionaries, who are much interested about this people, are
of opinion that they originally came from Thibet; the opinion seems
however to rest only upon the congruity of names and some manners.
Their station.—Wherever they exist, they hold an inferior station
in the country, excepting the so-called red Kareans to the north of —
Maulmain, who have resisted the Burmese influence,—they are
mountaineers, subsisting upon prey and plunder.
The Kareans of the Tenasserim provinces, forming separate
colonies, inhabit such parts as are unoccupied by any other in- —
habitants, which are the inland portions of the country ; they there
choose their abodes either on the banks of rivers or in secluded —
valleys. These communities do not generally consist of more than :
from three to twelve houses or families. As they have the cus-
tom of intermarriage, they are nearly related to each other. Soli- |
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 985
tary huts of Kareans are often to be found in places where for
many miles in circumference no other human being is to be found.
They live exclusively upon the produce of the soil, planting moun-
tain-rice, and some other indispensable articles, generally as much as
they want for home consumption. Very rarely has a Karean a sur-
plus, more frequently not sufficient to subsist upon.
Migration seems almost incompatible with the occupation ofa hus-
bandman, and is certainly a strange anomaly in a country highly pro-
ductive; yet the Kareans subsist solely upon the produce of their
plantations, and have no permanently fixed habitations.
Modes of cultivation.—When a Karean family has chosen a place
for a plantation, huts of bamboo thatched with palm-leaves are con-
structed, and then a part of the forest is cleared, just as much
as is necessary to plant the ground with rice, requisite to maintain the
number of persons settled for a year. The paddy is sown upon the
imperfectly burnt down forest, without any tillage or other prepara-
tion, and whatever else is wanted (cotton, indigo, sesam, vegetables,
&c.) is promiscuously sown or planted on the same spot. The fol-
lowing year, another spot is cleared in the vicinity, and after some
years, or when a death happens, the family removes to a great-
er distance, and begins again the highly laborious task of felling
immense forest trees, visiting only from time to time the old esta-
blishment, which yet yields fruits surviving several seasons; and so
the Karean wanders all his life time, without having settled per-
manently.
The reason for this extraordinary custom is differently accounted
for. The Kareans say, that one and the same place does not produce
rice for several years ; an objection which is refuted by the example
of other countries similarly situated, where new lands are not so abun-
dant as here.
Others say, that there is greater trouble in keeping the ground clear
from weeds, than to fell a new forest, which seems equally incredible.
Probably the roaming propensity of the Kareans, and old establish-
ed custom, are the chief reasons ; to which must be added a great
superstition and fear of mds and evil spirits ; such beings, having in
their opinion, an allotted dominion over certain districts.
Whatever may be the origin of this extraordinary custom, cer-
tain it is, that the produce must be inferior ; all perennial culti-
vation being in this way excluded, and gradual amelioration quite
out of the question; hence it may be that the Kareans have remained
always stationary, upon a low scale of civilization.
986 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Desc.
Their fate under the Burmese government.—Under the Burmese
government the Kareans were depressed, and were liable to be called
upon to do public works without remuneration, whenever it pleased
the government.
This relation towards their masters exposing them to all kinds of
vexations without hopes of redress, seems to have been the first reason
of their retiring into seldom visited, or sometimes inaccessible parts of
the country, where they hoped to be beyond the immediate reach of
their oppressors.
Though they have been placed on the same footing with the
Burmese since the conquest of the country by the British, and en-
joy at present formerly unknown rights and an impartial justice,
yet they are still so timid that they can scarcely be prevailed upon
to visit the towns on the sea-coast.
They have a language of their own, which has lately been drawn
from its obscurity by the exertions of the missionaries, though they
are without any communication with their brethren in Siam and
Burmah, even confined sometimes as long as they live to the narrow
sphere of their self-chosen district; yet it is affirmed that the Bur-
mese Kareans bordering upon China, at a distant of 13° of latitude,
speak a dialect of the same language which is current amongst the
Kareans of Mergui Province.
5. The Seelongs—their origin.—These are again a variety of people
different from all others just enumerated. They are the last in the
scale of civilization, but not the least interesting.
The Seelongs are the inhabitants of the islands constituting the
archipelago of Mergui, and are a race of wandering fishermen, build-
ing temporary huts of reeds, palm-leaves, and bamboos during the in-
clemency of the monsoon, and passing the rest of the year either in
boats, or on the sea-beach under the shade of trees; they live upon the
spontaneous productions of nature, but chiefly upon the produce of
the sea ; turtles, fish, and shell-fish forming the principal food.
They never cultivate the ground. Their origin is unknown.
Whether they are the wreck of some more numerous and independent
nation, as they pretend to be, gradually vanishing from the face of
the earth ; or whether they are the descendants of shipwrecked people,
a mixture of different races, augmenting in the course of time, will
scarcely ever be determined.
Their number.—As they exist at present, they form but a petty
tribe, not exceeding, it is said, one thousand souls in number, and
they will probably soon be extinct, for they are diminishing annually.
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 987
They have a peculiar language, but too little is known of it to de-
termine whether it is a mixture of the languages spoken around them,
or a peculiar tongue.
Their civilization.—It may well be imagined, that they are ona
very low scale of civilization, one should think far below the North
American Indians ; yet the term savages, so lavishly bestowed
upon sO Many nations not meriting that epithet, is not applicable to
them.
Their communities.—They form communities, divided into families,
governed by strictly determined usages, which are always punctually
adhered to; they accommodate themselves willingly to the laws of the
government on which they are dependent ; they carry on a petty trade
of exchange ; they have a correct notion of right and wrong ; crimes
are little known, and the transgressors rigidly punished ; they live in
peace and harmony amongst each other ; their food is the sponta-
neous productions of nature; they are totally ignorant of what exists
beyond their rocks and islands; they have no established form
of religion, pretending, as they express themselves, never to have
thought whether there be a future existence or not.
Their former relations with Burmah.—At the time of the Burmese
rule they were the most independent and unharassed people of
the provinces. The Burmese have always been very bad seamen,
scarcely able to retain possession of the islands belonging to their
territory, and never could cope with the skilful Malay pirates. The
Seelongs however, though freed from Burmese oppression, were never-
theless not better off, for they were a prey to all the numerous bucca-
niers not long ago infesting these seas.
Their seclusion.—It is very difficult even to this day to meet this
roaving tribe amongst the islands which they visit ; they hide them-
selves whenever they see a strange sail approaching, and it can-
not be denied, that they have reason to be apprehensive, for to
this day irregularities can easily occur in the Mergui archipelago,
where not a shadow of British authority is permanently establish-
ed, on account of these parts having hitherto been entirely useless
and unknown ; and it is only to be wondered, that depredati-
ons on a larger scale have never occurred in those parts in late years.
The whole population considered.—These are the different races
inhabiting the provinces. The small number of all (taking them
collectively, not exceeding one hundred thousand) spread over an area
of thirty thousand square miles, proves clearly that these unfortunate
countries have been the constant scene of contest; that as the one or
988 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Dec.
the other nation settled, and began to thrive, it excited the envy and
desire of a powerful neighbour, who in a single successful inva-
sion devastated all, exterminated, dispersed, and carried away the
population; and that the descendants of these, in their turn, were
treated in the same manner by subsequent conquerors. The Ta-
lians, the Siamese, and Burmese, experienced successively these ca-
lamities, and the remaining mixed populations are the wreck and
ruins of their forefathers, surviving their former sway and subsequent
downfall. The Kareans and Seelongs, who as far as it is known,
were always in subjection, had still less opportunity to increase and
flourish. .
Having no country of their own to retire to, they in the first
instance under the scourging authority of the conqueror, felt all the
calamities of invasion, and never enjoyed a time of undisturbed
peace and prosperity, which was at least accorded to the conquer-
ed, in the intervals from one invasion to another.
6. Foreigners—Chinese.—The most important and most useful of
all foreigners are the Chinese, whose semi-compulsory emigration
disseminated them over the whole of the Indian archipelago, and other
adjoining parts.
The tide of this emigration poured in, in the first instance, into
Cochin-China and Cambogia, on account of their vicinity to China
Proper, and half of the present inhabitants of these countries are
represented to be of Chinese origin. They have acquired great
importance in Siam, where 200,000 of this people are said to be alone
in Bankouk and its neighbourhood. The Chinese also form a part
of the population of the Philippine Islands. The Dutch though
treating them from time to time very harshly, patronize them on the
whole, in their possessions and dependencies, and their numbers are
continually augmenting in Java, and in the Moluccas. Chinese are
settled in Borneo, Celebes, Timor, and Sumatra. The British posses-
sions in the straits of Malacca are full of Chinese ; and Chinese are
found to the north of Ava in Burmah.
Their settlement in Tenasserim.—The Tenasserim provinces held
out but a slight prospect to the Chinese under Burmese rule, on ac-
count of the insignificance of the country. The Burmese authorities
seem to have encouraged their settling, and the small number who did
settle, acquired wealth and consequence, by succeeding in monopolizing
the few lucrative branches of occupation in the country. They do
not palpably increase, but will certainly augment rapidly when the
provinces become of greater importance.
1839. | on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 989
Their occupation.—The first forms in which Chinese appear in a
foreign country are, either as merchants if they have any capital, or
as artificers, if they have none. In Tenasserim the Chinese are
merchants and ship owners, or ship-builders, spirit brewers, carpenters,
blacksmiths, bakers, and: gardeners. The introduction of Chinese in
great numbers ought to be encouraged ; they would be a great blessing
in the wastes of ‘Tenasserim if they would turn husbandmen.
To the generality of this people, Tenasserim as a promising place of
resort is unknown, and it is the interest of the Chinese already settled
to obstruct a more general introduction of their countrymen, in order
to avoid competition. All Chinamen settled here confine themselves to
the chief places on the sea-coast. All are married to Burmese women,
and their children, if males, are brought up as Chinese, adopting
the customs, manners, and dress of their fathers; they are however
easily distinguished by their features, which are generally, in the
eyes of Europeans at least, more comely than those of either of their
parelits.
People from India. \. Chinlias.——The natives of the Coromandel
coast, here generally known under the name of Chinlias, somewhat
resemble the Chinese in their voluntary expatriation, which has its
origin in the too great population of their own country, as they say ;
but probably much more from the facility of acquiring abroad in a short-
er time, a sum of money with which they think to return like the
Chinese into their own country again. By far the greater part of both
however, have either not had time to accumulate enough, or think
they have not enough, and they die before they accomplish their
design. Their progeny, a mixed race by native women, is settled
for ever in the country. <A considerable number of these Chinlias are
to be found in Penang and the other Anglo-Malayan possessions.
They partly preceded, but many more followed, the extension of the
British power in Tenasserim.
Their numbers.—Their number is not great, and they are confined
to the places where Europeans reside, with whose customs and wants
they are much more acquainted than the natives, and by administer-
ing to which they gain their livelihood.
2. Bengalees.—The same may be said of the Bengalees, who how-
ever are always inferior to the people of the peninsula of India in
enterprise and capacity.
3. Convicts—The convicted felons transported from Hindoostan,
form also a part of this class of foreigners. Their number exceeds at
present one thousand seven hundred.
0 L
990 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Dec.
Their fate in Tenasserim.—These unfortunate men are always
treated with the utmost mildness, and the present state of many
of them, who are well-behaved, is undoubtedly better than it ever
could have been in their own country. The system is introduced,
that after a few years’ transportation, if they behave properly their
irons are taken off, then they can be hired out either as workmen
or private servants; as they have then opportunities of mixing
with the inhabitants, they have also an opportunity of forming con-
nexions with native women. Many of them, when the term of
their banishment is expired, settle in the country, (hitherto but few
of them have served out their time); they then form part of the po-
pulation, as well as their progeny.
System of transportation.—This system has been much blamed, and
certainly the introduction of so many felons into a country cannot
contribute to improve the manners of the original inhabitants, but it
does not deteriorate them in that ratio, as is imagined.
Difference between Indian and European felons.—An Indian con-
vict is a different being from an European felon, and almost univer-
sally the former will be found superior to the latter.
Thugs.—The hideous crimes of the Thugs (the by far greater
majority of convicts in Tenasserim are Thugs, or professional mur-
derers) originate in religious motives, and when religious motives are
set aside, yet the majority of the Thugs have been brought up from
their infancy to murder as to a trade; after their conviction, they
prove by their conduct that they are by far not so much depraved
as they are supposed to be. The transportation of criminals from
Hindoostan to this as well as to other territories, instead of confining
them for life in loathsome prisons, is a commendable political act, and _
it is natural, that such parts should be chosen which are the most
distant and in want of population. Though it seems never to have
been the intention of Government to form in Tenasserim a penal set-
tlement in imitation of New South Wales, yet part of the Hindoos
will undoubtedly become colonists in course of time. |
Armenians and Parsees.—Wherever there is a commercial place
in the East, holding out a prospect of gain, there we are sure to find
Armenians, Moguls, and Parsees, the chief native merchants, resem-
bling in a great measure the Jews of Europe, chiefly such as they
were in the time of the middle ages.
They are equally a dispersed people with the Jews, without a
country of their own, equally industrious, persevering, and shrewd, and
equally oppressed when they trust to native princes, but notwithstand-
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 99]
ing wealthy. Until now Maulmain is the only place where they
have settled, because it is the only place in Tenasserim carrying
on trade.
The Poriuguese.—The descendants of the Portuguese, so generally
spread along the sea-coasts on both sides of the peninsula of Hindoo-
stan, are also found in Tenasserim. No nation left so many survivors
of its transient glories in the Kast as the Portuguese ; but the pro-
geny of Vasco de Gama’s followers is sadly degenerated ; they have
retained nothing of their renowned forefathers, but the type of their
religion, which is however with them only a heap of superstition and
show of outward ceremonies, besides their language is barbarously cor-
rupted by numerous Indian idioms. The European features are re-
cognizable in many, but their condition and state of civilization are
nearly the same with those of the natives amongst whom they live,
and frequently much lower. They have all formed connexions with
native women, and have no tie which unites them with Portugal, of
which they are altogether ignorant. Their being nominally Christi-
ans, and their steadiness in adhering strictly to their faith, preserve
them as a distinct class.
American missionaries.—Their are a number of American Baptist
missionaries in the provinces. They have made little progress in the
conversion of the natives. The Burmese do not well know how to
draw a difference between Englishmen and Americans, and they con-
sider the latter to be a peculiar variety of itinerating white people,
whose real aim and purpose are to this day unknown, or indistinctly
guessed at by the multitude, and to the knowing few, a puzzling
enigma. They pass under the name of foreign teachers.
Englishmen almost all in official capacities.—There are besides the
civil officers of government, and the body of military officers belong-
ing to the regiments, and besides the Europeans constituting the re-
giments, (two at present), few English residents here, and these are
almost all congregated in Maulmain, where they are chiefly engaged
in ship building, or otherwise connected with the teak forests in
Amherst Province. Until very lately not one English gentleman
thought of settling for the purpose of calling forth into practical use the
numerous resources of the country. All Englishmen have hitherto
been on friendly terms with the natives, in every part of the country.
The Burmese population have too much regard for their new go-
vernors, not to treat with politeness, affability, and good-will every
individual with European complexion, and no European can ever have
had reason to complain. The awe which European superiority, and
992 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Dec.
British political ascendancy inspires and spreads throughout the Eas-
tern nations, influences probably as much the natives to treat an Eu- |
ropean with particular consideration, as the appreciation of security
and of a mild rule conferred by the British, over such a great portion !
of mankind. |
Character of the natives superior to the Indians.—The character —
of the natives in Tenasserim is, on the whole, praiseworthy. By all
who have had an opportunity of drawing a parallel between them and |
the natives of India Proper, they are declared superior to the Indians. |
One of the peculiar features of Burmese character, and one which is _
to a superficial observer striking, is their independence and manliness,
forming a striking contrast to the submissiveness, humility, and ef. |
feminacy, so universally met with in India.
Independence and manliness is an apparent anomaly, if found |
amongst a people, who have been swayed by one of the most despotic _
governments in Asia, since time immemorial ; but to account satisfac-
torily for this apparent discrepancy, it is necessary to keep in view the |
nature of Indo-Chinese despotism. It is laid down in these countries, |
and considered by all people as an indisputable axiom, that all and every |
thing is the property of the king, and that the king is lord of life and —
land. This rule of state and nations adopted in Indo-China, operates _
differently for the rights of men, though they have been always under —
such an axiom unknown, or not understood, yet the infringement of —
them, could not have been every where effected equally. |
I confine my observations to Tenasserim, endeavouring to shew, that —
independence can exist, even where a man is doomed to be the pro-
perty of his sovereign from the moment of his birth. |
People in Indo-Chinese governments, are theoretically slaves of the |
king, but not virtually. The government could not use the whole |
population for government purposes. If part of the population
were called upon to sacrifice their personal liberty, either to carry |
on a war, or to accomplish some public work, it could be only a tem- i
porary measure, and after the purpose of government was effected
the majority would return again to their homes, released from their |
temporary bondage. The infringement consists in the unjust, forcible, |
and arbitrary exaction of the property of the subject.
Tenasserim formed an out-station of the Burmese empire. Gover-
nors were sent to manage public affairs, who were often superseded by
others, before they knew the resources of the provinces. The inha-
bitants therefore easily found the means to deceive their superiors about
their abilities to contribute to the revenue, or refused to do so.
1839. } on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 993
The village head men, or Thoogies, were generally elected out of
their own tribe, and by bribing them the villagers often succeeded
in deceiving their superiors. £
The Tenasserim provinces were a conquered, ruined country, thin-
ly peopled by Burmese colonists, which never yielded a considerable
revenue to government. Taking the inability of the population for
granted, the exactions from Ava were more moderate; and when
the exaction of the governors, and the oppression of government be-
came insupportable, part of the population found an asylum in the
wilds of the country. It is said to have been a common occurrence
for people to abscond with their property into the jungles, and there
wait for more auspicious times. So common must have been the
practice, that after a fourteen years’ peace, and annually strength-
ening confidence in the present government, the Kareans to this
day cannot be persuaded to come to town, because they have appre-
hensions for their personal safety.
When the rumour spread over the provinces, in 1838, that Thara-
waddie’s armies were approaching to reconquer the country, the people
of Tairy and Ye laid up stores of rice in the jungles, ready to fly
at the approach of the foe.
Their being greatly freed from the influence of priestcraft, as will
-be shown afterwards, and their having no castes as well, are two
additional weighty reasons for speaking in favour of their indepen-
dence. Their manliness is ascribable to the same source. The greater
portion have often been reduced to extremities in the jungles, where
skill and courage were called into play to extricate them from difficul-
ties, and they have enough opportunities to this day to exercise this
spirit of manliness, in their often protracted wanderings in the pathless
wilds of theirown country. Out of this state of the country, such as it
was under Burmese rule, sprang another characteristic of the people, not
less prominent, but not at all praiseworthy ; this is cunning, shrewd-
ness, and falsehood. Where people of every rank, from the commonest
coolie to the prime minister, had to deal with despots, at whose mercy
they were without appeal, and where they had to practise every kind
of delusion, to evade the manifold tyrannies which threatened them,
cunning and shrewdness were therefore considered virtues of the first
magnitude. The common daily bazar proceedings, however, furnish a
proof that they are honest enough in mercantile transactions, far more
so than their Indian neighbours, and much more than the crafty, trea-
cherous Chinese.
All engagements ought to be ratified in public courts, then they
994 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report (Dec.
will be observed ; for the natives have such a dread of judicial proceed-
ings, that they will scarcely ever infringe upon publicly made con-
tracts. .When after the British occupation, all was placed on a certain
undeviating footing, cunning and shrewdness became to them of less
avail, and are said to be daily less common. One bad quality however
remains with them from the time of Burmese rule, which they can-
not get rid of, this is falsehood in speech. A Burmese if asked a ques-
tion, even of the most unimportant nature, scarcely ever gives a direct
answer, but will ponder a long time, and then couch his words, in an
ambiguous sense; and if he cannot succeed in this, he will plead his
ignorance straight forward, though he may be well acquainted with
the subject asked. This want of good faith is a bad quality in a
subject, and it would naturally follow, that an attachment to the go-
vernment cannot be relied upon, and the British government ought to
be on a continual guard not to be overthrown by treachery. It can be
supposed, however, that there is no fear of that ; the dispositions of the
Burmese on any other subject may be as doubtful as possible ; but the
boon which has been conferred upon them by an equitable adminis-
tration is so generally appreciated, that they fear only the present
state of things will not last for ever. Only few individuals, once in
power, might gain by a change; but they will never find adherents
amongst the mass of the population ; from a rebellion therefore, the
government has nothing at present to apprehend.
Religious connection of the Burmese in Tenasserim mith the king
of Ava.—Profound veneration and attachment to the present royal
family in Ava is generally spread, and has its source in religious
feelings—Gaudama the first of beings, and the royal family the next
in rank in this world.
Though the Burmese in the Tenasserim provinces know that
they are at present quite independent of the ruler of Ava, and are not
influenced by any of his ministers or governors, yet they consider the
emperor of Burmah as the head of religion, but acknowledge cor-
dially, the worldly supremacy of the English. The more enlighten-
ed and wealthy of the inhabitants take a lively interest in the affairs
of their ancestors’ country ; the overthrow of the king and his minis-
ters, the usurpation of Tharawaddie, the subsequent expulsion of the
crown prince, were watched with anxiety, and the present cruel pro-
ceedings keep them in awe and suspense.
The Burmese hold the customs of their forefathers in high ve-
neration, -but not so the laws imposed upon them by their supe-
riors. The reason is, that the laws until lately have always been
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, Sc. 995
arbitrary, too often not conducing to their happiness, and frequently
contrary to their interest. The Burmese accustomed to tyranny,
never questioned the right of imposing whatever laws their superiors
thought proper, but they opposed them when they had the Laibar ane
evaded them when they had the opportunity. -
The love of country in the Burmese, is based much more upon
natural, than moral ties. It is the face of the country, the manner of
living, the similarity of occupations which ties the Burmese. As far as
his language is spoken, and the face of the country is the same or simi-
lar, this is his country. From the banks of the Tenasserim to the
mountains above Ava, forming the Chinese frontier, a Burmese is at
home, and would be so in Cochin China could he make himself under-
stood. The moral ties, the recollections of his youth, his parents, his
wife, his children, do not so much rivet him to the spot, as the ties
above mentioned. Hence a Burmese is easily induced to exchange
his sojourn in Mergui for a better livelihood in Maulmaim or Ran-
goon, but a Burmese will never be found to expatriate into Hindoostan
Proper, and very few are to be met with in Penang.
Common Interest.—The common interest which an assemblage of
communities exercises, has little weight in the eyes of a Burmese.
He prefers the British countries, because they are safer; but sup-
posing an equal guarantee were held out to him in Pegu or Ava, he
would scarcely settle there as in the Tenasserim provinces.
Fame, fortune, and power, cannot be appreciated by the natives
of these countries otherwise than as they contribute to their bodily
welfare. To consider them as the means of accession to moral ends,
would appear ridiculous to the Burmese. The above passions had
amongst the Burmese, a much wider field for development under
their own government, than under the British. The wish to become
illustrious seems at present to be nearly stagnant, they perceive that
the Europeans are mentally their superiors ; that the power wrested
from them, is entrusted entirely to the former; and they know
that they have to develop their talents only in the functions of
native magistrates.
Desire after fortune is innate in every human breast, but it is less
inordinate in the Burmese, simply on account of not knowing how to
employ it ; for fame and power, cannot be longer bought with fortune.
It formerly rendered a Burmese famous, to employ his fortune in
building pagodas and endowing khiaungo, or monasteries. The people
emulated the prince and the ministers, who expended immense sums
in this way. The British government has nothing to do with the
996 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [Dec.
embellishment of Buddhistic symbols, or with the support of the
numerous Buddhistic monks, and the people begin to be tired with
the exertion of a sort of fame, which is not appreciated by their
superiors.
Avarice.—Avarice, or an inordinate desire after fortune, without
considering it as the means of gaining any thing else, seems as far
as I have observed, no native vice. The Burmese hoard up money
frequently in secret places under pagodas, not unfrequently in the
bamboo rafts of their houses; but this does not originate in ava-
rice, but in the apprehension of insecurity, and ignorance how to
employ the capital advantageously. All Asiatic nations, living un-
der despotic governments, who have constantly the violation of pro-
perty to fear, act in like manner, and bury their valuables. Bri-
tish stability is not yet understood, and the certainty, that the
British will maintain the country against expected attacks from
Burmah and Siam, not yet believed in; so that the natives cannot
be blamed for following the impulse of their distrust.
Rights of property.—The rights of another’s property, are well un-
derstood and generally held sacred ; except in the larger places on the
sea-coast, where, like in all larger congregations, irregularities are
much more common ; however very few thefts happen in the country ;
property entrusted to natives by Europeans is very rarely embezzled ;
and with money they are considered more trusty and honest, than the
same classes in Europe.
Robbertes.—Robberies committed on the highway, or on the water,
are unknown as far as I am aware, since the British occupation.
Those committed on the Salween last year cannot be imputed to the
Tenasserim people ; they were perpetrated at the instigation of the
hostile neighbours on the Burmese side.
Murder.—The same may be said of murder. To commit delibe-
rate murder is not within the sphere of Burmese character, and mur-
der committed in passion is equally rare, for the Burmese are much
more calm than excitable, and form in this respect a great contrast to
the Malays, their neighbours.
Passions—revenge.—That the Burmese are not passionate, is ob-
vious even to a superficial observer ; how far they are revengeful I
do not know ; however, I never had an opportunity of witnessing in-
veterate rancour, or hatred. ‘There are no hereditary quarrels ; in
which respect the Buddists, amongst other good qualities, have again.
the preference over the Mussulmen; the neighbouring Malays being
1839. } on the Tenasserim Provinces, Se. 997
equally famous for implacability, with their religious brethren in
Arabia.
Politeness.—The opinions which have been disseminated in Europe
about Burmese in general, where they were represented as blood-
thirsty barbarians, are wrong. On a mere superficial acquaintance,
their mildness and placidity are apparent. Their behaviour is con-
formable to strict rules of decency. Politeness is the characteristic
of all the natives of Indo-China, which amongst the lower classes in
Europe is too little exercised, and which is again exaggerated when
speaking of the Chinese. The Chinese are more formal than polite, on
the contrary, they are sometimes rude. The Burmese are naturally
polite, not only to strangers, but amongst themselves. Boat people
gathered together by order of government, and strangers to each other,
live crowded in a small place for months in an uninterrupted state of
harmony. Common coolies address each other as Sir, and the rare
occurrence of fights and quarrels amongst the lowest classes, shows,
that they know how to pay each other, on all occasions, that deference
which is due to a fellow creature.
Courtesy and good fellowship.—Courtesy and good fellowship
are strictly adhered to; the people of one village form a community,
bound together by friendship and mutual wants; and a stranger not
entering into their adopted mode of life is not tolerated.
Exercise of charity.—Charity is little exercised in a country where
real wants do not exist. The disabled and decrepid are maintained by
their families, relations, or even by strangers. The exercise of charity
amongst the Burmese cannot be considered a virtue, as its practice does
not call for a sacrifice, the alimentary subsistence of a person amount-
ing monthly to a mere trifle.
Hospitality.—Hospitality is considered in all (not European) coun-
tries, not a virtue, but a duty, for in a country where the comforts of
life are not so far advanced, as to lead to the establishment of inns,
all intercourse with people in distant districts would be interrupted
without hospitality. Hospitality in general, is dictated either by phi-
Janthrophy or by religion. In the latter case, it embraces men of a
particular sect, party, or nation, and such hospitality is chiefly exer-
cised in Mussulman countries ; philanthropic hospitality has its origin
in the common rights of society,—such is exercised by the Buddhistic
nations. In all parts are zayats, or resting places, built expressly
for travellers, who take possession of the building by right, and if the
travellers be poor, they are provided by the inhabitants with food,
sometimes on application, and sometimes without.
6 M
998 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report | [ Dec.
It is a peculiar institution in Buddhistic countries, to-erect sheds at
short distances in which are placed chatties (earthen vessels) filled with
water to afford drink to the wearied traveller.
Temperance.—Temperance is one of the shining qualities of the
Burmese ; their fare is simple, moderate, and wholesome. They sub-
sist chiefly upon vegetable substances,—rice is their chief food, all other
ingredients secondary.
Like all natives of the tropics, the Burmese are fond of spices ; these
condiments seem necessary to digestion in equatorial climates. The
majority of the people, who are Buddhists, do not drink spirits, a
drunken man being considered a degraded being. The Kareans make
an exception, they indulge in temporary intemperance on solemn oc- .
casions. Opium smoking exercises its baneful influence wherever
the drug is introduced; it is fortunately however too expensive a
vice, to which rich people only can be addicted. In the public opi-
nion, it is held degrading, and the epithet of “‘ Opium smoker,” de-
notes a bad character, capable of performing the worst acts.
All nations whose climate permits them to remain unencumbered
with clothes, whose abodes permit the free circulation of air, whose
occupations are mostly in the fields and woods, and require a free
exercise of the limbs of the body, will be found possessed of agi-
lity, dexterity, and hardiness, which are the concomitants of good
health, if no local causes operate inimically. ‘The Burmese in Tenas-
serim are remarkably healthy, strong, and muscular, without being
powerful.
Perseverance.—The Burmese are capablein moments of excitement
of great exertion, but their energy is of short duration. Want
of perseverance is a characteristic of them ; the reason of which may
be, that few of them are engaged in regular, never ceasing, monotonous
Jabours. ‘The Burmese mode of life does not force them to toilsome,
long continued exertions. In a highly cultivated country they gain
their subsistence with little trouble, and because they scarcely ever
know absolute want, or even poverty, they are more indifferent
to affluence.
Patience.—Patience is the result of that mode of life which people
are generally obliged to lead, who occupy countries where nature has
scattered her bounties with parsimony. Though few of the Burmese
are exempted from the cares of life, and the vicissitudes which attend
a regular occupation, yet disappointments are not often experienced ;
and as only the repeated experience of disappointments creates pati-
ence and endurance, the Burmese cannot possess that virtue.
1839. ] | on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 999
Love of children.—One of the chief virtues of the Burmese is
the love of their children, so long as they are young and helpless.
This characteristic they have in common with all nations who live in
a state of nature, the social connection between child and parent being
the first and strongest. Burmese parents are in a state of distraction
when any accident happens to their progeny; and the death of the
child is often considered an irreparable calamity. Great numbers of
children cannot be a burden in a country which is highly productive,
thinly peopled, and enjoying security of life and property. A childless
age is considered one of the greatest punishments imaginable. It will
easily be perceived, that under such circumstances infanticides are en-
tirely unknown. It does not seem here to be the case, that the love
of the child holds equal pace with that of the parents.
Love of parents.—The facility of gaining independence, and the state
of almost unbounded liberty in which the children roam about from
their first infancy, loosen very much the ties of filial duty ; there are
however, but few instances of direct ingratitude on record ; numerous
cases however are known, where a son has taken voluntarily a debt of
his father upon himself, and become a debtor servant for 7 to 10 years,
to deliver his father from ignominy and prison.
Marriage.—Marriage is entirely a civil act amongst the Burmese,
and considered as binding only so long as both parties find it con-
venient. Separation is of daily occurrence, and no public blame is
attached toit. Such union cannot be supposed to possess moralities. Na-
tural fidelity is therefore not absolutely required, and adultery is the
more frequent, as there is no public ignominy attached. So an adult-
ress ; a women lives in illicit intercourse with the consent of her hus-
band, and when separated can form again a new union without preju-
dice to her, and without her new husband troubling himself about her
past conduct. The seduction of unmarried girls is rather a rare case,
almost impossible ; because a girl attaining the age of puberty is as soon
as possible disposed of by her parents. The infidelity of the wife here
forms a striking contrast to the rigorous jealousy with which females
are guarded in all Mussulman and Hindoo countries ; it is not only met
with in Burmah, but equally in Siam, Cambogia, and Cochin-China.
The natives of these countries all professing Buddhism, it seems to
have its source in religion, much more as the Kareans, who have no
positive mode of worship, are in this respect much more strict than their
Buddhist brethren.
Polygamy.—Polygamy is allowed in Buddhistic countries, and the
number of wives is (as wherever polygamy is introduced) in propor-
1000 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Dec.
tion to the means of maintaining them. The generality however are
content with one wife at a time, and the bad effects of polygamy are
confined to the comparatively small number of the wealthy. Marriage
is contracted easily. The difficulties in over peopled countries, where a
certain settlement or occupation in life, or a certainty of income is
necessary, before people marry, are not experienced, here where
every body if he like, can maintain a wife and family with ease.
Polygamy and faithlessness, divide and loosen the affections of parents
toward their children, yet it has been stated that the Burmese doat on
their children ; and it isa strange anomoly, which is however daily seen
at Maulmain, that a Burmese has a particular predilection for a fair
child by his wife, even when he is well aware that it is a spurious
offspring. This is, however, only the case amongst the lower classes.
We have not yet any proof, how children by English fathers and
Burmese mothers will turn out when grown up, the intercourse be-
tween the two nations having snbsisted but fourteen years; if we how-
ever may judge from what the children promise at present, we should
be inclined to anticipate that they will be superior to the progeny of
Europeans by Indian women.
Religious establishment for the education of the children.—Poly-
gamy and connubial faithlessness have also in general bad effects upon |
the education of children, diminishing the care and attachment which. |
ought to be felt. The religious institutions of the country have pro- |
vided for this case. The children are at an early age placed in mo- |
nasteries, established at almost every village, and endowed by the
voluntary contributions of the inhabitants. There the children remain
for a certain period of their boyhood, where they are fed by the |
monks, and instructed in reading, writing, and religious rites.
This is the education which almost all Burmese attain, but they
seldom know more; hence the general diffusion of elementary know-
ledge, and general ignorance in the higher attainments of science,
and the great uniformity of knowledge throughout Burmah.
Knowledge of the priests—The Pomgys, or priests, are considered
the learned men of the nation ; but their knowledge consisting in the
explanation of theological and metaphysical doctrines, is therefore
mystical, but the more appreciated by the vulgar majority, because
incomprehensible.
Religion.— The peculiarities and characteristics of a nation are —
mostly intimately connected with their religion. Religion either digni-
fies or degrades the human character. In considering the religion of the
inhabitants of these countries, we must form a distinction between
1839. } on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 1001
the Seelongs, Kareans, and Burmese, for all three have different
ereeds, and therefore different ideas of the Deity.
Religious belief of the Seelongs.—The Seelongs must be considered in
this respect, as a people in the lowest scale. Yet the idea of the Deity
forces itself upon the most savage mind.
These people have no religious creed, they have no established
mode of worship, i. e. no outward manifestations of their acknow-
ledgment of a superior being ; yet they have a vague idea or impres-
sion, that there exists besides mankind, some other not visible beings,
exercising an influence over the destinies of mankind, &c.
To them even the notion of polytheism and idolatry is too vague,
and as far as I could, after a prolonged inquiry, understand, they
believe that the sea, the land, the air, the trees, and the stones are
all inhabited by nats or spirits, either good or evil ; who direct the
motions of these bodies; who produce the growth of plants, &c., &c.
How far these spirits influence men, they do not pretend to know.
Of a future state they are entirely ignorant upon for in touching, this
question, they invariably answered, “‘ We do not think about that.”
The observation of things around them, seems therefore to strike
their poor minds; and their small share of reflective power, leads
them instantly to the acknowledgment of an invisible superior being.
The dawn of reasoning and the idea of a Deity, however imperfect,
seem therefore identical; and the belief in nats or spirits, seems to
be the first and lowest of all religious creeds. The opinion that the
lowest religion begins with idolatry, is not corroborated by what we
find amongst these people; the Seelong’s idea of a Deity is so im-
perfect, that he does not even represent it by a figure. ‘The idea
of the Deity being in its infancy indefinite and vague, idolatry it-
self is an advance to positive religion.
Religious belief of the Kareans.—The Kareans, who are already
more advanced than the Seelongs, have also the idea, that certain
trees, or caverns, or animals, are the abodes of mighty spirits, to whom
they however do not as yet assign a form. ‘The Burmese on the con-
trary, who have already their system of the Deity, embody these
notions, form images, and pay them superhuman devotion, as the
representations of these conceived and systemized ideas. The Seelongs
apparently not believing distinctly that superior and invisible powers
directly influence mankind, propitiary sacrifices, and an external
mode of worship are not introduced. The Kareans having an idea of
the direct influence of nats upon the destinies of mankind, offer
sacrifices to them, consisting of fowls, tobacco, rice, and pieces of mo-
1002 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [ Dec.
ney, depositing them in certain reputed places in the jungles, and
sometimes under small sheds, near their houses. The Burmese have
a strictly observed ceremonial, external worship, celebrated in tem-
ples, pagodas, &c., &e.
If it is true that morals cannot exist without a positive religion,
and that morals cannot be maintained without the notion of a future
state of rewards and punishments, the people of this portion of the
world cannot be in our sense moral, for the Seelongs and Kareans
have no established religion, and the religious creed of the Burmese
even excludes a continued active state after death.
Buddhism.—The leading features of Buddhism are predestination,
metempsychosis, and final annihilation or absorption.
The principal moral precepts of Buddhism are the following,—
1. Eschewing every kind of evil.
2. Fulfilling of good.
3. Purifying or cleansing of the heart ; which latter again is ob-
tained by Neggen sheet ba, or the eight good ways, which are, i. Cau-
tion. ii. Security. iii. Rightly directed intelligence. iv. Right actions.
v. Right words. vi. Right opinions. vii. Right intentions. viii. Right
way of supporting life. According with the destiny of their good or
evil actions all men pass after death into certain forms, become nats,
or a lower degree of spiritual beings, or they continue to be men, or
they turn into brutes. The highest degree of perfection to which any
being can or will come, after passing through numerous grades of nat
existence, is Nezbban, or annihilation, or following the translation of
others, an existence in a perfect state of quiescence. This is the essence
of Buddhism, a religion generally diffused over a great portion of Asia ;
probably, counting no less disciples than Mahometanism or Chris-
tianity. Most of the people are satisfied with performing the rites
of their religion, without attempting to understand its theology, and
even among the priests few are able to expound their religious tenets,
because there are few who can read and write Pali, in which lan-
guage their religious system is written.
They content themselves with the recitation of certain prayers, in-
vocations, &c. and, the priests as well as the mass of the people, find it
much easier to perform external ceremonies. The Buddhist adherents
do not try to make converts, at least not in this country, and they are
equally tolerant to all sects; they do not affirm that their creed is the
best or alone true, but say it is that religion fitted best to their coun-
try, state, and individuality, and they adhere strictly to this faith.
Conversions to Christianity in Tenasserim.—Few Burmese turn
1839. ] on the Tenasserim Provinces, &c. 10038
Christians from the conviction of the superiority and blessings of
our religion; and isolated are the cases of those, who for the sake of
worldly gain became nominally Christians. The missionaries have
hitherto signally failed in their endeavours, and the reason of the
want of success with the Burmese is not fanaticism or obstinacy, but
religious dogmatical indifference. They admit the beauty of Christian
morals, but contend that theirs is equally good ; and with reference to
the dogma they say, that the Christian is equally unintelligible with
the Buddhistic, and that in comparing both, they do not see any great
difference ; it would be bad to abandon their notions and customs, their
families, and all that is holy and dear to them, to follow the advice of
strangers. Kareans, on the contrary, who have positively no established
mode of worship, embrace Christianity ; and some of the American
Baptist Missionaries, who settled amongst them, did much good. Infi-
nitely more could be done, if all the Missionaries were equally well
fitted to open the hearts of these simple children of nature by mild
persuasions, instead of filling their minds with distrust by holding up
the terrors of damnation.
Recapitulation of the aforesaid.—After having touched upon the
essence of religion, the state of morals, the characteristics and pecu-
liarities of the people, we are led to the following conclusions—
1. That the inhabitants of the Tenasserim Provinces possess the
virtues of uncultivated nations.
2. That they cannot be expected to possess the higher morals and
virtues of nations advanced in civilization ; that fortunately the vices of
polished nations, are, if not unknown, yet rather rare amongst them.
3. That their vices are in a great measure the consequence of the
long misrule of highly oppressive and arbitrary governments.
4. That they possess original views of morality, different from those
of Europeans on certain subjects, which are chiefly applicable to the
comparatively low estimation of chastity among their women.
5. That the whole nation is educated to a certain degree, but that
education stops short at that point, and that no higher cultivation can
be expected from the present state of things.
6. That religion is no impediment to their advancement, as it does
not imbue them with prejudices against other creeds, and that the
absence of the caste system, so obnoxious in India, is a great advantage
if their improvement be contemplated.
7. That the Burmese are therefore capable of great improvement.
Diffusion of European knomwledge.—Very little, or nothing has
hitherto been done by the British government, to educate the people.
1004 Dr. Helfer’s Third Report [Dsc.
There are three schools established ; however, they are more for the be-
nefit of country-born and Portuguese than for Burmese.. The Bur-
mese are not averse to learning European arts and sciences, on the con-
trary they have a predilection for every thing European, the whole na-
tion being convinced, that Europeans are superior to them in every
respect.
If means and inducements were diffused to learn the English lan-
guage, it would form the first important step to the mental improve-
ment of the Burmese ; for with the introduction of this language, Eng-
lish sentiments are easily instilled. The establishment of well regulated
schools upon these principles would be a great boon, especially if the
distinguished pupils, were rewarded with minor places under govern-
ment.
It would have, besides, the great advantage of rendering the people
more attached to their foreign rulers, and acquainted with English
ways and customs, of which they are at present entirely ignorant.
The present form of government is too new, too strange to them;
the relations between the British and the natives, too few, and too
distant to expect, that sympathies should at present exist, or attach-
ments be formed.
Though the British government all over India is well established,
and is preferred, because decidedly better than any other formerly
existing, yet the governing and managing Englishmen, personally,
though in many instances highly esteemed, are not always liked, and
very rarely beloved, because they are in most cases to the natives a
strange enigma.
Value of the Tenasserim provinces as a part of India.—In the
first years of their occupation, the question was raised, whether it
would not be more advantageous”to restore them to Burmah; and
when this was abandoned, because deemed impolitic, they were kept
as a necessary burden, the expense annually exceeding the revenue
derived from them.
Their possession, however, is valuable in a political point of view,
besides, containing the elements of great wealth and riches, which want
only development, to become pre-eminently conspicuous.
1. They command a great part of the eastern side of the bay of
Bengal, which bay became, since the occupation of Tenasserim, a
British sea; excluding any other power, and affording additional
security to the rest of the Indian possessions.
2. They prove an advantageous position towards Burmah itself,
1839. | on the Tenasserim Provinces, §c. 1005
which is peculiarly visible at the present juncture of affairs with that
power. Maulmain being the main point from which an invasion and
conquest can easily be accomplished, without being obliged to plunge
at once, as in the last war, into the hostile territory.
3. Their natural wealth consists, in a number of valuable produc-
tions, unknown at the first time of their occupation, and which are
more or less wanted in India, such as tin, iron, coal, teak, and other
valuable timber, and a host of other minor productions.
_ 4, They afford the best possible field for European enterprize, being
adapted for every kind of tropical cultivation, affording therefore the
greatest inducement to make them the resort of Europeans.
Arr. I1.—Memoir on the Climate, Soil, Produce, and Husbandry of
Afghanistan and the neighbouring Countries.—By Lieut Irwin.’
PART III.
Section, I1I.—Of Animals.
143. These countries have for the most part the insects and reptiles,
noxious or otherwise, of the neighbouring ones, and present in this de-
partment little subject for remark. The warm and moist, abound the
most in flies, musquetoes, and scorpions. Peshawur is famous for the
last, but their bite is not mortal. During the spring months flies are
very numerous, but before midsummer they are greatly diminished.
White ants are but few, and in Cabul and the west, there are none.
The musqueto is only troublesome in Cabul for about forty days of
midsummer. Khoorasan in general is adry and temperate country, and
has few musquetoes ; but there are exceptions to the rule, and particu-
larly Hirat and Seestan. The musqueto of Seestan is remarkably large
and troublesome. It is pretended they are produced in the fruit of a
certain tree, which is, however, not peculiar to that country. To
escape their attacks, the natives sleep in what they call pusheekhanas,
which are made of the cotton stuff, in Hindoostan called guzee, and
which is either made in the country or imported from that to the west.
The horses which have not this defence, are so severely bitten as to
bleed from the effects, and roll themselves with the pain. The end of
summer and the autumn is the season of the musqueto there, as in
most other places. Wasps are most numerous in the cold countries.
Snakes are found in all except the very coldest, but most of them are
innoxious FYutihabad, between Jellalabad and Cabul, abounds in
' Continued from p. 900.
ON
1006 _ Lieut. Irvin's Memoir of Afghanisian. [Dec.
venomous snakes. The locust is found in these countries, but com-
mits the greatest ravages in the warm ones and the open plains; it is
commonly observed that they are brought by an easterly wind. Two
Seasons are yet well remembered in which these insects ravaged a part
of Khoorasan. They have visited Cabul in this manner but once in
the present generation.
144. The wild bee, of the kind which we have domesticated, is a
stranger to Cabul, Khoorasan, and Toorkistan. Its nests are very com-
mon in the woods of Kushmeer, and beyond the Indus we find them
as far as some parts of the Kafeir’s country ; in the south they are plen-
tiful; at Bels, on the borders of Bulochistan, they are made on the
branches of trees or shrubs, in the clefts of trees, or even on the ground,
and contain as far as 30ibs. of honey and wax, but the average is only
one-third of this amount. In the warm climates are two seasons of
honey, one in May another in October, but the latter only is known in
the cold. Two kinds of bees are distinguished, a smaller and larger.
The larger has been chiefly domesticated in Kushmeer. A large
earthen vessel is built into the wall of a dwelling house, care being
taken to turn the mouth inwards, and to perforate the bottom of the
vessel, by which means the bee shall have access to it from without.
The mouth of the vessel is shut up, but so, that the owner may open it
when he intends taking his share of the honey. ‘Things being thus
prepared, a colony of bees are introduced, and being fed on sugar,
soon become reconciled to their dwelling. At the proper season the
owner takes his share of the honey, and leaves a portion for the susten-
ance of the bees. The Kushmeerees leave them very little, but
make some amends by introducing from time to time boiled pitha
as their food. ;
145. Fish are an important article of diet only in Kushmeer, Sindh,
and the neighbouring coast. The species known in our upper pro-
vinces, for the most part are found in the rivers of the Punjab and at
Peshawur ; in Kushmeer, however, the alligator and that other more
dangerous animal which the Hindoostanees call mugu7, never appear
to enter the river, nor are they known in Khoorasan or Toorkistan.
Khoorasan has few fish, even if we comprehend Seestan and its lake.
146. This lake is more noted for fowling than fishing. Among its
reeds are great numbers of a web-footed bird, which the natives call
ghoo, and catch in nets solely with a view to its feathers, which are
used in stuffing pillows, and for other purposes. In all these countries
ducks are found in a domestic state, but never in great numbers. At
Tashkund geese are kept. The common fowl is much kept by the
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memorr of Afghanistan. 1007
pasturing tribes. In Bajour, the whole of Toorkistan, especially Bulkh,
and some other quarters, this bird is found in a wild state. The chief
prey of fowlers is the bird in India called chikor. Some Indian birds
are not to be found wild in Peshawur, far less beyond it, for instance
the peacock, and that which the English call the adjutant. The
parrot and myna are scarcely natives of Toorkistan, or at least of the
country beyond the Oxus.
Quadrupeds.
147. The brown ground rat of India is well known in many quar-
ters of Khoorasan and Toorkistan. It prefers a sandy soil, and is a
formidable enemy to growing or ripe crops. The musk rat perhaps
does not extend to Cabul. The cold countries of Toorkistan and Khoo-
rasan, excepting Hirat, have not the squirrel. The monkey and mun-
goose are also not found in the same countries, except in Kushmeer, to
which the mole seems confined. Hedgehogs, porcupines, turtles, and
tortoises are generally diffused, as is the hare. White hares are chiefly
found beyond the Jaxartes. In Cabul only is the hare kept in a
domesticated state, and they may be purchased in the market for eight
annas. The rabbit is not found in these countries, India, or Persia.
148. A variety of the cat is bred in Cabul, and some parts of Toor-
kistan. By us it is very improperly called ‘ Persian,’ for very few
are found in Persia, and none exported. The Cabulees call this cat
bubuk or boorrak, and they encourage the growth of its long hair
by washing it with soap and combing it. With respect to the
other species of the cat genus, the tiger is found as far as Tash-
kund, but in that temperate climate he falls much short of the
Bengal tiger in strength and ferocity. The lion is a native of
Persia, and some are found as far as Tashkund, in a_ northerly
direction and in an easterly. There remains no doubt of lions being
found in Hurriana; but in many of the intermediate countries this ani-
mal is very rare. Neither the lion nor tiger is found in the cold
climates, such as Kashkar and the Pamer. Leopards seem to prefer
cool hills. They are very common in the Kohistan of Cabul, but they
do not attack men.
149. The wolf attacks man only when urged by excessive hun-
ger, and hence is the most formidable in cold countries and severe
winters. The jackal is known every where, except in the coldest and
driest districts. [he fox of Toorkistan, and generally of the cold and
temperate countries, has all the cunning of the English, unlike the
puny fox of India. Chinese Toorkistan is the only market worth
1008 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Dec.
mentioning for peltry, and thither are carried from independent Toor-
kistan, skins of the common brown fox, the black fox, the sable, the
ermine, the beaver, and some other fur bearing animals. These are
partly known in Khoorasan and Persia, but (except the brown fox) are
not found in Cabul or Afghanistan in general. From Toorkistan are
also carried the furs of young lambs, the best of which reach the court
of Pekin. The lamb must be killed when a few days old.
150. The Mahomedans reckon the bear impure and forbidden, but
find several uses for his skin. He frequents the vallies of cold hills,
and especially if they possess a stream. In Kushmeer there seems to
be two species, the yellow and black. He is scarcely found among the
detached hills of Khoorasan. The hog prefers the plains, especially if
shrubby. The Hindoos sometimes eat his flesh in secret. The Kafeir’s
alone eat bears. In Toorkistan young horses are fed up to be
slaughtered, and the onager, where found, is eaten. The rude tribes
eat flesh in general in a half boiled state, and sometimes raw. The ass
and mule are no where eaten.
151. Among quadrupeds, the chief game are the various species of
wild goat, antelope, and deer genuses, which pass into one another in
such a manner that there is great difficulty in identifying the species
from description. The goats inhabit the mountains, the antelopes and
deer prefer the plains. Khootun is famous for its musk deer, which are
known to be found in some parts of Tibet and on the Pamer. An
inferior kind of musk is brought from upper Swad, or perhaps the
country beyond it to the north. With respect to what the natives call
wild sheep, they cannot be of the same species as any of the domes-
ticated kinds, but are probably what zoologists call ovis ammon.
152. There is no reason to believe the existence of wild horses in
any of these countries. ‘The animal which the Persians call goorkhur
is, I presume, the onager, or wild ass of naturalists. This animal is of
incomparable swiftness but may be killed by art. He is common in
Persia, the western part of Khoorasan, and the plains of Toorkistan,
from which he extends north into the Russian dominions and the centre
of Asia. A few are kept by the Ymaks more for curiosity than use.
Before proceeding to quadrupeds strictly domestic, we may mention
the bos grunniens, or ox of Tibet, which is found in a wild state on
the Pamer and the upper parts of Budukhshan, and has also been
domesticated by the Kirghizes, who frequent the Pamer. They keep
a few of the common kind, but many more of this species.
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memovr of Afghanistan. 1009
Domestic Quadrupeds.
153. The horse of Toorkistan has long been famous, and forms the
chief article of export from that country to Afghanistan, India, and
Persia. From certain quarters in Khoorasan (chiefly the north-west)
horses are exported to the same countries, but in less numbers. In
both cases it is chiefly the pasturing tribes who rear this animal,
which is but rarely housed even in winter, or in the cold coun-
try of the Ymaks; they are not very numerous in Bulochistan,
neither are they found of remarkable goodness either in that coun-
try or in Afghanistan. In the neighbourhood of Bameean however,
and some other parts of the north, is a breed of very strong and
serviceable ponies. Those of Tibet are broader, smaller, and stronger.
In the country of the Yoosufzyes, and some parts of the country be-
tween the Indus and Hydaspes, in Bunnoo and Daman, we find a breed
of Tazee horses, which are much esteemed. Horsesin Kushmeer are nei-
ther numerous nor good, but there are considerable numbers of ponies.
154. The ass gradually improves as we proceed westward from
the Company’s provinces. Perhaps the best are those in the west of
Khoorasan, but even these are much inferior to the Arabian or the
Spanish. Asses are imported into Cabul from Bokhara and the
north-west of Toorkistan. Mules are scarcely raised in Toorkistan,
the best are bred in Khoorasan; a slender species, but yet hardy,
is bred in Pothwar and the neighbouring districts. They are raised
in the vallies of Jajee and Foree, in Teera, and some other places.
155. Tibet, Kushmeer, Kashkur, Keerategin, Durwaz, the upper
parts of Budukhshan and the Huzara country breed no camels, being
too cold, moist, or rugged, for that animal. Beyond the Jaxartes
is the two humped species, in the Toorkee language called wzhree, and
by our writers, (I believe) Bactrian ; his height is far less than that of
the Indian camel, his hair longer, he is not capable of bearing se-
vere heat, and is not easily naturalized even in Bokhara. In the
kingdom of Kokun he is the prevalent species, but in some places
neither is known. The camel called dughdadee, has also two humps,
but his height is equal to that of the Indian. He is found chiefly
in the south-west of Khoorasan, yet even there is much out numbered
by the Indian species. This species is very abundant in the whole of
Bulochistan, in Sindh, and the borders of the Indian desert. In those
countries soldiers are often mounted on camels, and some breeds are
remarkable for their swiftness. The camel of Ghuznee and Cabul,
originally of the same species, is now somewhat changed in his pro-
perties by the climate; he cannot bear the winter cold of these
1010 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [ Dec.
countries, and probably exceeds the Indian camel in strength, but
yields to him in patience of thirst and hunger. With respect to ap-
pearance, he is not so tall and slender-in his limbs.
156. The Punjab, Sindh, and the Indian provinces of the Afghan
monarchy considered as a whole, have cattle nearly in the same pro-
portions as in our upper provinces, and the quality is not very differ-
ent. In the detail we find great differences, the cattle on the west
side of the Jumna are superior to those on the east, the oxen of
Nagour and cows of Hurriana are much celebrated, even the cattle of
the Punjab are probably superior to those of our provinces east of the
Jumna ; those of Peshawur are certainly inferior, and the cattle of
Sindh are not remarkably good ; yet great numbers of them were
carried from Buhawulpoor by Tymoor Shah’s army to Cabul, where
the breed is still perceptible. The native breed of Cabul yields the
most wretched bullocks, but considerable numbers are every year
brought from Nasour by the Lohanees, and others who travel on the
southern road to India. Cattle are brought to Peshawur from the
Doval of the Hydaspes and Indus. In Seeweestan cattle are not nu-
merous or good. In the middle and west of Afghanistan and in
Khoorasan, they constitute no very considerable part of the national
wealth. Being kept by farmers, their numbers are in proportion to
the village, and hence they are more frequently found among the hills.
The pastoral tribes of the open country keep but a few bullocks to
carry their tents, the cow is therefore usually house fed, or fed on
meadows and gardens near the village. Round the lake of Seestan,
however, are seen great herds of cattle, which pasture on the marshy
grounds. The cows of the west in general give more milk than those
of our provinces, and in the Ymak country some give as far as fifteen
seers; a very small breed kept by some tribes of the Kafeir’s gives
as far as twenty seers ; the cows of Kushmeer give a great deal of milk
of a poor quality.
157. The buffalo is not fitted for cold countries, hence he is scarce-
ly to be seen in Kushmeer, notwithstanding its moistness; and by
far the greatest stock isin Poonuch and Rajur and its other dependen-
cies to the south, which have a much warmer climate. Far less is the
buffalo suited to the climate of Cabul, which is both colder and drier,
yet in both countries diligent search would probably discover a few.
Buffaloes are numerous in some parts of the Punjab, and they give
more milk than in the Company’s upper provinces; as far thence to
the north and west as the warmer plains and vallies extend, this
animal is bred, but according to circumstances in greater or lesser
1839. ] Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 1011
numbers. In Seeweestan sheep are the favourite stock, and in the
Daman, cows. In the warm parts of Pukhlee buffaloes are very nu-
merous, and in Swad and Bhooner they constitute the chief stock, yet
are buffaloes not used for carriage in those countries. Beyond Jellala-
bad and Lughman, buffaloes are scarcely seen. The climate of the
warm parts of Toorkistan and Khoorasan is certainly favourable
enough to this animal, which is yet in a manner unknown ; some are
indeed seen near Candahar, and a few years ago several were kept in
the neighbourhood of Milkh. The buffalo probably extends from the ~
delta of Sindh, west, along the coast of Bulochistan ; but the whole of
the inland parts of the west, and the whole of the hilly tracts of
Bulochistan are destitute of this animal.
158. Sheep are kept in all these countries, nor does there appear
to be in Bulochistan any tribe which depends on camels alone, like
the Arabs of the desert. The sheep are of two breeds, easily distin-
guished ; the heavy tailed (called doomba), and the light tailed. The
latter species is that found in India, and thence extend west into
Sindh, and part of Seeweestan. The sheep of the Daman are gene-
rally of this kind, which also prevails nearly to the utmost limits of
Pothwar. In Kushmeer, Tibet, Kashhur, most parts of upper Bu-
dukhshan, and among the Kafeir’s, no other is known. In such a tract
of country many varieties must occur in appearance and value; the
finest wool seems to be that of the Indian desert, and the Rajpoot
country. The doomba is found in all the other countries ; and is
the prevailing species in Persia, with the exception of Geelar and
Mazundarum. The doombas of Toorkistan, and particularly that
bred by the Kuzzahs is very large. The doomba seems a superior
species to the Indian sheep; the wool on an average is equal, the
carcase larger, and the flesh richer flavoured. The lamb is reckoned one
of the delicacies of the spring season. The pasturing tribes of the west
do not in general suffer the ewes to lamb twice, but where sheep are
kept by farmers in small numbers an autumn lamb is dropped, which
however does not thrive so well as the spring one. In Kushmeer, the
environs of Cabul, and most other places where the sheep are housed
in the winter, only one lamb is had from the ewe, but in the upper
parts of Budukhshan a contrary practice prevails.
159. Every flock of sheep ought to contain a few goats, which lead
the way in pasturing. In some countries goats and sheep are nearly
equally mixed, but some situations are so steep and rugged, that sheep
cannot accompany the goats. Where it is practicable to keep them,
sheep are a more profitable stock. The goats of these countries present
1012 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. [Dec.
some striking varieties ; black is the most common colour, but those
of the mountains from which issue the Beah and Sutluj are generally
white. The goats of the Kafeir’s have sometimes very long horns, curi-
ously twisted ; those of the Wuzurous have sometimes long horns,
and each horn twisted as it were round itself, like the pillars of Jewish
architecture. In that great range of mountains from which the
Ganges and Jumna flow, we find even as far as the left of the Indus
a breed of goats of great size and strength, and the natives employ
' them to carry commodities on roads not practicable to any other beast
of burden.
160. In the Punjub the same animals are employed for carriage
and burden as in our provinces, and the properties are nearly the
same. Elephants, become rarer and rarer as you proceed westward.
Beyond the Indus an elephant draws as many spectators as an
European. In the Doab of the Hydaspes and Indus, mules are a good
deal used for carriage. In Sindh, the countries bordering to the east
of the Indian desert, and Bulochistan, camels are the chief beasts of
burden, and are cheap and good. With respect to the other countries,
we are to distinguish carriage as it may be, Ist, that of armies; 2nd, that
of caravans or of persons making distant journies ; 3rd, that of farmers
on their own farms, or for the supply of provisions to towns, or distri-
bution of town manufactures in the neighbourhood, or the interchange
of commodities, within small or moderate distances. The chief car-
riage of the Persian army is by mules and strong ponies. The latter
are by no means so esteemed as the former, yet by reason of their
cheapness are actually found in the proportion of sixty or seventy to
one hundred of the whole. All other carriage is but inconsiderable.
Bullocks are not used except for dragging artillery, a use they are
also put toin the Doorany army. In both countries it would be much
more advisable to employ horses. Certain of the Loor tribes em-
ploy asses, and offieers of rank who may have heavy baggage keep
some camels; were it not for these last, the motion of an army would
be scarcely impeded by its baggage, for the camp followers who do
not in number exceed the fighting men are almost to a man mounted
on the sumpter animals of their masters. This constitution of their
army must alone give the Persians infinite advantages in a war with
Hindoostanee forces, incumbered with multitudes of timid attendants,
and impeded by a sluggish baggage. The Afghans, intermediate in
situation between those two nations, adopt in part the usages of both,
in this important particular, camels however are certainly the chief
carriage of their army, which generally makes slow marches. On oc-
1839. | Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 10138
casion of emergency, however, it is known to leave its baggage behind
and make very long ones. The small armies now on foot on the sides
of the various competitors for the throne use, it is probable, more
mules and ponies than camels, and perhaps many years may not elapse
before the former species of carriage gain much ground ; the poverty
alone of the soldiery now prevents its more general adoption. Runjeet
Singh has made some progress in providing mules for part of his forces,
but his situation is not favourable for procuring those of the most ser-
viceable kind.
161. For long journeys the camel is the most economical carriage,
and in caravans they outnumber all other animals. There are how-
ever some exceptions; the trade to Chinese Toorkistan from what-
ever quarter, seems to be conducted by means of ponies and horses.
Commodities brought by the people of Toorkistan to Cabul are almost
all on horses, but such of the inhabitants of this side of the mountains
as trade to Toorkistan mostly use camels. |The trade from Peshawur
to Cabul, and Cabul to Peshawur, is carried on by means of all the vari-
ous beasts of burden in the country ; perhaps an equal weight of
commodities is annually transported on camels, mules, and ponies.
Some bullocks, originally Indian, bring loads from Cabul, but seldom
return, being readily disposed of in Peshawur. Bullocks are little
used for long journeys, except in the cases already mentioned (see
paragraph 160); a few attend the army besides those of the artillery.
With respect to the third species of carriage, it would lead into great
details to particularize the usages of all the various districts, for within
a short distance is often the greatest diversity of practice. On farms,
in a vast majority of cases, the chief carriage is by bullocks. The in-
tercourse between the towns and the neighbouring country, is as much
by means of other animals, except in the quarters towards India. The
wandering tribes in general have their tents carried on camels, but
where, as in the west of Toorkistan and north-west of Khoorasan, they
drink from draw-wells, the leathern bucket for drawing water is car-
ried by an ass or a bullock. The tents of the Ymaks in general are
carried on ponies and horses, but the Jamsheedus use a good number
of bullocks. In the upper Sindh and lower Punjab, asses bring the
greatest part of the fuel into towns. Asses bring great quantities of
grain from Bajour into Peshawur; in the former country camels are
scarcely known, although the soil and climate is not unfavourable ; there
are still fewer in the moist country of Koonur; asses are of much use
in the internal traffic of both, and in the country of the upper Mihmuds.
In the plain of Peshawur, bullocks are mostly used in bringing grain
60
1014 Lieut. Irwin's Memoir of Afghanistan. | Dec.
to the town, but camels and mules are employed in longer journeys.
In Puklee many mules are used. The internal trade of Toorkistan is
chiefly by ponies and horses. In some parts of the east asses are much
used, but in Keerategin men transport the greater quantity of goods.
Nor is that species of carriage peculiar to this country, but is known in
Budukhshan, Durwaz, Kushmeer, and in the countries within the great
mountains which bound India to the north. A considerable proportion
of the goods carried from Peshawur to Kashkur through Bajour or
Punjokhora are for some distance conveyed on the backs of men ; it is
needless to observe that the roads are of the most difficult kind.
162. The animal most commonly used for ploughing in these coun-
tries is the ox, and in some of them no other is used. A circumstance
which greatly recommends them, is that no other servant is required
besides the drivers, whereas for all the other animals a man is required
to lead. On the other hand, a single bullock is but very seldom found
equal to this work ; but where the soil is light, a horse or camel is suffi-
cient, these have also the merit of greater celerity, which may in some
cases be much required in farm management. Accordingly horses
are in part used over most of the open parts of Toorkistan, and by the
Ymaks. In Muro scarcely any other animal is used. The use of horses
in the plough, perhaps, extends to some of the other parts of the north
of Khoorasan, but in all other quarters of that vast country it seems
unknown, and in the other countries under review, I presume very
few instances of it are to be seen. The Khirghizes plough on the
Pamer chiefly by means of bullocks of the Tibet species, already men-
tioned, but in other quarters they use camels. The Kuzzaks employ
camels almost solely. The Tureens and Buruhes use both camels and
bullocks. A proportion of camels is used in certain parts of the
Kokur dominions, and a few in Seeweestan. In Beekaneer and the
neighbouring countries, camels are used, but not so much as bullocks.
It may be presumed that camels are much employed in the warm
parts of Bulochistan, but among the hills bullocks are almost solely —
yoked. In the neighbourhood of Mooks and Abilazee, places in the road
between Candahar and Ghuznee, it is not uncommon to see the fields,
which are commonly light, but with a mixture of stone, under plough
by a couple of asses. In Seeweestan two asses are sometimes yoked.
168. Bullocks most commonly draw water, whether it be fetched up
by a rope and leathern bucket, or by the action of a wheel. Yet are
camels sometimes used in the country of Beekaneer, and in others in or
near the Indian desert, and always with good effect, one bringing up
the bucket from the deepest wells. The Toorkmuns near the Oxus,
1839. ] Lieut. Lrmin's Memoir of Afghanistan. 1015
water their fields (for they are not ignorant of agriculture) by raising
water from cuts which are made from that river, and in this operation
they usually prefer the wheel, with a band of water pots, and yoke
camels. Such wheels are, towards India, sometimes seen turned by
buffaloes. In such quarters of Toorkistan as horses are yoked to the
plough, they are also made to draw water, and camels are in use for
the latter as well as the former. With respect to the treading out
corn, the same animals, camels excepted, are used, as in the respective
places where they are yoked to the plough, cows however, although use-
ful in treading out, are scarcely so in ploughing. Goats too may
sometimes be seen in Pushing, assisting in the former operation; which
in Cabul, Khoorasan and Toorkistan is not always effected by the feet
only of the animals, but by the addition of some simple machinery.
164. It must excite surprise to learn that carts are unknown in the
greater number of these countries. In the line of the Embassy’s march
to Peshawur, they were found not to extend to the right of the Indus.
There are few, perhaps none, in the dominions of Mohummud Khan on
this side the river, but to the south they are used in most parts of Sindh
as far as we may suppose their use demands. Carts are but little used in
Seeweestan, and not at all in any part of Afghanistan, the remainder
of Bulochistan or Khoorasan. In a westerly direction we may pro-
ceed nearly to the Hellespont before we see any. Neither are any
found in Toorkistan on the south of the Oxus (with one exception)
Bulochistan, Kashkur, Keerategin, Durwaz, the Pamer, Kushmeer, or
most parts of the Dooab of the Hydaspes and Indus. In the neigh-
bourhood of Bokhara, Orgunj, Samarkand, and Kokur alone are carts
used in Toorkistan beyond the Oxus. In Bokhara they are not em-
ployed for all the purposes they are applicable to. In this particular,
as almost all others, our information is very scanty respecting Chinese
Toorkistan. I have been lately informed that carts are very much
used in that quarter, and some have as many as six horses yoked to
them. The Chinese in Yarkund and the other cities use buggies and
tandems, not unlike those of the English, hence there is some proba-
bility that the use of the humble, but more useful species of wheeled
carriages is not unknown. In most parts of Toorkistan, and pro-
bably in many other quarters, great use is made in rural operations
of a machine which seems to be a sledge.
( To be continued. )
1016 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
Arr. IL—Journal of a Mission from the Supreme Government of
India to the Court of Siam.
December 18th.—At half past 1 p.m. left Maulmain. My baggage
and presents for the Court of Siam in three boats ; and at half past 2 p. m.
halt ten minutes at Neaung-ben-tseik, when having ascertained that the
elephants (six), which are to meet me at Nat-Kyning, had started about
8 o’clock, we proceeded with the flood tide in a south-easterly direction
up the Attran river, passed the villages of Nantay, Keik-poron,
Keik-mo-rong, Peikh-hnay-cong, Kan-ta (or Kanaumy), Being-beo,
and at 6 o’clock halted for the night at Keik-mare. The banks of the
river, which winds considerably through an alluvial country, have
been low and wooded throughout the day.
December \9th.—At half past 2 a.m. left Keik-mare with the
morning’s flood, and continuing the same course as yesterday, passed
several rocky (lime?) hills, and at 8h. 45m. halted for breakfast at the
village of Attran, near the old city of thatname. The neighbourhood of
this village is said to be favourable for cotton cultivation, and the teak
forests commence in detached clumps on the right, or eastern bank
of the river, about Pa-baung, (a village inhabited by Shan elephant
hunters), a short way below it. Complaints are said to have been
made to the court of Bankok of the number of elephants stolen from
that kingdom, a little north and east of the capital, and sold into our
territory ; some of these hunters have been summoned to Bankok,
others have been recalled by the chief of Timmay, to which place the
majority of them belong, and the rest are said to be preparing to fol-
low them: in the meantime, strict orders have been issued by the court
of Bankok, prohibiting the exportation of elephants from Yahine, (the
southernmost of the Laos towns), and the country to the southward. Left
Attran at 1] a.m., andat 1 p. m.enter the Zimee river, where it is joined
by the Wengeo, their united streams forming the Attran. The Zimee
is exceedingly tortuous in its course, the different reaches running to
every point of the compass. At 2h. 25m. p. m. halt for dinner, having
come from Attran against the stream, which is very sluggish at this
season; 4h. 15m. start again with the flood, and reach Kea-en (lotus
Jake) at 10 p. m., here we halted for the night ; the inhabitants of the
village are Kareens, who have fled from the oppression of the Birmans
in the last year.
December 20th.—Left Kea-en at 8 a.m. on the flood, and reach
Nat-Kyeaung, at 10 a.m., where we got the things out of the boats, and
1859.) Mission to the Court of Siam. 1017
wait for the elephants which have not arrived. Nothing can be more
uninteresting than the banks of the Attran and Zimee, winding to
every point in the compass, through an alluvial soil with banks of
considerable depth, and covered with rich arborescent vegetation to the
water’s edge. After passing the villages on the first day, nothing is to
be seen from the boat§ except an occasional solitary alligator, gnanah,
king-fisher, or snake bird. We met three rafts of timber, in all about
260 pieces, floating slowly down the stream. The river though of great
depth, having upwards of three fathoms opposite our halting place,
can discharge only a very small quantity of water from the small
declivity in its channel, consequent sluggishness of its course, and
great height to which the tide reaches up it. Though the most produc-
tive river in the provinces in teak, its timber, particularly that of the
lower part of the river and near its banks, is held in less esteem than
the Irrawadie or the Malabar timber; the depth and great richness
of its soil promoting its more rapid growth, and hence diminishing its
strength and elasticity ; our people have however in the Jast year
overcome some difficulties in the Memlunghe river, which have opened.
a mine of wealth to the provinces in the splendid teak of that river
and the upper Salween, if the Siamese government throw no ob-
stacles in the way.
December 2\st.—The elephants arrived to-day at noon, having been
detained half a day by one of them following a herd of wild ones in
the night ; we have been employed apportioning their loads, and _pre-
paring for an early start to-morrow. The tigers are said to be exces-
sively bold in this part of the forest.
December 22nd.—Goonghe-let-tet, 5h. 50m., sixteen miles. Started
at 7h. 40m. a.m. leaving the banks of the Zimee, and travelling along a
well trodden path used by the timber cutters, reach the Kareen village,
Nat Kyeaung, of ten houses, at 8h. 35m., where we were detained
an hour in endeavouring to procure guides, all the Kareens declaring
they knew nothing of the country a mile south-east of their own village:
I had unfortunately no one with me who spoke their language, and
though they all spoke Talines, and many of them Birman, they are
only to be properly managed in their own language ; and it is not to
be wondered at, for they have never had any communication with
their neighbours for ages, except to be oppressed or cheated. We at last
prevailed on three of them to accompany us, who brought us safely to
this halting place, protesting to the last that they knew nothing of
the road. At 10h. 15m. cross a small nameless stream. 11h. 15m.
Goongalay, another stream. 12h. 5m. cross the small stream of
1018 Mission to the Court of Siam. | Dec.
Danoung. From Ih. 5m. till 2h. 5m. travel up the bed of a small stream,
then cross the Thaybue; and at 2h. 20m. halt on the bank of a
small feeder of the Goonghe, a considerable stream, on the banks of
which there was formerly a town of the same name; it runs through
a rich and level teak tract, and the timber is floated down it in
the monsoon into the Zimee. The path has been good throughout,
level and dry at this season, and even in the rains must be very
passable ; there is but little teak timber near the path, none good, and
no sign of inhabitants after leaving Nat-Kyeaung. The soil a rich
alluvion, well adapted for the cultivation of coffee and cotton.
December 23rd.—Goonghe, 5h. 40m., eleven miles. Left the last
ground at Sh. 10m., and almost immediately entered a teak forest ;
the trees were nearly all killed for felling, generally of smail scantling,
interspersed with other trees, and an underwood of small bamboos ;
the soil generally hard, with small nodules of iron-stone in the paths,
which form little water courses in the rains. None of our party knew
the proper road, the Kareens to whom I trusted as on former occasions
persist in denying all knowledge of the roads in this direction ; the
head elephant driver having been employed here in dragging timber,
had a general knowledge of the forest, we were consequently obliged
to put ourselves under his guidance, and with the elephants in front
making a road where there was none, reached this halting place, on
the banks of the Goonghe mentioned yesterday. The water in it this
season, is here twenty paces across. One of the coolies was taken ill
with fever yesterday, soon after passing the Kareen village, and as he
has not come up, I hope he has returned there. Ten or twelve traders
of those who started with us, unable to keep up, are encamped three
or four miles in the rear, and as our means of carriage are limited and
no rice procurable, or village to be seen for seven or eight days, our want
of rice will hurry us on as fast as the elephants can march. I have sent
the Siamese interpreter, one mahout, two Kareens, and two bearers for
rice, and a guide to the wood cutters in the forest, about six miles
westerly of our halting place. The path is nearly a dead level, in some
places broad and clear, in others there is scarcely any traces of it; at
one time for an hour and a half, had to cut our way through a bamboo
jungle; passed two small streams, feeders of the Goonghe, and two
small lakes in the course of the march.
December 24th.—Metakut-let-tet, 2h. 50m., seven miles. Were
detained looking after one of the elephants till 11h. 10m. at the
Jast ground, and had then to force our way, nearly the whole march,
through an underwood of low bamboos, without any signs of a path,
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1019
except when here and there, for a short space, some of the numerous
wild elephant tracks with which the whole forest is intersected, took
the direction we wished to travel. No teak throughout the march.
Soil as yesterday firm, and mixed with small stones, but of considerable
depth, as seen in the banks of the small streams, of which we crossed
three or four in the course of the march. The path, but for the jungle,
would have been good, and was dry throughout; our detention this
morning enabled the traders and our people (who went in search of the
guide, and who were unsuccessful) to overtake us before we started.
December 25th.—Meetakut, 7h., fourteen miles. The whole cha-
racter of the march and country the same as yesterday, excepting that
at 9h. 40m., an hour and a half after leaving the last ground, we found
ourselves on the top of a small hill, from which we saw that we were
surrounded by low hills, giving an undulating character to the coun-
try ; and the latter part of the march has been a little less level than
for the last two or three days ; afew of the teak trees of more consider-
able size than any we have before seen; crossed during the march
five small runs of water, all tributary to the Zimee, and saw in the
jungle, marks of all the larger inhabitants of the forest, bison, buffalo,
cow, elephant, hog, elk, deer, &c., jungle and pea-fowl, all along the
line of our march. :
December 26th.—Meetakut river, lh. 40m., five miles. Were
again detained by the straying of one of the elephants in the night, till
12h. 45m. Twenty minutes after starting entered the teak forest from
which much of the timber in the Maulmain market has hitherto been
supplied, and came on a wide and good road by which it has been
dragged to the river, partly by main force by the elephants, and partly
on trucks. The teak at first scattered wide apart in single trees,
becomes a little more numerous as we approach the river; but they
still form a very small part of the forest ; the timber larger and finer
than we have hitherto seen. At lh. 40m. reach the river, running in a
deep bed in rich soil ; though there is a considerable depth of water in
many parts of the river, the bottom is so uneven as to prevent the
timber being floated down, except in the rains. From this we march in
an easterly direction, come again on the river at 3h. 10m. when we cross
and halt on its banks, being a considerable distance from any other
water. We have been fortunate in obtaining a basket and a half of rice
from some wood cutters, at three rupees a basket. The Kareens who
still accompany us know the road for the next two days; we shall
then for one day have, as in the last few days, to take the best direc-
tion we can, when several of the people know the road to Kataintsein,
1020 Mission to the Court of Siam. [Dexc.
the Siamese post on the frontier, at least they have travelled in this
direction some years ago.
December 2'7th.—Kyeun-Kyaung-let-tet, 4h. 20m., eight miles.
Left the last ground at 7h. 45m. and march generally in the di-
rection stated, though the route has been very tortuous, over broken
ground through a forest of tall trees, with an underwood of bamboos
so broken down and interlaced by the wild elephants, that our pro-
gress was exceedingly slow, excepting for about a mile, when our
march happened to lay along a wild elephant tract. There has been no
signs of any path throughout the day, and the elephants did not come
up till past 7 p.m. Saw only a few teak trees just before coming to
our ground, which were nearly all killed for felling, though we saw no
stream that appeared adapted for floating them to the river. The soil
appears good, though broken by many wild ravines, and water by no
means scarce, but no sign of this part of the jungle ever having afford-
ed subsistence to a human being. Marks of the same variety of wild
beasts as yesterday.
December 28th.—Near the Zimee, a little above Kyeun-Kyaung,
3h. 10m. a.m. nine miles. Start at 8, along a small path, the same as
yesterday ; at 8h. 25m. cross the Maz-Pra, or Ko-tor Kuag, a branch of
Meetakut, about which there is a good deal of fine teak, and the path
begins to be well marked; at 8h. 50m. cross a small stream and an old
Kareen clearing ; 9h. 40m. cross another small stream; at 9h. 50m. come
on the road by which timber had been dragged in the monsoon to the
Kyeun-Kyaung, which we reach at 10h. 10m.; passing down in the
direction of the stream, come on it again at lh. 20m., where it joins the
Zimee ; passing up that river, ten minutes halt at a wood cutter’s hut.
The Zimee is even at this season of considerable width, and has at this
place and season five or six feet of water. We obtain another basket of
rice, price three rupees, and gain information about the road between
this and Jung-Jung-Khay ; a great deal of very fine timber still in this
forest close to the river.
December 29th.—Small stream, 6h. 50m., two miles. 9 a. m.
left last halting place, where there are the stumps of a teak stockade
still to be seen which was erected 1147, (a. p. 1812) by Along Min-
dora, the grandfather of the present king of Ava, on his expedition
against Bankok, but taking a road too much to the eastward got into
ravines, quite impassable for people with loads ; from their steepness
and the thickness of the jungle, we were obliged to return to the
ground we had left, and at half past 12 took a fresh departure, and.
marching along at a short distance from the banks of the Zimee,
1839. | Mission to the Court of Siam. 1021
halted here at 2h. 40m. The teak here appears to be confined to the
valley of the river, as not a tree was to be seen after entering the hills ;
the road we attempted to find in the morning would have taken us to
Jung-Jung-Khay in one day, whilst by the one we are now pursuing,
we shall be three or four in reaching the same place. We procured two
guides at the last halting place, who had come up to float down timber,
but finding the elephants and people they expected to have met here,
had returned to Maulmain, their engagement with Mr. Darwood being
cancelled, they also were about to return. Their occupations keeping
them about the banks of the river, they are acquainted with our
present route, and supposed from description they could have found
the eastern road, but unfortunately were mistaken, and being very
short of provisions; we could not lose time in looking for it. Our
party have feasted on elephant’s flesh the last two days; the people at
the halting place having shot a female the day before our arrival, the
flesh of which they were smoking for the Maulmain market.
December 30th.—Maitsalic Kyeung lh. 30m., three miles. Have
made wretched progress the last two days; did not get the elephants,
one of which had followed a herd of wild ones, till past one o'clock.
We started at lh. 20m., and after marching ten minutes, had to halt
twenty, till the guides went to look for the path, amongst many others,
nearly all equally trodden by the wild inhabitants of the forest. At Ih.
50m. proceeded for another ten minutes, and had again to halt an hour
for the same purpose, when we a third time moved forward, and at
3h. 5m. reached the Zimee, running a clear stream in a stony bed, with
banks in a direction N. 20° W., waist-deep at the ford, and some 150
yards wide ; crossed it N. 55° W., and marching alongits western bank
through the teak forest (of Mr. Bentley) reach this ground on the
Maitsalic river, knee-deep, running N. 6° E. to join the Zimee. Here
we were obliged to halt for the elephants, as it is impossible to distinguish
the path even with help of the full moon; we have only one more
day’s rice, and shall certainly not get a supply for the next two days.
December 3\st.—Small stream, 4h. 20m., eleven miles. Started
at 7h. 35m. and crossing the Maitsalic twice, proceeded by a tolerable
path through high tree jungle, and enter a narrow valley with a small
stream, at 8h. 35m., which in twenty minutes becomes a ravine; along
this ravine the hills more or less high, and more or less receding.
Our route lay till 10h. 22m., when we recross the Zimee at Waat-
tan-ghe (where it has a northerly course) in direction N. 60° E., the
stream pretty rapid, and the water about three and a half feet
deep ; after crossing we waited for the elephants which we had left at
6P
1022 Mission to the Court of Stam. [ Dec.
10h. 5m. ; they did not overtake us till lh. 5m. No one of our party hav-
ing ever marched between this and Jung-Jung-Khay, we had some dif-
ficulty in finding the path, which we could only distinguish, amongst
the numbers of wild elephant tracks which cross the forest, by the few
marks of the traveller’s knife on trees at long and uncertain intervals. At
2h. 35m. we lost all trace of these and our path at the same time, which
after unsuccessfully seeking for an hour and a half, were obliged to
return toasmall stream we had crossed at 2h. 5m., and at four halted for
the night ; some of the people just at dark, discovered the path on the east
side of the stream. No teak timber since entering the ravine, on the
other side of the Zimee, a good many thengan trees of great size, and
other trees very high, with rather fewer bamboos. The wild elephants _
from their tracks, seem exceedingly numerous in this part of the forest,
and the first of our people saw a herd to-day on the other side of the river.
January \st, 1839.—Halt. The neighbourhood of the innumerable
wild elephants has caused us an inconvenience I have feared for
some days; one of our elephants joined them in the night, the mahouts
having been in search of him all the morning, returned after noon,
having lost all trace of him on a bare hill some miles distant. I im-
mediately (after furnishing them with a portion of our very small quan-
tity of rice) despatched them again with other elephants, and to my
great joy, they returned about 6 o’clock having reclaimed him. We
have of course been constrained to halt here to day ; I had however in
the forenoon despatched the Siamese interpreter, some bearers, and
some Birmans for a supply of rice, to meet us at the next halting place ;
they will I hope, finding we have not arrived there, come on to meet
us, as there is not a grain of rice in camp for breakfast. I have tied up
the elephants to night, and shall continue to do so till we are out of
the vicinity of the wild ones ; this arrangement will enable us to start
early in the morning, and give the elephants the whole afternoon to
feed, they can then be tied up, and branches cut for them; though they
suffer from this plan when long continued at this season, when there is
little succulent food for them ; we shall in a few days be where we can
let them loose at night. |
January 2nd.—Karaung-tan. 5h. 20m., fourteen miles. By tying
up the elephants last night were enabled to start to-day at 7 a. m. The
first part of the march was over a broken country, repeatedly cross-
ing a stream about ancle-deep ; the jungle at times a little more open.
At 10h. 30m. were much disappointed at coming on the place where
our party sent off for rice had slept last night, giving us little hopes of
any thing to cat to-day. At 11h. 10m. come on the Mecka-that, running
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Sianc. 1023
in a deep ravine, with a high rocky hillE. ; travel up its bank, and at 12h.
10m. cross it just below the water-fall, or Jung-Jung-Khay, little more
than knee-deep. The fall we saw was not more than three or-four feet,
but a little higher up there is a fall of much greater height ; the stream
divides some way above where we crossed, and forming a small island,
joins again a short way below; the branches are of nearly the same
size, both of which we cross; we then pass up it to the west, and at a
short distance from it, at 12h. 20m., cross the Karong-tan, running
down to join the Meeka-that ; and at 12h. 40m. halt on the east side of
the stream, about the same size as the Meeka-that. The people sent for
rice have not returned, and the elephants and one-half of the rest of
the people have not been able to come up, so that the party here to-
night amounts in all to only sixteen or eighteen, and had it not been
for a wind-fall of some yams in the jungle just before halting, we
should have had nothing to eat; as it was, there were only some small
knives to dig them with, and the depth the roots run in the earth is
about three or four feet ; my tent is also in the rear.
January 3rd.—Three Pagodahs, 4h. 10m., ten miles. Elephants
and people did not come up till 8 o’clock, when having breakfasted
on the roots mentioned yesterday, and fern-leaves, we left the ground
at 10 o'clock, and marching along a good path, over ground a little
undulating, with a high precipitous hill east, at 10h. 35m., the
jungle composed of high trees and nearly free from underwood, halted
at Enganoo, a small run of water at the foot of a descent from the
road, a little after one, to dinner; as I was told there was no water at
this halting place, and I wished to pass the night here, to enable me to
get an observation of the distance between the moon and a star.
Started again at 4 o’clock, march along a good path in high tree jungle,
with occasional patches of bamboo underwood, till 5h. 10m., where some
rocks protrude through the surface and the rocky hills at a short distance
east of the path ; 5h. 20m. pass some water ; and 5h. 40m., just as it was
getting dark, lost our path, and with some difficulty by firing muskets
which were answered by the mahout (the elephants not having halt-
ed as we did), in half an hour reached the three Pagodahs, over broken,
rocky, wet ground ; the sky became clouded, and we had a few drops
of rain till 10 p.m., when the night became beautifully clear. The
ground on which the three Pagodahs, so called, though they are only
three heaps of loose stones, are situated, is of considerable height, being
the centre of the range. The water on the opposite side runs in opposite
directions, marking the old boundary between the Siamese and Bir-
mans; the water on the eastern, or Siamese side, falling by the
-
4%
1024 Mission to the Court of Siam. | Dec.
Thaung-kala into the gulf of Siam, and on the western, or (now)
British side, by the Zimee and Attran into the gulf of Martaban. The
ground is rocky and barren, only a few stunted trees, some bamboos,
and Jong grass; under a belief that no water was to be found here,
we had halted in the afternoon to make our miserable meal, had
in consequence been benighted, and tumbled about amongst the sharp,
broken, rocky ground near the halting place, where on arrival we found
an abundance of good water for a much larger party than ours, which
will probably not be dried up for the next two months.
January 4th.—-Thaung-kala, 3h. 10m., nine miles. Waited this
morning at the three Pagodahs till past nine, when the moon went
down, in hopes of getting a distance between the sun and moon, but —
anxious as I was to do so, I was defeated in my object by a thick fog
which rose just before the sun, and continued till after the moon had
set. It was impossible to make a day’s halt, as the people had already
been three days without food, except what they picked up in the jun-
gle, and I did not know when I might expect the party despatched for
rice, as we passed their previous night’s halting place about noon, the
day before yesterday. At 9h. 20m. we started, the elephants having
gone an hour or so before ; at 10h. 45m. heard some one in apparent dis-
tress calling out to the right of the road, and on going to see what was
the matter, found a young elephant had taken fright, at some of the
people running up behind him, and broken away into the jungle,
knocked off his rider, and breaking his howdah and all its fastenings
against the branches, had escaped. I sent all the people who could be
spared from the other elephants after him, they picked up all his
load, consisting of a large carpet (part of the presents) and some mus-
kets, but being unable to see him, we left the things in the jungle, and
started at lh. 25m., intending to make all haste to the halting place, and
send the elephants back to look for their lost companion ; but we lost the
road at Lh. 50m. and we did not find it again till 3h. 20m., when we
continued our march, and crossing two or three runs of water came to
this ground, on a beautiful mountain stream about knee-deep, and a
stone’s throw across, running here south-west, and falling into the gulf
of Siam, and were much disappointed at not finding the people with the
rice ; the elephants from the thickness of the jungle in one or two places,
and from some fallen trees over a ravine in which they had to march, did
not arrive till 8 p. m., when it had been quite dark in the jungle for
nearly three hours; they were enabled to find their way (fortunately
the path was pretty well marked towards the end of the march) by
the mahouts carrying in front immense torches of blazing bamboos in
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Sram. 1025
a bundle over their shoulders, which gave an exceedingly picturesque
effect to the whole little encampment. It is now impossible to send
back for the carpet, and should the wild elephants come upon it in the
night they will certainly tear it to pieces, our lost elephant will also
have an opportunity, and as I believe he has not been in bondage
above eight or nine months, he will probably be admitted into the
herd, and having nothing to distinguish him but his belt, (should that
fortunately not be torn off in his rushing through the jungle,) I fear
we have not much chance of recovering him. I shall however halt
here to-morrow, send one of the horses for rice to the Siamese Kareen
village of Kenk-khaung, and all the elephants after the fugitive one.
The path to-day has generally been good and level, through a high
tree jungle, and occasionally in a ravine, always with high hills at a
short distance, and our course more direct than on any previous day.
January 5th.—Halt on the Thaung-kala. About 4 p.m., the party
sent for rice returned with a most welcome supply of two baskets,
enough for two meals for the whole party ; the Siamese interpreter to
whom the money was entrusted, after a vain attempt to get the
others to join him in withholding it from the villagers, separated
from them and has not yet returned ; the head mahout who was of the
party, bought the small supply we have obtained with his own money,
and the Tsokay of the village promised to bring us an elephant load
to-morrow ; he told the mahout the king would punish him if he
received payment for the rice, but he would take what I chose to
give him as hire for his elephant. I had already despatched two
elephants for the load of the fugitive one, and immediately the rice
arrived I sent the three others with the head mahout and a supply
of rice for three days to look after him, with directions to return in
that time, whether they recovered him or not.
January 6th.—Halt at Thaung-kala. About half-past 4 the Sia-
mese interpreter returned with the Tsokay of Thaung-kala, who ac-
cording to his promise to my people yesterday, brought me three baskets
of rice, some salt and chillies ; he received one rupee for the rice, and
I gave him and the chief person who accompanied him two cotton
handkerchiefs each, with which they were very well pleased; he had
accompanied some Siamese officers with a letter to Maulmain some
time ago, and professed to recognize me, I believe however I was in
Calcutta at the time he refers to. I had just given up hopes of him,
and supposed the interpreter, from what I had been told yesterday by
the people who accompanied him, had very probably gone off to Tahine,
where he has a wife and children, especially as he had received an
1026 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
advance of two months’ pay, and ten rupees for the purchase of rice ;
he says, he supposed (I know not on what grounds) we were at the
three Pagodahs, and was on his way thither, when he saw the party
looking after the lost elephant. The supply of rice was a most season-
able relief to the people; five or six Madras men who are not accus-
tomed to jungle food, had yesterday considerable derangement in the
bowels from living on the green fern leaves and roots, it has nearly
gone off again with the improved diet.
January 7th—Halt at Thaung-kala. The party sent after the
elephant returned at 8 o'clock this morning, and as I had feared,
without him ; the wild elephants are so exceedingly numerous in this
part of the forest, that from the first I had little hopes of recovering
him; a short way in advance of the place I had followed him to,
he had rushed down a ravine so steep and rocky that the other ele-
phants could not follow him; they went round, and coming on his
track on the further side, followed it till they came on a herd of forty
or fifty elephants, and our smaller one would not approach them ; the
head mahout on the only one that would, broke the herd in hopes
of seeing our lost one, as the wild ones will not admit one escaped to
mix with them; he however was not seen, and in hopes that they
might come on him making his way back the road he came, and in
that direction, they went back as far as Jung-Jung-Khay near which
they fell in with two other large herds, but had no better success in
the search, and from the time they fell in with the first herd, they of
course, in the numerous paths made by the wild ones, lost all trace of
his foot prints. The interpreter has just told me he saw a Tsokay of
Pra-Soowan, who has charge of this district, to whom he gave an
account of the number of people, elephants, &c. I had with me, and
told him I was sent on a mission with a friendly letter to the
Court.
January 8th.—Neauny-hen, stream near a Kareen village of the
same name, 5h. 10m., fifty miles. Left the Thaung-kala at 8h. 30m.
our course a little more to the southward than the general direction
of our march hitherto ; path nearly level, but apparently between
two ranges of hills, and crossing four small runs of water, feeders
of the Thaung-kala, 11h. 15m., the path lay near the foot of a high
(5 or 600 feet) precipitous rocky hill, bearing N. 40° W., with its
steepest side towards the south eastward ; 12h. 20m. came to an old
clearing and cotton field, with asmall run of water ; we halted, seeking
the road, half an hour, from this in five minutes we reach Alanday
Kyung, running S. 6°, 5°, W. nearly as large as the Thaung-kala which
1839.] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1027
it joins. The Thaung-kala is joined near the same place by Meene-
Kyning, which rises in the hills near Yea, where the three take the
name of Ka-tain-tsein ; further south the Mag-nan-noi, which rises in
the hills towards Tavoy, joins it, and though smaller gives its name to
the united stream. At lh. 30m. we cross in a few minutes a rather steep
hill bearing S. 60° E. near the eastern part of which a road runs N. E.
to Kenk-Khaung, the residence of the Kareen Ank of this district ;
south of his village he has about seventy houses under him, who pay
each a tax of fifty viss of cotton. At 3h. 35m. having halted an hour,
reach this ground. Just before halting, the Taung-thoo traders who
accompanied me, and who had come on to this village yesterday, met
me with a complaint against the interpreter, who had told the vil-
lagers they were not part of the mission, and not to sell them any rice ;
he must have heard the complaint, for one of the coolies had given
him half a rupee to bring rice, this be gave to the Kareen, and
directed him to tell me that he had said they were traders, and to sell
or give them rice if he had any to spare ; the Kareen gave this version
of the story when I inquired into the complaint, and as soon as he got
home, the interpreter went and demanded the half rupee or a basket
of rice; the Kareen returned the money, and then told the truth,
expecting I would make the man pay him back the money. I shall
however henceforth supply the whole of them with rice, which will
save a great deal of trouble.
January 9th.—Papan Kyuing, 2h. 10m., seven miles. The ele-
phants which were unable to come up last night, have again obliged
me to take up my quarters under a bamboo bush; they did not over-
take us till 12h. 10m., when having hired an elephant from one of the
Kareens, to carry the load of the lost one, agreed to pay the half of his
price if they recover him, which they expect todo. We started having
procured three days rice, and given a pass to the Taung-thoo traders
who separate from us here, and propose joining again in Bankok. The
country was a good deal broken throughout this day’s march, and
the hills apparently at no great distance, but the jungle so thick that
we could not see twenty yards in any direction ; we crossed two small
streams immediately after quitting the last ground, and at 12h. 55m.
Raja of Kyuing, knee-deep, passed two or three other small streams,
and at 2h. 30m. halted at this one, to enable the elephants to come up,
which they did just before dark. The Kareens have been civil and fur-
nished us with rice, the only thing they had, as they rear no poultry nor
pigs. A Taline visited us this morning from one of the military posts,
the name of which, and apparently the name only, is still kept up ; he
1028 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
put some questions to us relative to our number and arms, but no hint
was dropped of delaying us ; some mystery was made about the road,
and an attempt made to induce me to go by Tauny-Kahoung road, but
assuming a perfect right of choice, I merely intimated my intention
of going by Ta-kanoon, which is shorter, and nearly level, whilst by
the other the hills are very steep. One of our Kareen companions is at
this moment giving most ludicrous and savage imitations of the dances
of the Siamese, Taline, Birmans, and Sawas by the fire-light.
January 10th.—Sa-di-diang, 3h. 10m., nine miles. Start at 7h.
55m. and crossing the small ravine, in which the Pa-pan runs, pro-
ceed along a small reedy valley, through which the road has only been
allowed to pass since our peace with Ava, before which time it ran
east of the hills. At 8h. 10m. we passed a small trench, said to be the
site of an old Siamese stockade, and the elephant pits (Ka-tyne-tsein, )
from which the river and a frontier post and stockade on it take
their name ; at this post during the whole fine season was kept a force
of from eighty to one hundred Talines, and twenty-five in the rains ; the
whole of this path is said to have been strewed with Birmese corpses in
1147 (a. p. 1812) when Along Mendora invaded Siam; his force was
marching in an extended line, almost from Thaung-kala to Ka-tyne-
tsein, when the Siamese broke his line near Neaung-ben ; the king with
the rear fled, leaving the van in the hands of the Siamese, who with
the barbarity always displayed by both nations whenever they had an
opportunity, tied them five or six at a time to the trees and speared
or shot them. At 8h. 40m. cross the lesser Ka-tyne-tsein river, knee.
deep, from which the country is more open to the west, the hills to the
eastward continuing ; at 9h.35m. cross the Ka-tyne-tsein, over the saddle
flaps, some six miles below the old stockade now given up; 9h. 50m. cross
the Paway, knee-deep, falling into the Ka-tyne-tsein, on the banks of
which we fell in with a herd of wild buffaloes, one of which the
Kareens wounded, but he got away; at 10h. 40m. enter the clearing of
Sa-di-diong, the name of the Tsokay, pass two small villages both
bearing his name, and halt here in the same clearing at 11h. 10m. We
met some Kareens to day, who found fault with our guide for bringing
us this way ; he answered that we knew the road, and would not come by
the hills. Our present halting place is one of Pra-soo-one’s villages, his
people amount to seventy families, paying a duty yearly of fifty viss of
cotton, carrying it as far as Camhoorie, for which they may make a
money payment of five Siamese rupees (about six rupees and a quarter
Madras) they have also to find carriage and food for officers passing
this way ; they met the chief who came to Maulmain last year at ‘Ta-
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1629
kanoon and took him with provisions as far as the Meeka-that. There
are forty men liable to be called on for the public service, and thirty
exempt from youth, age, or other disability. Pra-soo-one receives 60
rupees, each of the Thooghees 12, and one or two Key-danghees 6 per
annum from government ; the Thooghees and Tsokay are excused the
tax. Every Kareen I have asked, and I have asked a great many,
have come from the Martaban district, at some period or other, to
escape from the Birmans; all the grown men and some of the lads
speak Talines fluently. Three of the people ill with fever to-day from
the night dews and cold.
January \1th.—Jungle, small streams, 3h. 20m., nine miles. Left
Sa-di-diong’s village at 9 a. m. and crossing the stream, proceed till 9h.
30m. when we ascend a rather steep hill for eight or ten minutes ; at 10h.
20m. 10h. 40m. and 11 o’clock cross three small clearings and a village,
and three small streams; at 11h. 40m., after another ascent, saw to the
N. a range of high hills running E. and W., halted here at 12h. 30m. ;
road generally good but must be now at some elevation; passed at a
“call” distance from a lake of two gun-shots long, said to be full of
particularly large alligators.
January 12th.—Oulaung 3h. 30m., eleven miles, started at 8 a. m.
and march along the somewhat level top of a hill for half an
hour, with hills (which we can see from this elevation) on all
sides, at 8h. 30m. descend for ten minutes, when we enter a narrow
valley or rather ravine, along which the path lies in high tree
jungle and bamboos; crossing four or five small streams, at 9h. 20m.
ravine opens a little, and we pass an old clearing; at 10h. cross the
Taung-Kapauny, a stream of about half a leg deep, then march twenty
minutes or half an hour in a ravine, in its bed or close to the brink ; at
10h. 50m. pass an old village, and an extensive clearing ; at 11h. again
enter the ravine, which continues to near this Kareen village of
Oulaung, so called from a small mountain torrent of that name, and on
the bank of which we are encamped. The path is good at this season,
and well frequented ; in the rains it must be soft and muddy in some
places, but perfectly passable, and the Kareens say it is used at all
seasons. The guides from the first village of Neaung-ben left us at
Sa-di-diong, and those from that place left us here ; the inhabitants of
this village also speak Talines, and most of them are from the Mar-
taban province. ‘The Thooghee is from the old city of Haundro ; the
tax is the same as that of Pra-soo-one (to whom they are not sub-
ject) but I could get no account of the numbers, the Thooghee says
four or five families, but from the extensive clearing, there are proba-
6 Q
1030 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
bly more; as they have no market for the paddy or cotton, they pro-
bably cultivate no more than enough for their own subsistence, cloth-
ing, and tax; they almost all possess elephants ; a female one is worth
from 80 to 180 rupees, the males are somewhat dearer.
January 18th.—Way-pee, 2h. 35m., eight miles. Left the last
halting place at 9h. 20m. and crossing the Oulaung three or four times,
proceed along its banks ; at 10h. pass a small clearing, and at 10h. 50m.
ascend for five minutes a stony hill, after crossing which the ground
is broken till 1]h. 30m. when there is a small space more level, with
a high range (6 or 700 feet) of hills running away north on the
western side of the Katern-tsein or Mime Kyning, which we cross
here, at Ta-ka-noon, a Taline post of three or four houses and two large
granaries, one without a roof, and neither having any grain in them ;
indeed the frontier duty is now a sinecure. The chief of the post
was an uncivil old Taline; he took down the number of the people,
muskets, elephants, horses, and a rough list of the presents, which
detained us till 12h. 25m. when we crossed the river waist deep, which
occupied a quarter of an hour, continued our march till 1h. 20m. when
we halted on the banks of a small stream near a Kareen village; had
some discussion with the people at Ta-ka-noon about the road; they
insist that the eastern road from this to May-nam-noi has not been
used for some years, and that it is two days march from this place ;
the western road is well frequented, and also occupies two days ; it is
inhabited by Kareens, and level, which the other is not; we have
consequently come the western road, for which they furnished us with
a guide, a simple little old fellow, whose head I have decked out in a
gay handkerchief, and out of whom I think we should have got the
truth, had they been attempting to impose on us about the roads.
The elephant hired at Neaung-ben village returns from this, where we
get another ; path to-day pretty good, altogether amongst the hills.
January \4th.—Dat-katein, 4h. 20m., thirteen miles. Started
at Sh. 25m. and crossing a hill of some height, come on the river at
9h. 25m. running in a ravine, perhaps 300 feet below us, near which
our route lay, up and down hills with gradual slopes, and passing
two old clearings, about 10h. enter the May-nam-noi district, at 11h.
pass a Kareen village, where we obtained the first fowls we have seen
since leaving the last village in our own territory; at 12h. 30m. leave
the river, near and above which we have marched all the morning,
entirely amongst the hills, a high range of which hills run nearly
north and south on the other side of the river, beyond which lies the
eastern road before mentioned, which the Kareens have deserted,
and come west since we have occupied the provinces ; at 1h. 30m. come
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1031
on a stream of water ancle deep, which after running along the
road and overflowing the jungle for a short way on both sides of it,
disappears most unexpectedly through the apparently solid earth ;
fiear this we are obliged to encamp, muddy as the water is, there
being no other within three or four miles ; elephants come up at 6 P. M. ;
the path to-day has been a succession of hills of more or less elevation,
generally near the river, which often runs in a ravine with an occa-
sional platform on which paddy or cotton have within the last few
years been cultivated by the Kareens, who say that till after our late
war with the Birmans, this part of the country, as being too near the
frontier, was not inhabited, and consequently this road never used ; we
are now only five or six days from Tavoy, as the Kareens travel.
January 15th.—Soo-gua, 8h. 40m., two miles. Were again detained
till half past 4 p. m. by the straying of one of the elephants which had
crossed the river in the night, and was found about two or three
miles on the eastern side of it ; started immediately, and came to this
village, it being impossible to proceed, as it was very dark, and the
path through a high forest not being distinguishable ; we had a high
range of hills to pass on leaving the last halting place.
January 16th.—Ke-dean, 3h. 50m., twelve miles. Started at
9 a.m. and marching through a continuation of the bamboo jungle in
which more or less it is intermixed with jungle trees, we have
marched with little interruption all the way from Nat Kyeaning ; we
have seen no teak on this side of the hills, nor have I found the
Gamboge, Tola, or Sapan tree, all of which I had expected to meet
with here, the former are said to abound near the sea-coast, and the
last is found in abundance on the See-sa-wet river (two days east of
this) which falls into this river near Camboorie ; the Taline refugees
and captives are employed in cutting it annually two months in the
year, but in transporting, collecting, and carrying it to Bankok, they
are always occupied six months, and are obliged to furnish to the
king fifty pieces, four cubits long, and a span and a half thick; for any
above the proper quantity they have an allowance of 1 tickel, for 50
viss, and any deficiency they must make good; the selling price
in the market is 1 tickel a piece ; they may compound for this service
by paying 20 tickels. I heard to-day of some tyrannical restrictions on
the internal traffic of the country, which I shall hear more about at
May-nam-noi, where some of the exactions are made. A story is told
as a good joke of two officers who were sent up to Taline lately to
inquire into and punish those engaged in stealing elephants, which
are sold at Maulmain; on the night of their arrival the two elephants
they brought with them from Bankok were stolen, and have not since
1032 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
been heard of; the thieves of Bankok are said to be perfect in their
calling. The path to day has been more level than we have travelled
since leaving Sa-di-diong’s village, and open to the eastward, the western
hills continuing. We have passed some small Kareen villages with
their clearings, crossed one stream of water, and passed at 10h. 30m.
a spring from a rock, which after running in a small stream for a few
hundred yards, is lost in the same way, as that near which we
encamped on the 14th; at lh. 40m., we passed the paddy and cotton
fields of this village, the most extensive we have seen; the cotton now
ready for gathering, very good, long in the staple, and pods large. At
2h. halt near the village of Ke-dean, of six houses. Elephants came
up at 6 p.m. Saw at Kenny Ena (so called by way of distinction
having a Kenny or convent) a very handsome elephant, with tusks
at least 7 feet long, belonging to the Poonghees.
January \7th.—Roye-tsong, 3h. 10m., nine miles. Started at
10h., having been again detained by the same elephant which crossed
the river two nights ago; march along a jungle path, the same as
before, pretty level throughout, but rocky in the first part of the
march ; passed only one run of water, but a considerable extent of
paddy and cotton ground, in all eight clearings, the last of considerable
extent. None of the Kareen villages I have seen or heard of in this
part of the country contain more than five or six houses, generally
only three, but the houses are long, and several families live under the
same roof; each family has however always a separate ladder up to
the long verandah which runs along the front of the house opposite
their own compartment. There are here, as in the Tavoy province
two tribes of Kareens, whose languages are different, but intelligible
to each other. About two miles from this halting place we passed the
Kareen village of Ka-way, at least the female portion of the inhabi-
tants are Kareens, the husbands are Talines, and were on duty at
May-nam-noi; some of the gold washers who are sent out annually
by the king were in the act of pillaging their house, as we passed ;
our approach saved the poor creatures’ little property, though all
Amhoo-dans, or people employed by the king, whether in cutting
timber, washing for gold dust, or what not, receiving no pay, commit
Jarceny by the royal licence. The present depredators were Laos
people, though the Talines who are employed in the Sapan forests —
and the king’s troops have all the same privilege ; the order extends
only to provisions, but nothing is said to come amiss to them, and the
small officers; for the Talines who are employed as soldiers are the
wood cutters, and have a boat following them the first few days on the
river, which when filled with plunder they send home to their fa-
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1038
milies ; villages in their ine of operation are likewise exposed to their
tender mercies. The line of our march has been at no great distance
from the river, and on its banks we are encamped to night ; we have
all day been surrounded by hills on all sides, except to the north-west,
the jungle a mixture of trees and bamboos as heretofore ; the only tree
of any value we have seen is the Kanean, or oil tree, a considerable
number of which we have passed in the last two days, towering as
they always do far above the highest trees in the forest, with their
beautiful straight stems and light green foliage ; many of them reach a
height of fifty or sixty feet without a branch.
January \8th.—May-nam-noi, 2h. 50m., nine miles. One month
from Maulmain. I had calculated on being in Bankok in twenty
days, and we are still eleven days from it ; we have lost several
days, by the loss and straying of the elephants, and want of guides
in the uninhabited forest, which it has been the policy of the Siamese
and Birmans to keep between them. Had all circumstances been
most favourable, it would have been impossible to have accomplished
it in any thing like the time I anticipated, travelling as I have done
with elephants, and obliged for days to cut away the interwoven
branches to allow them to pass. Left the last ground at 8 a.m. and
travelling for about twenty minutes through the old clearing near
which we had encamped, reach the river near which we march for ten
minutes, when the path takes a direction more to the westward, and
we commence the ascent of the hill we have seen to the S. W. of us
for the last three days ; the passage of the range occupied about an hour,
the path, after those I have travelled to the N. E., by: no means steep
or difficult ; at the bottom of the hills to the southward, after crossing,
we came on a path more travelled than any we have seen since
leaving the Meta-keet teak forest, leading the west to Tavoy, which
may easily be reached from this with elephants in five days, the road
is said to be generally hilly and difficult in some places ; at 10h. 20m.
after passing a new clearing we came on the river again, where we cross
and halted here in a shed prepared for us on the shingle (its bed) by
the Myotsa of this place, who soon after we halted came to my tent,
and remained for upwards of an hour ; he brought a basket of rice, some
vegetables, dried meat, cocoanuts, &c., for which he refused to receive
payment; about lh. 30m. the elephants came in. The May-nam-noi,
from which the lower part of this river now takes its name, has its
source in the hill somewhere east of Yea, and falls into the Dayeik, or
Dareik, by a deep rocky ravine of not more than a few yards wide, op-
posite the present small frontier post of the same name. The old city
1034 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
of Dayeik, or Dareik, of the old maps, is situated on the banks of the
latter stream, about half a day above the junction of the two; it is
now destitute of inhabitants, but as we are much less troublesome
neighbours than the Birmans, the present Myotsa, who is a Taline
from Kaling-Aung in the province of Tavoy, has received the royal
order to re-establish it with Talines, who he says will be allowed to
bring their wives and families here with them ; this is however in my
mind very questionable, for the king with good reason, fears the Talines
would return to their own country if they could once get so near it,
with their families. I here found six thugs who arrived fifteen
days ago, having made their escape from the Tavoy jail; I request-
ed Myotsa to give them in charge of the Siamese officer now on his
way from Bankok to Tavoy, promising the allowance of 10 rupees a
head for them when returned to Tavoy; he said he could not give
them up without a royal order, and if he could, the officer would
probably not receive charge of them ; a gaod deal was said pro and con,
and he at last agreed, at my suggestion, as he could not take care of
them (having only come here to meet me, and see to my provisions,
&e. and being again about immediately leaving to return to Be-lank-
Kyeung to wash for gold) to send them to Camboorie, as it is probable
I shall there meet the officers who annually visit Maulmain and
Tavoy from Bankok. I declined receiving charge of them, having
no means of preventing them making their escape, and told him I
should at all events demand them at Bankok, and he must hold
himself answerable that they were forthcoming, this he readily pro-
mised, and was altogether very friendly and civil ; he also provided me
with a boat, in which to send some of the heavy things, and some sick
people to Camboorie, at which place it will arrive at the same time
that we shall, the river being so tortuous that it takes five days with
the stream to reach Camboorie from this place. In the course of the
afternoon some twenty boats with the Laos people from Chandapoorie,
who were taken prisoners by the Siamese in their cruel destruc-
tion of that place about twelve years ago, passed up on their way
to the Belank river to wash the sand for gold; last year was an
unsuccessful year; the number of people employed amounts in some
years to 2,500, they are employed three months, and are ordered to
produce a maximum of one tickel each of gold, all over which they
are allowed to keep ; some only get a half, some a quarter, others less ;
they are all sworn to give in all they have obtained on their return
to Bankok ; few make up the tickel ; they have the same licence as to
provisions as the Taline wood cutters, and it was a party of them who
1839. ] Mission to the Court of Siam. 1035
plundered the village near our last halting ; the old Myotsa came after
sunset with an invitation for me to stay here two or three days ; I was
however told he only wanted the credit at Bankok of having been
civil to me, I accordingly, which I should however have done under
any circumstances, declined remaining, and pressed him again about
the convicts ; he repeated his promise to send them to Camboorie.
January 19th.—Bang-tee, 4h. 6m., twelve miles. Having start-
ed the boat with the tindal, and some of the heavy presents, and
discharged the hired elephant, left our halting place at 9 a. m., and
at the top of the bank passed the village of May-nam-noi, consisting
of four miserable bamboo houses, that of the Myotsa not to be distin-
guished from the others, and surrounded by the remains of the old
stockade, which has not been repaired for many years; proceeding not
far from the side of the river, through a bamboo jungle and over bro-
ken ground, passed a small Kareen village at 9h. 35m., and at Ih. 15m.
cross the river (now named May-nam-noi) running here N. 20° E. on
a sand bank in the middle of it; after crossing the river saw a few
teak trees, the first on this side of the hills, and had a glimpse of a herd
of twenty or thirty wild buffaloes, noble looking animals ; at lh. 40m.
halted here in a thick jungle, surrounded by hills, on a small brook,
which passes through a ravine to join the May-nam-noi ; path has been
good all day, particularly in the teak forest; gave the old Myotsa who
has been exceedingly civil, a small carpet at starting this morning.
January 20th.—Weing-wee, 4h. 10m., nine miles. Started at 8h.
20m. and march for an hour over broken irregular ground, surrounded
by hills which frequently approach so close as to form rugged ravines ;
we then came on the bank of a small stream, or rather a chain of
lagoons, where we waited an hour for the elephants to tread down the
strong reeds, of twenty or thirty feet high, with which the narrow
ravine is filled to the foot of the abrupt, broken stony hills, to enable
us to pass ; this continued till noon, where again, after a short ascent,
we came amongst the stony ravines and narrow valleys of the lime-
stone hills; at lh. 30m. came to a small clearing, and at 2h. halted here
near a deserted Kareen village ; the family only removed a few yards,
and built a sand pagoda three feet high to propitiate the Nats, having
been frightened away by the very ominous circumstance of some mush -
rooms sprouting up in the fire place. The path to-day has been the
worst we have travelled, which is accounted for by the people from
all the communication between Bankok and May-nam-noi being
carried on in boats; if more frequented it would of course be better,
but no traffic could make it a good road ; there is another road on the
eastern side of the river, which the Myotsa of May-nam-noi told our
1036 Mission to the Court of Siam. [ Dec.
guide was the best of the two, but water was scarce by that route ; the
guide told us he did not know the other road, and so brought us by
this one, it however turns out that he does not know this one either,
and has to trust to a boy who came to accompany him back to his
village. Had a visit from a tiger last night, strange to say the first
since leaving Maulmain.
January 21st.—Ta-ta-kan, 4h. 30m., thirteen and half miles. Start-
ed at Yh. and ascend gently along a pretty good path for half an hour,
where an equal descent brought us to the bottom of the low hill, where
crossing a small stream springing from the rocks close to the road side
we enter a small level, covered by prickly bamboos; the eastern
hills recede here, and our route lay near the foot of those te the
south-west till 12h., when ascending the debritus (nearly all the hills
to this have been limestone) at the bottom of the hills which are
composed of red sandstone, very steep, and perhaps 700 feet in height,
march along a rocky path, and through a short ravine, crossing one
small run of water, till lh., where we again came to the level, reach-
ing to the river, across which our route lay till lh. 45m., where we
halt on the western bank of the river opposite Ta-ta-kan ; the Myotsa,
for it is still dignified by the title of city, having once I suppose been
entitled to it, came over immediately and invited me to a Tay he had
erected for me close to, or rather over the water on the other side ;
as however an unnecessary loss of time would have been caused by
crossing the river, the best road being on this side, I thanked him
for his attention, but declined crossing the river ; he was satisfied and
very civil; he brought some eggs, cocoanuts, and a basket of rice, for
which he refused payment; he was born here, but his father was
Myotsa of Maulmain, in which he had about forty houses in the time
of Tsen-bue-shen, son of the great Alom-pra who ascended the throne
of Ava about 1744; he receives sixty tickels a year from the king,
and is one of nine Myotsas under the Camboorie May-won, six on this
and two on the See-sa-wet, and one between the rivers, all Talines,
except Pra-sa-one of Kienk Khaung, who is a Kareen. The Kareens
are said to amount to 1,000 under Camboorie, who pay each fifty
viss of cotton; the village of Ta-ta-kan contains only seven houses,
and the stockade, which was of bamboos, is quite in ruins ; the river is
here about a stone’s throw and a half across, about five feet deep, and
very sluggish, with high banks on both sides. The path to-day has
been good, and generally level; from this there is a path west of
Tavoy ; our boat and also the six thugs have passed down ; of the latter
I am told there are eleven more at Camboorie.
(To be continued. )
1839. ] Remarks on the Geology, &c. 1037
Arv. IV.—Remarks on the Geology, Sc. of the country extending
between Bhar and Simla.
To G. R. Cuerx, Esa.
Political Agent, Ambala.
SIR,
In reporting my arrival at Ambala, I beg leave to lay before
you an outline of the route I have followed, and of my proceedings.
From Ambala I proceeded to Bhar, and from thence traversed the
Pinjore valley as far westward as Nallaghur; I then ascended the
mountains en route to Ballaspore per Ramghur. In this tract I passed
over a series of rocks, consisting principally of sandstone, slate clay,
limestone, and trap, a particular account of which I shall afterwards
take the liberty of laying before you. Close to Ballaspore I crossed the
Sutledge, and proceeded along its banks for some distance. Being
still unsuccessful in finding an out crop of coal, I prosecuted my
search towards Mundi.
In the Mundi territory, near to the village of Tuttepore, coal
occurs, agreeing in mineralogical characters with the canal coal of
Britain, &c., and if it could be found in quantity, would be well
adapted for steam vessels, &c. I regret however to state, that the
advanced state of the season, and other untoward circumstances
prevented me from carrying on my investigations.
That coal may occur here in quantity, is probable from the cir-
cumstance of its being found in the same formation, and associated
with the same rocks as the coal beds of Britain, &c. ; and the specimens
which I have brought to Ambala, equal to a maund, shew that it
will be well adapted to the purposes for which it is so much required.
I hope therefore another opportunity will be granted, in order that
I may finish my examination, seeing that there is so much probability
of success; and if I am successful, I might then direct my attention to
the route by which the coal might be transported to the banks of the
Sutledge. I would feel particularly indebted, if you lay my statement
before Government, and if in accordance with your views, with a
request that leave may be granted at some future period for finishing
my inquiry.
AMBALA, I have, &c.
30th Jan. 1840. (Signed ) W. Jameson.
(True Copies)
( Signed _) G. Crier, Polt. Agent.
OR
1038 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [ Dec.
REPoRT.
. The observations ‘which we are now about to offer, being made
during the most unfavorable period of the year, viz. July, scarcely
a day passing in which our investigations were not interrupted by rain,
are far from perfect; we hope however when the season is more
favorable we will be allowed to resume them.
In the mean time our remarks will be principally confined to the
country extending between Bhar, and a few miles beyond Simla.
By means of the road sections and the numerous streams which
occur, the country here has been well opened up, rendering its
examination comparatively easy and satisfactory in general, in many
places however, from the various alterations and dislocations, difficulties
of no ordinary nature are encountered.
The field which we are now about to enter on, although frequently
trodden by travellers, has never as yet engaged the particular
attention of any geologist, a remark which applies nearly to the
whole of the Himmalehs. Thus it has been lately remarked, “ We
possess but little information as to the general direction and dip of
the strata of the Himmalehs ; even the principal geognostical features
of the various formations are scarcely at all known to us.”* No
doubt some remarkable statements have been made, and none more
so than those of Mr. Gerard, who mentions that he met with fossil
shells, in alluvium, at a great height, as fresh and entire as if they had
recently emerged from their own element ; and that just before cross-
ing the boundary of Ladak and Bussahor, he found a bed of antfe-
diluvian oysters, clinging to the rock as if they had been alive,
and that at 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. Well might the
author of the Geognosy of India conclude his remarks on the above,
with the observation, that verification of this is expected.t It is a state-
ment truly remarkable, and well worthy of the attention of future
travellers. In an address lately delivered to the Geological Society
of London by its late distinguished president,{ we have the following
remarks, “‘that Captain Grant in his account of Cutch, and Mr.
Malcolmson in his description of a large portion of the Indian
peninsula, have not ventured to call strata which they have examined,
by the names which describe European formations.” If any thing has
been proved by geological investigations, conducted in the different
quarters of the globe, it is, that in every country the rocks composing
* British India, vol. III, p 316. t British India, vol. III, p 326.
{ Addressed to the Geol. Society, London, Feb, 1838, by the Rev. William Whewell.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1089
the older formations present such a similarity to each other, as to
render it impossible to point out any specific distinction. Thus
Humboldt has made this remark, in regard to the rocks occurring
in the Andes,* discovering no difference between them and the
European of the same comparative ages. ‘The same remark has been
madet and pointed out to us by Professor Jameson, which is amply
verified by the extensive geological collection brought together from
all quarters of the world, consisting of upwards of thirty thousand
specimens deposited in the Edinburgh Royal Museum; nor have
we met with any rocks among the Himmalehs, differing from those
we have seen in Europe.
That the newer formations exhibit in different countries, different
characters, we were entitled, a priori, to infer. Thus the American
tertiary deposits, as has been proved by the researches of Rogers, &c.,
are quite different from the European ; but it has been shewn from
the first time these deposits were described, that they, in their dis-
tribution, were circumscribed, hence the name given to them by their
discoverer Wemer, of local deposits.
In extent, the Himmalehs are calculated to be upwards of 2,000
miles, running im a north-east and south-west direction. In such
a vast extent of mountainous country, we have the individual
mountains assuming all variety of forms, varying according to the
nature of the rocks ; thus we have peak-shaped, conical, dome, round-
backed, saddle, table, &c. ‘To pay attention to the form of moun-
tains in connexion with the rocks which compose them, is of the
greatest consequence, it being a well known fact that the shape varies
with the rock, and an experienced geologist can, with a good telescope,
distinguish, and that too with great accuracy, what a distant country
may be composed of.
From the different countries through which this mighty chain runs,
it has received various names. Thus its continuation to the west
has been called Hindoo Cosh, which by Humboldt is considered as the
continuation of the Kuen line; of the Macedonians, it was the Emodus ;
and the Imaus of Pliny; it probably also, in those days, was called
Himmalehs, as the Greek title was borrowed from the Sanscrit.§ In
its prolongation to the eastward, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick,
* Humboldt on the superposition of rocks.
' + Appendices to Capt. Ross and Parry’s Voyages, and Cabinet Library, vols.
Polar Regions, Africa, &c.
t Cuvier’s Theory of the Earth. By Professor Jameson, Notes to Sth edition.
§ Journ. Geograph. Soc. vol. [V. p. 63.
1040 Remarks on the Geology, &c. * (Dec.
it is called Humla to the north of Zumila, and beyond the Arun,
according to Hamilton’s map, appended to the History of the Goorka
war, the Harpala mountains. Klaproth and Abel Remusat have
collected from Chinese writings, the continuation of the chain in the
snow-clad peaks to the west of Young-Schan. These turn abruptly
to the north-west on the confines of Hon-Konang, advancing ulti-
mately, according to Von Humboldt (who seeks in description,
geography for the evidence of the elevation of mountain chains on longi-
tudinal fissures) to the sea, and terminating in the island of Formosa.*
We shall afterwards take an opportunity of inquiring into those views of
Humboldt, and point out the observations upon which they are
founded, being interesting not only to the geologist, but also to the
geographer. To make a geological survey of such a vast extent
of country, even if permission were granted to traverse many of those
tracts inhabited by barbarous, half civilized, and jealous tribes, is a
vast undertaking, and would be the labour of many years. The
researches of Humboldt, Ehrenberg, &c. have laid open to us a great
part of western Asia; of the countries between it and India proper,
we possess but little information, and that we owe to Burnes, Bell,
Sterling, &c.; we have here therefore still a great desideratum.
For many years the Himmalehs were considered the highest
mountains in the world, lately however it has been proved by an
observer of well known accuracy, Mr. Pentland, that they are sur-
passed by some of the peaks of the Andes ; of the passes, the lowest, the
Tungmug, is calculated to be 13,739 feet, and the highest, north-east
of Koonawur, is 20,000, which allowing the culminating points of the
chain to be 28,000, would give a relation of the main height of
minimum of crest to the culminating point of 1: 1:6 . 3+ Hum-
boldt many years ago reckoned it at 1: 1: 8.
In regard to valleys, it has been stated, that the direction of the
principal valleys is in general at right angles, or perpendicular to
the central or high mountain chain ; whether this is the case in regard
to the principal valleys of the Himmalehs, is a question ; at present
we are inclined to believe that they are not, and that they are
parallel to the central chain, and thus forming those kind of valleys
properly denominated longitudinal or parallel.
In groups of chains of mountains, as in the Himmalehs, it has
generally been shewn, that there is a central or high mountain chain,
* Journ. Geogaph. Suc. 1V. p. 63.
¢ Journ. Geograph. Soc. p. 63.
18389.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 104}
from which shoot at right angles smaller chains, named principal
chains, and that between these the principal valleys occur; subordi-
nate to these, we have other mountain chains, running at right angles,
or perpendicular to the principal, and termed secondary chains, and
the valleys between these, secondary valleys. That however does
not appear to be the grouping of the mountain chains among the
Himmalehs. Here we have the principal, secondary, tertiary, &c. chains
running parallel, as already mentioned, in regard to the valleys to the
central or high mountain chain ;* as examples of valleys running
parallel to the central chain, we may give the Dehra Dhoon, and
the Punjore Dhoon. The appearance presented by many of the
small lateral valleys is remarkable, occupying the upper two-thirds,
or half of the mountain, and forming that kind of valley, which has
been denominated ‘‘ Coorie”t In the neighbourhood of Bunnassur,
there are many fine illustrations. Another very remarkable appearance
is presented by the valleys first pointed out by Bourquet, as occurring
among the valleys of the Alps, viz. salient and re-entrant angles.
In regard to this appearance in the Perynus, Raymond says, which
is quite applicable to many of the valleys between Bhar and Simla,
“that the angles so perfectly correspond, that if the force which
separated them were to act in a contrary direction, and bring their
sides together again, they would unite so exactly that even the
fissures could not be perceived.”
On ascending the mountains towards Simla, and in fact in every
direction, an appearance is presented, which strikes much the atten-
tion of the traveller on his first visit, we allude to the terraces on the
acclivities, bases, and summits of mountains, resembling much the
parallel roads of Argyleshire, so ably described by Sir T. Dick Lauder,
they however, like the Scotch, are not parallel to each other on the
opposite side of the valleys, and moreover they occur every where,
* Physical Geography is at present but in its infancy, the description of the form
and grouping of mountains is but imperfectly understood, and much neglected.
In books of travels, the vague descriptions given in general, are quite beyond
comprehension. In this country scarcely any attention has been paid to the subject,
though presenting probably the first field in the world for observation. We shall after-
wards inquire into the age of mountain ranges, based upon their parallelism, a
supposition first advanced and ably defended by the celebrated Beaumont, when
we have examined more of the Himmalehs, which will allow us to compare this
mighty range with those on the European, American continents.
} Imagine an oblique truncation, partly hollow in the upper two-thirds, or half of
a mountain, and we have the appearance represented.
t Sir T. Dick Lauder’s explanation being generally so well known, it is useless for
us to notice it here. See Trans. of the Royal Soc. Edinburgh.
1042 Remarks on the Geology, &c. | Dec.
throughout the mountains. That they have been produced artificially
by man, is evident from these two facts, it is also the method
adopted in cultivating the mountains at the present day ; we never
however, (at least very seldom) see cultivation carried to the summit
of mountains, which appears generally to have been the case in
former times, shewing that husbandry must have been carried toa
much greater extent by the former inhabitants of the hills. There is
another fact pointed out to us by Mr. G. Clerk, which goes far, if
other evidence was wanted, to prove, that the terraces generally were
produced by artificial means, viz. that in those places where they
are well marked, we never see old trees, and again in those places
where there is not a vestige of them, we meet with trees of great
dimensions, pointing out that in all probability these tracts were
unworthy of cultivation, and that therefore any thing was allowed
to grow ; in general where the latter occur the acclivity is steep.*
In regard to the different parts of a mountain. The foot among
the Himmalehs is generally found, owing to the steepness of the
acclivity, to occupy but a very small proportion ; the acclivity is
always the most extensive part, its angle varying from a few degrees,
to the mural. The swmmdt in general is very steep, and frequently
truncated, if we may be allowed to use the expression. Sozl.. The
superincumbent soil, from the nature of the rocks, is in many places
very good, presenting a rich vegetation. It is of two kinds, trans-
ported and untransported ; of the former, we have five examples in the
valley ascending from Pinjore to Bunnassur, being in many places
upwards of 150 feet in thickness, and with boulders, many of an
enormous size, of rocks quite different from those we meet with in the
neighbourhood. In crossing Hurreepore bridge, and ascending to-
wards Subbathoo, there is another fine example. That these are
transported soils, is evident, not only from the nature of the boulders
which occur, embedded ; but also from their form being always
rounded, shewing that they must have been brought from some dis-
tance, and subjected to considerable attrition. Into the age of these
deposits we shall afterward inquire, our examination as yet being
of too trivial a nature to allow us to speak definitely. It has been
* Dr. Griffith in his account of the mission to Boutan, states, that he found many
of the ‘lower mountains curiously marked with transverse ridges.’? These he fur-
ther adds, ‘‘have much of the appearance of ancient terrace cultivation, but on
inquiry, was assured that such was not their origin.’? He does not give any explana-
tion as to the manner in which they were produced ; probably, however, they may have
been found in the same manner asthe Scotch parallel roads. For Dr. G’s. re-
marks, see Journal of the Asiatic Society, New Series.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simia. 1048
stated to us, that in the first locality, bones of fossil animals have
been found, either imbedded, or in the neighbourhood. If the
first statement should turn out to be correct, of which however he
is doubtful, it may probably be the means of allowing us to draw
conclusions in regard to the age of these deposits generally throughout
the Himmalehs. To these transported soils we therefore beg to direct
the attention of observers ; of the latter, or untransported soil, we have
of course abundance of examples. In many places it is of great thick-
ness, as has been shewn by some sections lately made at Simla on the
road from Subbathoo to the village of Draw, it also occurs in many
places, of great thickness. This kind of soil is formed by the decom-
position of the subjacent rock, or rocks and vegetable matter, and con-
tains in general imbedded angular fragments of the rocks which occur
in the neighbourhood. In regard to boulders, it may be stated, that
there are two kinds, which may be denominated natural and arizfict-
al, the former produced by decomposition, the latter by attrition. To
account for boulders in many cases on the summit of mountains,
many erroneous statements have been made, and absurd theories
proposed, which would have been avoided if the author had paid at-
tention to this, and examined the mineralogical characters of the boul-
ders, and of the rocks in situ; for instead of finding that the boulders
had been brought from a distance, it would have been discovered, that
they were in their original position. In trap and granitic districts,
these natural boulders are frequently met with ; in the former, caused
by the oxydation of the iron, which enters more or less into the
composition of all traps, and frequently in its least oxydized state,
and thus tends to combine with more oxygen; in the latter, by the
decomposition of the alkali of the felspar (generally potassa) a substance
frequently found in the felspar of granites ;* the earth which remains
is the celebrated Porcelain earth. To find trap on the ground scale
exhibiting the columnar structure, and each of the columns composed
of a series of balls, is not unfrequent. It is in these districts we
meet with so frequently natural boulders of trap; if we examine
minutely into the structure, we shall find that the concretions are
* Analysis of rocks is a subject, which has as yet engaged but little attention; we
are glad to see that one chemist in this country (Professor O’Shaughnessy) is paying
some attention to the subject; it will amply repay his trouble, openirg up a wide
field of discovery, and at the same time giving to geologists the means of validating or
refuting many of the theories, in regard to the formation of rocks which have been
advanced. We hope therefore the Professor, who in his splendid laboratory has
every thing at his command, will take the opportunity of conducting operations
upon a more extensive scale, and at the same time give quantitive analysis.
1044 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [Dec.
arranged in concentric caurelle, and as these are decomposed from the
cause already mentioned, the natural boulders are found. To find
artificial boulders at great heights among the Himmalehs, is not
uncommon ; there distribution, and how caused, we shall afterwards
inquire. Vegetation in its distribution among the mountains presents
very extraordinary characters—thus that of the south side of a hill
is quite different from that of the north; moreover the grouping
of trees in the two aspects is quite different. On the northern they
become much sooner shrubby, and disappear, than they do on the
southern. This is amply proved by the observations of Mr. Gerard,
for a copy of which we are indebted to Dr. Macleod.
Springs.—In regard to the temperature of springs, all those we met
with were of the same temperature (or a little lower) than the
surrounding air. Having made these few preliminary observations,
which will prevent much repetition in the series of memoirs about to
be offered, and of which this may be considered the first, in order to
elucidate the geology of the Himmalehs, we shall now direct our
attention more particularly to the subject. The rocks met with
between Bhar and Simla, belonging to two grand divisions, viz.
the secondary and transition classes, the latter, transition, may be
subdivided into the older and newer, or the transition properly so
called, and the Szlurtan formation of Murchison, a term lately given
by this distinguished author to a series of slates, sandstones, and
limestones, lying between the old red sandstone and grey wacke
series, or, in other words, a mere extension of the latter, according to
the views of Professor Jameson. To Mr. Murchison however much
eredit is due, for the able and luminous manner in which he has
elucidated these rocks. By him they were first discovered in South
Wales. In Scotland this so-called formation had been long known,
though not considered entitled to another denomination ; they have also
been discovered in various parts of the European continent. In Asia
Minor, Mr. H. Strickland stated to us, that he had found a large
series of rocks as their equivalents. In India they have never as
yet been noticed, although they seem to occur in vast abundance
among the Himmalehs, at the same time, exhibiting characters
similar to those met with in Wales, judging from hard specimens.*
Their extent we have not as yet been able to ascertain ; it must how-
* The specimens we allude to were in the possession of our friend R. J. Hay
Cunningham, who brought them from particular localities in Wales mentioned by Mr.
Murchison. In the Museum of the Royal Society Edinburgh there is a collection
presented by the discoverer; but so uncharacteristic, as to be quite unfit for reference.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1045
ever be great, judging from the abundance with which they occur
between Bhar and Simla. In Sect. I, which points out the formations
generally, we have made no mention of tertiary rocks, not that they
do not occur, but want of time, and the state of the weather, has
prevented us, as yet, from examining them. From what has been
stated by some authors, they seem to occur in great abundance
in the Sewalick, or Sub-Himmaleh range, from whence the splendid
fossil organic remains lately discovered (which have excited such
vast interest in the scientific world), have been obtained ; with regard
to these deposits, little satisfactory information has, as far as we
know, yet been published. The fossil organic remains have received
much attention from Falconer, Coulley, Baker, Colvin, and Prinsep,
the last of whom, by his zeal, ability, and perseverance, has stirred
up a spirit of inquiry, and given a stimulus to science in general,
which before his time was unknown ; his loss to India at the present
moment is truly a national one. By several individuals splendid col-
lections have been transmitted to Europe, among which we may
mention those of Colvin and Macleod. In the Paleontology* of this
country, still, however, there remains a vast deal to be done.
At Bhar, the secondary rocks we meet with consist of sandstone,
slate clay, and trap. As we proceed eastward to Bunnassur we
meet with the same rocks, having a dip S. and by E. with an angle
varying from 15° to 50°. ‘Fhe trap (green stone) abounds with iron,
giving the rocks in many places a reddish brown colour. The same
remark. applies to the slate clay, which in many places is much
decomposed. At the line of junction of the sandstone and slate clay
with the trap, they are frequently found to be highly indurated ; of
this appearance we have many fine examples at Bunnassur. The
sandstone, which is in general of a greyish white colour, abounds with
mica, giving it in many places a slaty form ; this variety is the micaceous
sandstone of some authors. In the locality just mentioned, I found a
large calamite in the sandstone, and in the slate clay at a short dis-
tance from it a fern and seed. The iron which occurs disseminated
through the wackes is the red iron ore, or red hematite, in too small
quantity however to be of any economical value. In proceeding
* Simce the above was written, we have seen the splendid collection of Capt. Baker
at Dadoopoor. In it we saw several specimens which could not be referred to any of
the animals already described, no doubt quite new species ; one, of which however there
was only a fragment, seemed to belong to a genus hitherto unnoticed, approaching
in several characters to one of the genera established by Cuvier, probably forming
one of the connecting links,
6s
1046 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [ Dec.
from Bhar towards the Fir-tree Bungalow, we meet with much trap
(greenstone) breaking through in every direction, and altering the
Neptunian secondary strata, rendering their examination rather intri-
cate. In proceeding from Subathoo to the eastward, towards the village
of Draw, we have a fine example of the coal formation presented ;
opposite to this village we meet with limestone dipping to the S.W. un-
der an angle of about 50°. Resting upon it, there is a bed of slate clay,
and upon it, another bed of limestone; proceeding towards the west-
ward we meet with sandstone, and resting upon it limestone ; succeed-
ing it, slate clay and bituminous shale. At the village of Koli we
again meet with limestone, and as we proceed, following the same
route, passing the villages of Benti, Rugg, Gegutkun, Shulkiali to
Boag, we meet with other ten similar alternations, (see Sec. II).
The beds have all the same dip, the angle varying from 25° to 56°.
At Draw there is a water-fall, which is precipitated over the lime-
stone cliffs. The whole face of the cliffs here, and along the route just
mentioned, having a height varying from about 150 to 200 feet, are
more or less covered with calcareous sinter and tuffa, shewing, as these
minerals are deposited from water, that water-falls must at one time
have been general in this district. Resting upon the limestone at
Draw, and in one or two other localities, we meet with an extraordi-
nary alluvial conglomerate, composed of small angular fragments of
limestone, slate clay, bituminous shale and sandstone, held together
by calcareous matter deposited from the water ; whether the calcareous
matter is deposited by springs issuing from the limestone rock, we
are unable to state, our examination being of such a cursory nature ;
it is however more than probable. To account for goitre, various
theories have been proposed, and the one, viz., that it is owing to
mineral matter (lime) contained in the water of which the inhabi-
tants drink, has been adopted, and strongly advocated by many
medical men in this country. According to this theory it ought to be
very prevalent in this neighbourhood. That this explanation will
account for the disease in many localities, is no doubt probable; but
how are we to explain its occurrence, and that too, toa great extent
in primitive districts, where the only rocks met with are gneiss, mica,
slate, clay slate, and granite, and in all the springs in which no lime
has been detected ; moreover, in many districts in Britain and on the
continent of Europe, composed entirely of limestone, and in whose
springs lime abounds, goitre is unknown. We shall afterwards enter
fully upon the subject, when we have examined among the Himmaleh
districts, similar to the above, of which there are no doubt many. In
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1047
the meantime we beg to draw attention to the villages occurring
between Boag and Draw, in order that it may be proved whether
goitre is prevalent or not. In its characters, the limestone varies from
compact to earthy, the latter caused by the action of the weather; its
colour varies from greyish white to bluish black, and in many places
we find large embedded masses of stinkstone, of a dark greyish brown
colour, or rather we ought to say, that the limestone during its depo-
sition, has, by the evolution of sulphurated hydrogen, been converted
into this mineral ; when broken, the foeted odour is strongly percep-
tible. For architectural purposes, and as a top dressing when burnt,
to soils containing the salt of iron, or any acid matter, this limestone
is admirably adapted. In this manner many of the soils in India
might be much improved. In structure, the slate clay and bitu-
minous shale vary much; in some places indurated, in others partly
decomposed. Their colour also varies much; of the former the
most prevalent colour is greyish black, of the latter, brownish black ;
sometimes the slate clay, owing to the abundance of iron, is of a reddish
brown colour. At the village of Boriti the slate clay has an angle of 70°,
and is much contorted ; near to this there is a thin bed of slate embedded
in the sandstone. In regard to the rocks of the coal formation here, and
those of other localities already mentioned, we may state (as we
have already done generally) that they present the same minera-
logical eharacters as those rocks, occupying a similar position in
Europe. ‘The true position of the coal measures, which has fre-
quently been given erroneously by authors in this country, is when
the geological series is complete between the red conglomerate
and mountain or carboniferous limestone; the former the Rothi-
bugende* of the Germans is frequently wanting; when this
occurs, we have the magnesian limestone superimposed upon the
coal measures. In a work lately published on Indian Geology,
it has been stated, that the magnesian limestone occurs, alterna-
ting with the coal strata. As such a statement is very apt to lead
‘to a serious error, we have been induced to notice it. The rocks
which the author has found, are merely the limestone of the coal
formation, impregnated with magnesia ; and it is a fact, proved by a
vast series of experiments, that when the coal or any other limestone
comes in contact with trap, it generally receives a large dose of mag-
* In England it is sometimes termed the Exeter red conglomerate. In Scotland it
has never been met with.
1048 Remarks on the Geology, &c. | Dre.
nesia, sometimes as much as 35 or 40 per cent.* Moreover in a practi-
cal point of view, it is of the greatest consequence to distinguish these
two rocks, as coal never occurs associated with the magnesian lime-
stone, properly so called. In the same work the author talks about
the discovery of shell limestone in the coal formation; no doubt
he discovered limestone with shells, which frequently abound in
the coal limestone ; the other term however is strictly applied to a
rock which is much newer and of rare occurrence, which has not
as yet been met with in England. Murchison, however, has stated,
that he has found its equivalent on the European continent ; it occu-
pies a position between the red marl, and the new red sandstone. It
is the Muchelkalk of the Germans. ‘To distinguish therefore between
these, and at the same time to apply their proper names, is of conse-
quence, which can be easily done by examining the fossil proper
to each ; characteristic of the latter, we have Encrinilis, Monitiformis,
Avicula, Socialis, and Ammonites, Nodasus, &c., and of the former
Producta Serebralule, or the Ceratitis, &c. _
‘There is another circumstance worthy of notice here, viz. Red
Sandstone. It is not to be supposed that when sandstone is of a red
colour, it must always belong either to the old or the new red sand-
stone, an erroneous idea which has led to many errors, and much
censure by foreign geologists. To find red sandstone alternating with
the white sandstone of the coal measures (a fact which ought to be
recollected by individuals engaged in searching for coal in this coun-
try,) in Europe, is not unfrequent. In lower Silisia nearly the whole
of the coal field is composed of reddish brown, and cochineal co-
loured sandstone, with which great beds of coal alternate.t In Scot-
land, in the Lothians, alternations of the red and white sandstone
in the coal fields are frequently met with.t This rock (red sand-
stone) seems to occur in great abundance in this country ; its relations,
however, have not been properly investigated. In a report drawn
up for the Coal Committee by Dr. M‘Clelland, there is much in-
teresting information in regard to it; of the rocks which enter into
the composition of the coal formation, we have already mentioned as
occurring among the Himmialehs sandstone, slate clay, bituminous
shale, and limestone. ‘To make the series complete, we want, fine
* Edinburgh New Phil. Journal. Analysis of Limestone from the neighbourhood of
Trap Dumifrieshre, by William Copland, Esq. In the same Journal many
similar analyses will be found,
+ Notes to the Geology of Dumfrieshire, by Professor Jameson.
+ Ibid. Locis Citatis and Cunningham’s Essay on the Geol. of the
vol. VII
Trans.
1839.] of the country eatending between Bhar and Simla. 1049
clay, clay ironstone, and coal, which consists of four kinds—pitch
coal, slate coal, canal coal, and glance coal ; the last however in the
secondary series occurs in but small quantity, and is of no value.
Resting immediately below the carboniferous or mountain limestone,
we find among the Himmalehs a series of slates (the old red sand-
stone where we have as yet examined being wanting) the equivalent
of Murchison’s Silurian system, between which however there is no
line of demarcation from the transition properly so called, viz. the
grey wacke, grey wacke slate, clay slate, &c. having the same
angle, dip, and direction. Shortly after leaving the Fir-tree
Bungalow, we meet with the slates in general dipping to the N. E.,
under an angle of upwards of 70°. At Hurreepoor Bunga-
low we still meet with the same slates, alternating with quartz
rock, and as we approach near to Syree, we meet with a series
of alternations of grey wacke, grey wacke slate, clay slate, sand-
stone, and quartz rock. Syree village is built upon clay slate;
on ascending the hill which overlooks Syree, we find the slate
occurring nearly at right angles, with the usual dip to the N. E., pro-
duced by a large mass of quartz rock. Inno part of the mountains
which have as yet come under our observation, are the effects of
the quartz rock on the grand scale more beautifully seen, than in this
locality, nor could a finer example in order to study the effects, and ~
at the same time the relations of the latter, be pointed out. On
the south side of the village of Calug, which consists of a few native
huts, the slate is highly inclined, and much contorted, and dips to the
N. under an angle of 75°. Before reaching the village of Badari, which
consists of a small bazar, and about twenty or thirty native houses,
we again meet with the quartz rock, stratified, and dipping to the
N.W. under an angle of 25°. Immediately above the village
mentioned, close to which a mountain torrent passes, we have a
beautiful section of clay slate, upwards of two hundred feet, being
exposed dipping to the N. and W. under an angle of 25°.
At the first resting place used by coolies coming from Simla, a
small table-shaped hill, distant about two miles from it, there is
an immense dyke of basaltic greenstone, cutting through the clay
sJate, which at the line of junction, and for some distance, is much
indurated. Cutting through the basaltic greenstone we have small
dykes of syenitic greenstone, we have therefore here three different
ages of formation. From this place to Simla we meet with the
same clay slate, in many places however highly crystalline and pass-
ing into mica slate. The numerous metamorphisms which the slate
assumes around Simla, passing from the rather earthy looking slate
1050 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [ Dae.
of the transition series, into the highly crystalline slate, which is
composed almost entirely of mica, or into chlorite slate, mica slate,
&e. renders, if the individual observations are confined to this place
alone, the determination of the age of the strata in general, impossible.
In fact, the whole of the rocks in the neighbourhood of Simla ap-
pear to be more or less altered, but all belonging to one grand group,
viz. the transition. ‘To make out this point, we must proceed north-
ward from Simla towards Kotgur, where ample means will be
found to settle it. The changes observed are quite similar to those
exhibited by the grey wacke in the south of Scotland, when in
contact with Plutonian rocks.* In examining the neighbourhood
of Simla, we were much assisted by Dr. Macleod, who being inti-
mately acquainted with all the finest, most interesting, and best ex-
posed sections, at once directed our attention to them, by means of which
we were in a comparatively short time enabled to acquire a thorough
knowledge of the district. To him we beg here to acknowledge
our great obligations, and to return our grateful thanks.
The rocks met with in the neighbourhood of Simla, are,
1 Grey wacke,
2 Grey wacke slate,
3 Clay slate,
4 Chlorite slate,
5 Mica slate,
6 Quartz rock,
7 Syenite,
on both sides of Simla valley, whose direction proceeding down-
wards is at first nearly due east and west, it then takes a turn to the
south west; there is clay slate; on its east and by north side we
have the Jacko mountain, reaching to a height of 8,300 feet above
the level of the sea. It is entirely composed of clay slate, in many
places as near; and at the summit, we meet with large embedded
dykes of quartz rock.t The ridge upon which the Simla bazar
* Journ. on the Geology of the Criffel Kirkbran and the Needle’s Eye in Galloway.
Wern. Tran. vol. IV. Dr. Grierson on the mica of Galloway. Ibid, vol. II. and
Hay Cunningham, locis citatis.
¢ The Jacko is the highest mountain met with in the neighbourhood of Simla,
it is considered to be about 800 feet above the Simla bazar. By experiments made
conjointly with Dr. Macleod, with thermometers and boiling water, we ascertained
that his house, situated at the foot of Jacko, was 7,800. By similar experiments we
ascertained the height of Subathoo 4,480 (Mr. G. Clerk’s house at Bunnassur 5,600) ;
on all occasions we used rain water if it (or snow water which is the best) is not used,
the result given is usually inaccurate, common spring water containing a quantity
of foreign ingredients, it ought therefore never; if possible, be had recourse to.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1051
rests is also almost entirely composed of clay slate, dipping to the
south east under an angle of 25°. In Section No. III. we have
given a view of the strata extending from Dr. Macleod’s house, at the
foot of Jacko, immediately above the bazar, to Lord Auckland’s
Road.
The clay slate varies in colour from bluish black to ash grey,
with the various intermediate tints. In structure, it varies from
rather earthy to highly crystalline, and in its transitions we have
it passing, as in Simla valley, into chlorite slate; in other places, as in
the Auckland Road, into quartz rock, the latter of which frequently
alternates with it, in thin layers, forming mica slate. In composition,
as already stated, it frequently consists of nothing but mica. In the
section of the Auckland Road, we meet with a darge mass of. slaty
quartz rock, formed by thin layers of clay slate alternating with the
quartz rock ; in fact it is almost identically the same in mineralogical
characters, as the rock met with in the Lockken district in Kirkeud-
bright, Scotland ; from the first time we examined this section we
were instantly struck with the identity, which a further examination
fully verified, of the induration and alternation of the clay slate in
junction with quartz rock; we have a beautiful example at the
first water-fall below Simla. Here there are large masses of quartz,
forming dykes of many yards in thickness in the clay slate, whose grey-
ish white colour contrast finely with the dark bluish colour of the lat-
ter rock. The fall is a perpendicular height of about 140 feet, over
which, during the rainy season, a very considerable body of water
is precipitated, forming an interesting sight, well worthy of the atten-
tion of the traveller ; with Dr. Macleod we also visited and examined
the other water-fall, some distance below the one mentioned, and
found the rocks, &c. to be similar. In tracing the strata in the bed of
the river from it towards Simla, we meet with many junctions, and it
is here we find the clay slate passing into chlorite slate. The rolled
masses, or boulders, principally consist of quartz rock, syenite, clay
slate, chlorite slate, &c. Ina valley bearing north and by east from
Anandale, there is a quarry of clay slate, which is used as a roof-
ing material for many of the houses in Simla, the rouge, huge, thick
and unshapely masses employed are quite in unison with the minera-
logical operations carried on in other parts of India ; in fact it is quite
remarkable that the beams are able to support the enormous weight
superimposed. We have already stated that no where in the immedi-
ate neighbourhood of Simla is grey wacke to be met with; but as
we proceed northward towards Kotgur, about one and a half miles, we
1052 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [ Dec.
meet with a series of alternations of grey wacke, grey wacke slate, and
clay slate, having the same dip and direction as the slates just
mentioned, proving that they must be of the same age, and that
they were up-raised contemporaneously. How far this series extends
towards the north we have not as yet ascertained ; as far as we
have gone, viz. upwards of four miles beyond Simla, we have still
found it.* Four miles to the south of Simla we have already no-
ticed a similar series of alternations. In its characters, the grey
macke is characteristic, consisting of a basis of clay slate, with
imbedded fragments of clay slate, quartz rock, flints, &c. The size
of the embedded fragment varies from upwards of six inches, to so
small as to be almost imperceptible to the naked eye, and forming
gradually a transition from the grey wacke to the grey wacke slate,
and from it into clay slate, in which no fragments exist. In No. V. we
have given a section exhibiting the different alternations from the most
northern point to which we have as yet gone to Simla. It is rather
remarkable, that here, where we find the grey wacke unaltered, quartz
rock occurs in but small quantity. The clay slate which alter-
nates with the two rocks mentioned, is identical in its mineralogical
characters with the clay slate of Simla, when not in junction with
quartz rock. '
Quartz rocks occur in three different forms ; as imbedded masses in
the slate, as dykes or veins, and in masses exhibiting the regular
stratified form; the seams of stratification being as well marked as
either those of clay slate, or grey wacke slate. In structure it is
compact or granular, much more frequently the former. The colour is
generally greyish white ; sometimes, owing to the presence of iron, it is
reddish brown, blood or brick red ; in a few instances we have observed
it of a rose red colour, void, however, of the fine translucency observed
* Since the above was written we have in company with Dr. Macleod examined the
country as far as Tagoo; the predominant rock isstill the clay slate ; near to Mabassoo
we meet with two alternations of quartz rocks. In this route the clay slate is fre-
quently formed contorted in a most extraordinary manner. The dip is generally
north and west, the angle varying, in some places it was about 70%. ‘The magni-
ficence and grandeur of the view of the snowy range from Mabassoo can be better
imagined than described, and the optical delusion is so great, as to make it appear
not more than six or seven miles distant. In the foreground you have here and there
thick wooded districts, whose dark shade contrasts beautifully with the bleak white, but
majestic peaks, whose snow-clad summits tower into the heavens, and defy all human
exertion to surmount. Here also you see well what we have already stated, though
with some doubt, viz. the parallelism of the subordinate mountain ranges and
valleys.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1053
in the rose quartz* met with in Bavaria, Saxony, &c. That the quartz
rock owes its formation in many places to Plutonian action, is fully
proved by the observations already made, and by many other sections
not yet noticed. Probably the best to illustrate this, is to be met with
on the road leading from the small church of Simla down to the river
torrent. Here we have a large dyke of quartz rock, cutting through
the slate, and altering it; superimposed there is a large mass of slate
lying upon the outcrop of the dyke, unconformable to the other slate,
and at the same time converted into a highly crystalline mass, which
seems to have been torn off from the subjacent rock at the time when
the quartz rock came from below (see section VI.) ; moreover to meet
with large masses of slate imbedded in the quartz rock, is not an
uncommon occurrence. In the Simla road, immediately above the
cantonments of the Goorka battalion, there is a good example. The
alteration, shifts, &c., met with in the clay slate when near the
quartz rock (see section VII.), is also another proof of the existence of
Plutonian action, and moreover we find it passing imperceptibly in
the new road, or Auckland Road, into syenite. Here also imbedded
in the quartz rock, we frequently meet with veins of quartz of a
much whiter colour, pointing out in a striking manner the shifts which
have taken place (see section VIII.) That however in other places it
is Neptunian deposition, is evident from its regularly stratified form,
and at the same time when in contact, not altering the clay slate.
The last rock we have to notice is Syentte. It occurs in only one
locality, in the form of a large amorphous dyke, intersecting and
altering the clay slete, it passes gradually into quartz rock. In
structure it is small, granular, and is composed of quartz and horn-
blende, the former of a greyish white, the latter of a leek green colour.
As we have not examined sufficiently minute the trapst mentioned,
we shall take another opportunity of giving an account of them.
* The rose quartz of mineralogists, owes its colour to manganese, and is much prized,
when pure, as a precious stone; it is however very liable to fade, if much exposed to
the air, Jam. Manus, Sect.
+ At Rajmahul, where it is stated existed the capital of the Mahomedan power
in Bengal, in the reign of Akbar, towards the end of the sixteenth century, we find
among the ruins some fine examples exhibiting the polish, which some of the trap are
capable of receiving. Thus, in the Swngi Dullau, or marble hall, erroneously so
called, there are still existing some enormous slates of beautifully polished basaltic
clinkstone, ornamenting the doorways, walls, &c. which by the ignorant have been con-
sidered black marble, and thus given rise to the erroneous name. In every work
we have consulted, this term is used. It is also stated that the ruins principally con-
sist of granite, a word too frequently used as a cloak for ignorance. What we princi-
pally saw were bricks ana trap.
6 7
1054 Remarks on the Geology, Sc. [ Dec.
In regard to simple minerals met with imbedded in the rocks, our
list is but small, consisting of
Calcereous Spar,
Sinter,
——— Tuffa,
— Quartz,
Dodecahudial Garnet.
Red and brown Hematite.
In addition to the localities mentioned of the iron ores, Dr. Macleod
pointed out to us several masses in the bed of the river torrent in
Simla valley, shewing probably, as the fragments were angular, that
a vein, or veins, occur near, of little value, however, from their impu-
rity. In regard to the garnets, it is rather a remarkable fact that
we have only met with them in those localities where the clay slate ap-
pears to have been much altered ; the same has been remarked in Europe
by Sedgwick, and Lyell. As yet we have no account of the minerals
met with among the Himmalehs ; those already noticed amount to not
more than twenty or thirty, a statement truly remarkable, pointing
out how lamentably this department has been neglected; in such a
mighty range we ought to meet with an immense number of minerals.
In the collection of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, we found several
minerals which have never as yet been noticed as occurring in India ;
but whether these were found in this country, or imported, is a ques-
tion, no labels being attached, and Mr. J. Prinsep in England. Cal-
careous spar occurs frequently in the form of veins in the clay slate.
Of the other minerals mentioned, the localities have already been ©
given.
Having now noticed, both generally and particularly, all the rocks
and minerals which have as yet come under our observation, we
shall make a few remarks in regard to that formation (the most
important of all formations) which forms such large tracts of the
Himmalehs ; I allude to the coal formation. From what has been
stated by authors, and from what we have already seen, it is not
at all improbable that there is a belt composed of those rocks, extend-
ing along the whole base of the Himmalehs proper. The furthest
point, to the westward of which we have notice of these rocks, is At-
tock, and to the eastward, probably Darjeling ; comprehending about
17° of longitude ; that, however, it extends further in both directions,
is more than probable. That no bed of coal worth working has
* Near Subathoo imbedded in the slate, sulphate of lime or gypsum is found. From
this rock the celebrated Plaster of Paris is made.
1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1035
been met with in such a vast tract of country, results not from its
absence, but, probably, from the partial manner in which the country
has been examined. Captain Herbert in one of the vols. of the Asiatic
Society's Trans. has given a paper on the occurrence of coal in the
Indo-Gangetic mountains, in which he comes to the conclusion, that
all the sandstones and other rocks noticed, belong to the red wacke
series, but from data utterly groundless; and remarks in regard to
the probability of finding the coal formation, that the indications
are unfavourable ; we shall however quote his own words—“ it will be
perhaps asked,” he says, ‘‘is this coal, of which the traces are proba-
bly widely diffused in our sandstone range, likely to prove of any
value, or do these many indications afford any ground to hope for
the discovery of more extensive and profitable deposits?” To this
it may be replied, that the considerations upon which are founded the
hope of discovering, in the neighbourhood of these mountains, the
true coal formations, are quite independent of its occurrence under
this type and in this form; if any thing perhaps, they are rather
unfavourable to the expectation of eventually discovering beds of the
true coal formation, for it has been noticed, that in those countries in
which the coal beds are most largely developed, as in England, the
traces of the mineral in the superincumbent sandstone are rare, if
not altogether wanting; while on the continent, where the true coal
beds do not occur, small seams or veins are frequently met with in
this rock. To find traces of coal in superincumbent sandstone, in
districts where coal has not been found, is one of the strongest evi-
dences, if not the most important, that coal is present. In fact nothing
is more common in a coal district, than to see disseminated through
the sandstone, or occurring in small seams, coal prior to reaching an
important bed ; we may state that from it weare entitled to infer, that
if a shaft is sunk sooner or later, we shall arrive at the bed of
coal. In examining a coal district, advantage should be taken of
all the streams that occur in a district, for by so doing, a transverse
section of the strata is obtained, and frequently thus the outcrop
of a bed of coal is perceived. It is also of importance to examine
the masses which occur in the stream, coal in such localities, fre-
quently occurring at a considerable distance from the bed in situ.
If the remarks of Captain Herbert were applicable, all the obser-
vations made by geologists, mining engineers, &c., would be void.
In the same paper we are told, that grey wacke is considered as
synonymous with the old red sandstone by most geologists; who
these geologists are he alludes to, we do not know. Also that at Delhi
1056 Remarks on the Geology, &c. [ Dre.
and other places there is a primary sandstone ; we take notice of these
statements, in order to shew that Captain Herbert made the above
statements prematurely. It is impossible for any individual at all
acquainted with the mineralogical characters of rocks, and the rela-
tive position which they occupy in the crust of the earth, to attempt
to prove that in one continent rocks with identically the same charac-
ters and fossils, are different from those in another. To find slate
clay, bituminous shale, limestone, and sandstone, as the equivalent of
the red marl, upon the evidences he has given, is more than prema-
ture, originating however, in all probability, from the description of the
rocks in the Punjaub, which (probably without a proper examina-
tion) have been considered as the continuation of those to the east-
ward. It has been stated no doubt that no bituminous shale occurs,
but we have shewn that it, as well as limestone, occurs in great
abundance, the former of which rendering the probability of the exist-
ence of coal in quantity, more probable. That the equivalent of the
red marl may be found, and that too in some of the districts men-
tioned by Herbert, is possible; and if such should turn out to be the
case, it is well worthy of examination, seeing that it is in this for-
mation, the great beds of rock, salt, and gypsum, or sulphate of
lime are found.
To discover coal in quantity in the neighbourhood of the
Sutledge, or any place where there is easy access of carriage
in that direction, would no doubt, in a short time, be of incal-
culable benefit to the country at large. Ina short time the Indus
will become an immense resort for trade, and we may expect
it soon to be covered by all kinds of vessels ; but those to which
the European looks forward, whose power and rapidity of mo-
tion have so approximated Europe, will ever take the lead; and
until stream vessels are impelled by some other moving power,
coal will ever be considered as one of the greatest benefits conferred on
mankind ; moreover in connexion with the coal we may expect to find
clay iron-stone, which will also prove of the utmost consequence.
It is from this ore that three-fourths of the iron is obtained in Eng-
Jand. It has been met with at Darjeling, and several other places
in India, but from the want of fuel and flax to reduce it, we do
not think it has ever been made use of. If however we look
at the mineral resources of this country, what are they at the present
moment? nothing to what they ought ; a spirit of inquiry is now hap-
pily gaining ground; sanctioned by Government a coal committee
has been appointed. ‘To its proceedings therefore we look forward
ths ‘cone ended nen
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1839.] of the country extending between Bhar and Simla. 1057
with interest, and hope soon to see through its exertions, a spirit of
inquiry stirred up throughout India.
( Szgned, ) W. JaMEsoNn.
AMBALLA,
13th October, 1839.
Art. V.—Note on the process of washing for the Gold Dust and
Diamonds at Heera Khoond. By Major J. R. OusExey.
The day before yesterday, I visited the Heera Khoond, and saw
the process of washing for gold dust and diamonds. A set of fishermen
have villages free from rent ; on this service, men, women, and children
are employed. The women alone wash, the men and children bring
the gravel and sand in wooden trays, and place it in the trough, which
is open at one end, with a gentle inclination towards the river, on
the edge of which the women sit. With their left hands they stir
up the gravel, and with the right pour water out of a wooden bas-
ket-looking bucket gently over the upper end; it runs out into the
river, the larger pebbles and gravel are thrown over, and the finer
sand, on the trough being full, re-washed until little remains, when
it is removed into the wooden trays, and by dipping them under
water, and shaking them about, the gravel gradually falls over, leaving
only gold dust. They detect the diamonds at a glance, as they wash.
One I saw about the size of a large grain of wheat, clear and bright ;
but these are not to be purchased, as they are the Raja’s property. The
gold they are allowed to dispose of ; which they do at 12 or 15 rupees
per tola. The veins are, I am convinced, some distance off, as the grains
of gold appear flattened by collision, in rolling among pebbles. I have
the pleasure to send 3 mashas, (4 a tola not yet brought), and some
of the rocks about the spot where the diamonds and gold dust are
found. The Heera Khoond is an island, about a coss long, and one
or two hundred yards wide in the Mahanuddy, seven miles, seven
and a half furlongs from the eastern end of Sumbulpoor. The Heera
Khoond, is that part of the river, which runs south of the islands
The diamonds and gold dust are said to be washed down the
Ebee river, about four miles above the Heera Khoond; but as
both are procurable as far as Soonpoor, I am inclined to think there
may be veins of gold along the Mahanuddy. It would however,
I think, be very desirable to have this part of the country properly
examined, which it never was yet. Gold washings might be under-
1058 On washing for gold dust and diamonds, &c. [ Dec.
taken on mechanical principles, which would, by reducing the manual
labour, make the speculation highly profitable in gold dust alone, set-
ting aside the diamonds.
The season for washing is after the river subsides, on the rains
ceasing ; but they occasionally continue until the rains again interrupt
their labours. I have fancied that a graduated wire-sieve washing
machine might be made, larger at the top, and smaller as the sieves
approach the bottom, which would in the passage of the debris, flung
in at the top one, to the bottom (a wooden tray) keep the more mi-
nute particles in suspension, or permit of the sieves retaining in suc-
cession the pebbles of gravelly matter; all earthy particles being
carried away, if the machine were placed in a gentle stream, the
gold dust would be found in the tray. Each sieve should be carefully
examined for diamonds, on the machine being full; the machine might
be six feet long, two wide, and six or eight high. The sieves being
a foot or 18 inches apart, it would be necessary only to take up the top
and second sieves often, the lower ones would take longer to fill;
the machine should be made so as to admit of its being shaken con-
stantly, and hung up in water six or seven feet deep, where the
current would be gentle.
J. R. Ouse vey.
Camp, Sumbulpoor,
Feb. 14th, 1840.
P.S.—Their is also gold dust, in the Brahminee river, about six
marches east of this, but no diamonds.
The women sit along the edge of the river, facing inwards, and
gradually form little mountains of pebbles. The number employ-
ed is very great, but the speculation is not very profitable now.
1839.] Asiatic Society. 1059
Art. VI.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society.
(Wednesday Evening, the 4th March, 1840.,
The Honorable Sir E. Ryan, President, in the chair.
The Proceedings of the last Meeting were read.
Messrs. James CorquHoun, H. SwEETENHAM, C. K. Ropison, T. C. Capocan,
and R. H. Matuews, proposed at the last Meeting, were balloted for and duly elected
Members of the Society.
M. Renavp proposed at the last Meeting, was upon the favourable report of the
Committee of Papers elected an honorary Member of the Society.
The Rev. A.W. Street proposed by Dr. O’SHavuGHNESsy, seconded by Mr.
SUTHERLAND.
Rajah Kisutna Natu Roy proposed by Mr. SuTHERLAND, seconded by Dr.
O’ SHAUGHNESSY.
Read letters from Messrs. A. Portrus and W. A. GREEN, withdrawing themselves
from the Society.
Read a letter from Messrs. W. H. ALLEN and Co. intimating their having for-
warded the busts of Sir Wm. Jonrs and Mr. CoLeBRooKE, per ship “ Felicity.”’? (‘The
busts arrived on the 20th April in perfect safety.)
Read a letter from James Reynotps, Esq., Secretary to the Oriental Translation
Fund of the Royal Asiatic Society, stating that arrears of the Society’s subscriptions
were due to the amount of 42/., from 1836 to 1839 inclusive.
The Secretary informed the Meeting that the Society’s Book Agents in London
have been instructed to discharge the claim in question.
Library.
The following books were presénted :—
The East Indian Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts, No. 1, by R.
C. Woops, Esq. L.L.D.——by the Author.
Esquisse Generale del’ Afrique by Mr. M. D’? AvErGac,——by the Author.
through R. C. Woops, Esq., L.L.D.
Proceedings of the Bombay Geographical Society, May, 1839,——by the Society.
Proceedings of the Astronomical Society, vol. 4, No. 24,—by the Society.
English and Chinese Vocabulary, by R. Morrison, D.D.——by Messrs.
Thacker & Co.
A brief account of the Chronometer, with remarks on those furnished by ParxKIN-
son and FropsuHam to the expeditions of Capts. Ross, Parry, SaBine, KING,
Lyon, Foster, and other distinguished navigators——by Mr. Frodsham.
Madras Journal, Nos. 21, 22, 23 and 24———by the Madras Library and Auxiliary
Royal Asiatic Society.
The following was received from the Booksellers :—
Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, Biography, Literary and Scientific men, vol. 2.
Literary and Physical.
Major J. R. OusE.ey forwarded a short notice of the process of washing for the
gold dust and diamonds at Heera Khoond, with specimens of the gold dust.
1060 Asiatic Society. [ Desc.
Read a letter from Capt. T.S. Burt, forwarding copy of a facsimile taken by
him at Paijore.
Read a letter from Major T. Jervis, (Engineers) forwarding a paper on the
cotton at Gujerat, by Mr. VauPELL.
Read a letter from R. C. Woops, Esq. forwarding a paper on the Introduction
to the study of the science of Ethnology, or the Natural History of the human
race. }
Read a letter from Dr. N. Wa tticu, forwarding for presentation on behalf of Mr.
PaRKER a specimen of the timber of the ‘“‘ Royal George,’ blown up in Colonel
PasLEy’s operations.
Various specimens of minerals were presented by Major J. R. OusELEY.
A sword fish and a hammer-headed shark, were presented by E. D. Fanian, Esa.
An alligator, presented by Mr. R. S. Homrray.
Museum.
Pursuant to the resolutions of the last Meeting, the Secretary then laid before the
Meeting the rules framed by the Committee of Papers, regarding the office of
Curator of the Museum.
At a Meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, held on the 5th February,
1840, it was proposed by Sir E. Ryan, seconded by H. T. Prinszup, Esa.
and unanimously agreed,
That the office of Curator to the Society’s Museum be held in future on the follow-
ing conditions—Ist. Two hours at least to be devoted daily to the duties of the Muse-
um. 2nd. Monthly reports to be made to the Committee of Papers. 3rd. The objects
of Natural History belonging to the Society’s collection not to be removed from the
Museum. It was further decided, that the Committee of Papers should report to the
next Meeting, on the nature and extent of the duties the Curator is to undertake, with
reference to the office as held in other Museums.
Report of the Committee of Papers.
The Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal may be considered to embrace two
very distinct departments : Ist. That of Oriental Antiquities, Literature, Architecture,
and Numismatics. 2nd. That of Natural History.
It would be of great importance to secure, were it possible, the services of a Curator
conversant with both these divisions ; but such a combination of acquirements is so rare,
that the Society must trust the arrangement, elucidation, and preservation of the articles
appertaining to the first division, to the honorary services of the Oriental Secretary,
the Librarian, and Pundits.
In the department of Natural History, it must be borne in mind, that the Curator’s
great object should be, to arrange and extend the Society’s collections so as to make
these available for the information of the student, conducive to the general illustration
and advancement of science, and worthy of the place the Society holds among learned
institutions. Viewed in this light, it is of far more importance to the Society that their
Curator should assiduously apply himself to the collection, naming, and arrangement,
of procurable specimens of the animal and mineral kingdoms, than that he should
specially devote himself to the minute elucidation of any sub-division of these subjects.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 1061
By the elaborate investigation of a group or family, he may doubtless distinguish him-
self, and gain high individual reputation, but his utility to the Society would be far
greater, by his applying himself to the humbler duties we have specified; moreover, it
appears to us that these duties are in themselves more than sufficient to occupy the
Curator’s time, were it even to be entirely devoted to their discharge.
Our collection of minerals is an utter chaos, though rich in anonymous specimens,
—valuable in themselves as illustrations of abstract mineralogy, but devoid of in-
terest in a geological or geographical light, owing to the neglect with which they
have been treated by some preceding Curators. It appears to the Committee of
Papers, that the first object of the Society, in remodelling its Museum, should be, to
form a grand collection of minerals and fossils, illustrative of the geology, geography,
and paleontology of our British Indian possessions.
A few of the existing minerals, and some superb fossils in our Museum are available
for this object, but it is clearly within the scope of the Society’s influence to procure,
within a few months, collections of specimens from every part of India, and in such
numbers as would find the Curator in ample employment. While waiting for these
additions to our collections, he should proceed to name and label those already in our
possession. There is no need for delay for the preparation of cabinets, The speci-
mens should be named, labelled, wrapped in paper with a number affixed, and then
packed in boxes, until the cabinets are ready.
Duplicates of all specimens should be preserved for verification and analysis. Tri-
plicates should be retained, wherever practicable, for presentation to other Museums in
exchange.
The monthly reports should be a statement of progress in this duty, and affording a
catalogue of the minerals adjusted. The specimens themselves should be exhibited at
each Meeting.
This duty the Committee think should supersede all others for the first few months
of the Curator’s employment, meanwhile his subordinates would conduct the arrange-
ment of such specimens of the animal kingdom, as might require immediate attention.
All correspondence connected with the Museum should pass through the Secretary’s
Office, in conformity with the practice of similar institutions. It seems to the Com-
mittee of Papers an anomalous and inexpedient practice to commit the whole manage-
ment of exchanges and similar transactions to the Curator. The suggestions of that
officer will be always received with due attention and respect by the Committee; but it
is manifest that without their being referred to it, the Committee cannot be responsible
for the expenditure which the Curator’s measures and correspondence may entail, for
the views on which he may act in the management of the Museum, nor for the light in
which this department of the Society’s labours may be regarded by scientific men, and
institutions in other countries.
It seems necessary too, to stipulate that all memoirs or papers drawn up by the Cu-
rator for publication, as well as plates, models, &c., on subjects he may have investi-
gated in discharge of his duties, should be in the first instance placed at the disposal
of the Committee of Papers, also that all proofs of such papers pass through the inspec-
tion of the same body.
The Committee are led to this suggestion by the circumstance ofa fly-leaf having
been prefixed, without their sanction or knowledge, to the last volume of the Transac-
tions. Although containing nothing from which the Committee would dissent, the
6 U
1062 Asiatic Society. [ Dec.
precedent is one which they are desirous of avoiding, as it obviously may lead to many
objectionable results.
The Committee deem it highly desirable to secure, if possible, Dr. M‘Clelland’s
valuable services on the terms they have now set forth. His acquiremenits in various
departments of Natural History, his zeal for the promotion of science, the liberality
and disinterestedness he has evinced in his past connexion with the Museum, entitle
him to be preferred to most competitors for this appointment. The Committee have
endeavoured in this report however to discuss without bias towards any individual, thie
stipulations for tenure of office, which they deem most conducive to the interests of the
Society and of science, and most likely to receive the approbation of the Government,
through whose liberal grant the occasion of this discussion has arisen.
In the event, however, of Dr. M‘Clelland’s declining to accept the situation on the
terms now proposed, the Committee recommend that candidates be invited to present
themselves, that the testimonials of such candidates be examined and reported on by
the Committee of Papers, and finally considered ata General Meeting. That the indi-
vidual selected be appointed, but for twelve months, and his permanent appointment
be made dependent on the ability and industry evinced during the probationary period.
Should no candidate of sufficient acquirements present himself within three months,
the Committee recommend that the President be requested to communicate with the
proper scientific authorities in Europe, authorizing the appointment and dispatch to
India of a competent individual, bound to serve the Society for a period of five years,
and subject to the rules herein expressed.
The Committee would not be disposed to extend to any other individual but Dr.
M‘Clelland, the privilege of devoting but two hours daily to the Museum, and would
require four hours at least, actual attendance at the Museum, from whatever other
candidate might be selected.
EDWARD RYAN, KZ. Chief Justice of Bengal, & President of the Society.
H. T. PRINSEP, Member of Supreme Council, and Vice President.
W. P. GRANT, Civil Service.
H. TORENS, Civil Service.
J. C. C. SUTHERLAND,
W. B. O'SHAUGHNESSY, g Acting Secretaries, &c.
D. McLEOD, Colonel of Engineers, and Vice-President.
D. STEWART, Superintendent General of Vaccine.
DAVID HARE, Commissioner of Court of Requests.
H. W. SETON, Kt. Puisne Judge, &a
W. H. FORBES, Major of Engineers, and Mint Master.
N. WALLICH, M.D. Superintendent of H. C. Botanic Garden.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 1063
Minute by Dr. Grant, Apothecary to the Honorable Company.
I regret that I cannot concur in the whole of this report. Agreeing with much of the
general principle that pervades it, I dissent from its application to our peculiar cir-
cumstances. The report closes with a well merited expression of the desirableness of
securing, if possible, the services of a zealous, able, industrious and disinterested natu-
ralist upon the spot, and yet purposes to fetter him with rules, which I fear might
damp his ardour and circumscribe his usefulness, without any commensurate benefit
to the institution, or perhaps alienate him altogether from a situation which he is
well qualified to adorn.
The report proposes the consideration of the subject entirely on abstract principles,
without reference to individual fitness here, or convenience of availing ourselves of
such at once; but sincerely believing, as I do, that the readiest practicable plan is to
avail ourselves of the intellectual means at hand, rather than incur the delay of wait-
ing for remote and uncertain materials, I am averse to the adoption of rules which I
fear may deprive us of Dr. M‘CLELLAND’s services.
The three suggestions contained in the opening paragraph of the report appear to me
objectionable, for the reasons to be stated as I proceed. Ist. I would not tie down
Dr. M‘CLELLAND (supposing him ready to undertake the office of Curator) to two
hours daily iz the Museum. Though it is not unlikely that at an average Dr.
M‘CLELLAND would devote so much time to the duties of the Museum,—yet I conceive
that the precise locality of duties bearing in the Museum, is of less importance than
their being essentially well produced and looked after, not merely 77 the Museum, but
out of it; since Dr. M‘CLELLAND might labour very usefully for the Museum in his own
house, without ascrupulous and inconvenient measuring of time within the walls of the
Museum; and if left to himself might occasionally extend to more even than two hours.
2nd. Monthly reports for some time to come would almost entirely be confined to me-
chanical arrangement. Quarterly or half yearly reports, I conceive, would answer every
useful purpose, and give less trouble. Let the Committee of Papers be a Committee of
Management, and by frequent visits to the Museum obviate any tendency to inaction on
the part of the Curator. 3rd. The non-removal under any circumstances of articles
from the Museum, would impose a tantalizing restriction. A Museum, especially in In-
dia, is not the most favourable place for making minute observations, or recording results
and circumstances. There may be several articles that the Curator would like oc-
casionally to carry home, to examine quietly in the privacy of his own study; and [
should be sorry to cramp any Curator’s convenience by depriving him of this indulgence.
To insist upon it, would be like the rule that holds in some libraries, that books should
be looked at, only on the premises. That rule may be a very proper one in Europe,
but I do not think it at present applicable here. Apply the same rule to nu-
mismatology, and it would be found very prejudicial. Had it been strictly acted upon
in that branch, I question whether Dr. Witson and Mr. J. Prinsep (the latter
especially) would have effected such splendid results. Neither would I pay our Cura-
tor the bad compliment of implying, by such a restriction, that he would not take proper
care of specimens. Instead of this, I would permit him to carry away what specimens
he required, for a reasonable time ; the vacant space being occupied with a card or half
sheet of paper, bearing the number and character of the article, and the date at which
it was borrowed, with the words, ‘taken by Curator.”
1064 Asiatic Society. [ Dec.
Quite concurring in that part of the report, which states that the Curator’s great
object should be generalisation of several subjects, and not special devotion to minute
observation of a sub-division, yet as I conceive that the two objects are perfectly
reconcilable, I have no doubt that Dr. M‘CLELLaNnp would pay due attention to
both ; neither do I imagine that the claims of speedy and effectual mechanical arrange-
ment would at all suffer in the hands of Dr. M‘CLELLAND, or take up so much time,
as the proposal to tie down that gentleman’s passing two hours daily in the Museum,
would seem to indicate. In conclusion, as far preferable to the plan of sending in
three months to Europe for a Curator, and procuring one who after his arrival in
India would very likely become discontented at finding himself tied down for five years
upon a salary which may sound imposing in Europe, but would be only a pittance for
a man of education in India, and scarcely upon a par with the pay of some mechanics,
I would prefer closing for a twelvemonth with Dr. M‘CLELuanz, or with any other
qualified gentleman in India, to whom’ such a limited salary might be an object—
should the conditions of offering the situation to the former be such as to make him
decline it. J. GRANT.
Calcutta, 15th Feb. 1840.
To J. C. C. SurHeriLanp, Ese. anp Dr. O’SHAUGHNESSY,
Officiating Secretaries of the Asiatic Society.
GENTLEMEN,—I was favoured on the 19th with your letter of the 17th inst. iaclosing
a copy of a report of the Committee of Papers as to the manner in which the duties of
the office of Curator to the Asiatic Society’s Museum are in future to be conducted,
and calling upon me rather prematurely to decide as to whether I can accept the
office under such circumstances or not.
It appears to me that before my decision could be of any avail, the rules proposed by
the Committee should be passed into law, and authorised by competent authorities.
For my own part, I conceive the rules to be altogether vexatious, and so little calcula-
ted to promote the interests of the Museum, that I feel assured they will never be sanc-
tioned.
2. In the next place, when the funds of the Society were inadequate to defray the
expense of the usual salary, the Museum was just as valuable as it is now, and yet the
duties were entirely left to me without restriction; but no sooner was the grant of an
adequate allowance made by the liberality of the Government, than all became Cura-
tors; and I was supposed to be no longer competent to hold the office except under
stipulations quite unheard of, in similar cases.
3. In vain did I even agree to the required stipulations in the sense in which those
who proposed them, explained at the last Meeting of the Society that they were intend-
ed to apply, for as one scruple was removed, a new one was suggested,* as if either to
* Although I am the only officer of the Society who has but one other office to at-
tend to, yet one of the first obstacles suggested was, that I had not time enough to de-
vote to the duties, and although the officer who suggested this holds four or five ap-
pointments and is still a candidate for as many more as he can secure, he has time
enough withal to know more of my business than I know myself.f (Dr. M‘Clelland’s
note. )
+ Dr. M‘Clelland forgets that he holds, or did then hold, three offices. Namely, Deputy Apothecary ;
Assistant Opium Examiner ; and Secretary to the Coal and Iron Committee—all salaried appoint-
ments ;—a short time before this discussion he was salaried Curator to the Museum also, to whieh he
had no objection to-be re-appointed. The first of the appointments above mentioned requires actual
attendance at office from eleven to four daily. —Eps.
1839. ] Asiatic Society. 1065
drive me out of office, or reduce the situation to a state of dependance quite incom-
patible with the responsibility attached to it,
It is also to be recollected, that the very first intimation I had of the liberality of
the Government, in granting an allowance for the situation I held, was accompanied
with a proposition to provide another in my place.
4. As the report proposes to have framed the duties of the office to which such new
pecuniary interest is attached, on the established usage of other Museums, I must be
permitted to point out the error into which the Rapporteur seems to have fallen.
5. The Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London is placed under a
Board of Curators, over which the Members of the College have no authority. I allude
to this Museum as one in which the Government have an interest, and in all other
Museums to the support of which the Government contribute, the Curators are equally
independent. This Board may not only cut and dissect the specimens in such manner
as may be deemed essential, but may send them to lapidaries and others to do the
same; and Mr. Clift as well as Mr. Owen may make use of the results, the same as if
they had been derived from their own private specimens.
6. The Museum at the India House is placed entirely, I believe, in the hands of its
keeper, who may not only make such use of his descriptions of the objects contained in
it as he conceives most likely to promote the ends of science, but exhibit those objects
when necessary to the Societies of the metropolis.
7. Can the Committee of Papers reconcile this, with the stipulations they require
from their Curator? e. g. ‘‘ that all memoirs or papers* drawn up by the Curator for
publication, as well as plates, models, &c. on subjects he may have investigated in the
discharge of his duties, should, in the first instance, be placed at the disposal of the
Committee of Papers; also, that all proofs of such papers pass through the inspection
of the same body.’’ ‘The reason assigned for this very modest stipulation is perfectly
ludicrous, and shows how unfit the Committee is to legislate in such matters, namely,
that of a “‘fly-leaf having been prefixed without their knowledge or sanction to the
last volume of Transactions. Although containing nothing from which the Committee
would dissent, the precedent is one they are desirous of avoiding.”’
8. The Committee of Papers should surely have been aware that it is the Secretary,
and not the Curator, who must be held answerable for irregularities of this kind, and
yet the odd remedy they would apply is, that of depriving the Curator of the literary
property that every one has a right to enjoy in his own free labours. How that could
keep <‘ fly leaves’’ out of the Transactions, I am quite at a loss to know.f
9. As the Committee do not profess to think much of ‘‘the elaborate investigation of
a group or family,’’ we cannot be surprised that they should not be disposed to encourage
such a waste of time ; and hence the clause preventing the removal of objects of Natu-
* The only literary work a Curator is expected to perform in the execution of his
duty is the preparation of a catalogue of the collection under his charge. Whether
that be a memoir or a paper I must leave to the /ega/ learning of those who would draw
the distinction. Even with regard to a catalogue, I would advise the Committee to
imitate the Council of the Zoological Society of London, and declare, that they do not
** hold themselves responsible for the nomenclature, and opinions expressed in this
publication,’ i. e. the catalogue. (Dr. M‘Clelland’s note. )
_ + The proof of the very unusual “ fly leaf’’ alluded to, and which contained a glow-
ing panegyric on the Bishop’s College printing Press, was never sent to the
Secretaries for inspection.—Eps.
1066 Asiatic Society. [ Dec.
ral History from the Museum. Why, it was only at the last meeting’of the British
Association, that Dr. Buckland announced the intention of Messrs. Hutton and Hen-
slow to continue the fossil flora of Great Britain, and of their requiring “ the oan of
specimens from the Geological Society, which would be carefully returned after draw-
ings had been made of them.”
10. Again, the Committee require that all correspondence connected with the
Museum should pass through the Secretaries office, ‘in conformity with the practice of
all similar institutions.”? Here the Committee no doubt evince the same intimate
knowledge of the practice of other institutions, asin the instances already referred to.
It does not appear to have occurred to the Committee, that the Curator being a
naturalist, can have little correspondence not connected with the Museum, so that to
comply with this rule, he should require his friends to address him through the Secre-
tary.
2»
11. The Committee say, ‘our collection of minerals is an utter chaos,”’ a statement
which is not the fact, for they are all arranged; a Committee that would lay down rules
for the direction of a Curator ought to know the difference between minerals and rocks.
‘Though rich,’’ say this Committee, in ‘“‘ anonymous specimens valuable in themselves
as illustrations of abstract mineralogy, but devoid of interest in a geological or geo-
graphical light, owing to the neglect with which they have been treated, &c.”” We
can easily understand that the Committee may have been ignorant of the names of
many minerals in the collection, especially as they do not seem to know the difference
between minerals and rocks, but it does not follow that such minerals are “‘anonymous ;’”
in fact the use of the term, as the Committee have applied it, evinces a total want of
information on the subject ; a mineral is not anonymous because it is without a label,
any more than a man would be so when without a card in his pocket, with his name
written on it. A person acquainted with either minerals or men will always know them’
whether labelled or not.* Yet this is the Committee who are ready to take the manage-
ment of the Museum into their own hands, and as they say themselves, examine the
claims of such candidates as may offer for the Curatorship within a period of three
months.
12. ‘* It appears,”’ they say, *‘ that the first object of the Society in remodelling the
Museum, should be to form a grand collection of minerals and fossils, illustrative of
the geology, geography, and paleontology of our British Indian possessions.”” ‘This
sounds well, but we are at a loss to know how minerals and fossils could illustrate
geography, and had always supposed that paleontology was merely a branch of
geology ; but perhaps the Committee intend to remodel the Sciences as well as the
Museum. ‘* Afewewisting minerals’? (could there be any other kind) ? This is the
report of a Committee of Papers of a learned Society, claiming an authority quite
unprecedented over the labours of others, it is therefore of importance before their
claims be sanctioned, to see how far the scientific character of the Society would be
safe in their hands) ‘‘ and some superb fossils in our Museum are available for this
* This passage is quite explanatory of the views on which the writer acts, and of those
by which the Committee of Papers are led.—As Dr. M‘Clelland knows every mineral
a glance, he thinks that quite sufficient. The Committee desire the novice to be sup-
plied with the means of acquiring a little of their Curator’s knowledge. As to the
quibble regarding rocks and minerals, if Dr. M‘Clelland knew the difference between
a class and an order, he would be aware that every rock is a mineral, though every
mineral is not a rock,—Eps.
_- a
1839. | Asiatic Society. 1067
object,” i. e. for making a grand collection, but as the things in question are already in
the Museum, they are not merely “‘ available’’ for the object in view, but constitute
so much of the object itself already accomplished.
13. The Comihittee continue, ‘‘ while waiting for these additions to our collection,
he,” the Curator, ‘should proceed to label these already in our possession.’’ It is
within the recollection of the Society, that I stated eight months ago, that I could do
nothing with the geological collection until cabinets were first provided : these were
accordingly sanctioned by the Society, but ordered by the Secretary from a native for
less than he could afford to provide them for, the consequence is, that they still remain
unfinished.* This is an instance of the ill effects of leaving the Curator dependant
on the Secretary, or any one else, for things on which his own work depends ; and as
the circumstance is brought forward rather unfairly in the report of the Committee,
I must be permitted to say, that had any member of that body required an easy chair,
we may presume he would have obtained it at once, from the best cabinet maker, cost
what it might.
14. There is but one name attached to the report which can be at all held responsi-
ble in a scientific point of view for the sentiments embodied in it, and although Dr.
Watticu may fairly be exonerated as any great authority on the subject of Museums,
yet his own experience ought to have suggested the difficulty of making monthly
reports on subjects connected with Natural History, he himself finding a single report
too much to accomplish in the five years, that have now elapsed since his return from
Assam.
15. From what has taken place on this subject, I have been induced to refer to the
rules of various Societies and Museums, in hopes of finding some rules laid down for
the duties of Curators. You will doubtless be very much surprised to learn, that
though in all cases the duties of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries are strictly
laid down in bye-laws, yet Curators alone appear to be the only officers who are left
altogether to conduct their duties according to the best of their judgment and ac-
quirements. Were they not the chief authority in all things on which the advance-
ment, arrangement, and preservation of collections of Natural History depend, how
could they be held responsible for their charge ?
16. The antiquities may be safely left, as far as their ‘‘ preservation ’’ is concerned,
to the “‘ honorary services of the oriental secretary, the librarian, and pundits,’’ but
the natural history and geological departments must be left to a naturalist and
geologist, for whose services the Society can have no security beyond his own reputa-
tion. Nothing could show the necessity of this more than the present attempt to
reduce the Curator from that honorable and independent station which he fills in
civilized countries, to a state of dependence on the caprice of Committees.
I have the honor to be,
Gentlemen,
Your most obedient servant,
J. M‘CLELLAND.
28th Feb. 1840.
* Here Dr. M‘Clelland is in ignorance of the facts, and consequently makes errone-
ous statements.—Eps.
1068 Asiatic Society. LDec.
The reading of Dr. M‘Clelland’s letter occasioned much amusement, and called forth
some very pointed remarks from the President, Sir Edward Ryan; the Honorable
~ Messrs. H.T. Prinsep and Wilberforce Bird; Mr. Torrens, and others. Messrs. Curnin
and Bagshaw suggested that the consideration of the Report be postpohed to the next
Meeting, but both these gentlemen at the same time disclaimed any defence of the
terms and tone of Dr. M‘Clelland’s letter.
It was than moved by Mr. Bird, seconded by Mr. Piddington, and carried with but two
dissentient voices, that the report be adopted, and that the Committee of Papers be em-
powered to act on the views it contains. *
* We are in possession of accurate reports of the observations made by the speakers
on this occasion. We refrain from their insertion from motives which, 1n all probabi-
lity, will be thoroughly mistaken by Dr. M‘Clelland and his friends.—Eps.
§
9
Agar. VIL—M ic gis ,
eteovologicul Register, hept at the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, for the Month of Iebruary, 1840. 1069
Minimum Temperature observe
nimum Temperature observed Maximum Pressure observed Re
: : agin 50 Mr: Observations made at Apparent Noon
z : Temperature. |Wind > | ‘Temperature, |W. % : —
E ‘ . : : Z P re. ind, 2 Temperature. /Wind., c -
. 2 - z 2 [ : | c
2)@ | 3 2/2 |Fs! g 2 ge le lBe 3 2 | z
a Py z hey s S| 4 g| 3 S Es a 2
Si < |g Sele eels Si 2 [eel ¢ lae| = 3 3 pele 3 :
> || 2 212 [23] 2 z alge] 3 25] = 3 a |ge = Ee
B Bis 3 lag 2 2 2 25/3/82] 3 2S B iq'3) 3 3 =
Peis leas ec lealeia | mea 4 2 6. eiseles z Z 5 : :
co f=] a a (6 16 A =
= = Pe '2 | a =
—— <
1 66,8) 60,0) 59,5|Catm. |ci a2
1 56,8] 60,0) 59,5|Calm. |Cirro-strati. 3,0174,1} 70,0 a
ile 8f.7| 61,3] B08 Calm, [Scattered Clouds zou, clea, 720) 9600) THON. <2) lean Gala ol seal rel lots
i §| 64,5] 58,0] 57,9| Calm. |Clear. dsl Zee] ssl. alGheae (opted a eva Cea
4 64.3980) 97,9/Calm. |Clear, 0,5) 76,8] 68,5|e. b, n:{Clear. ‘021 74.9] 81'4| 70.0\wnws| Cleat
6 fo] 69.5 | ul 63: 9l Galen: [Cloudy CO 1000] 71,6] 74,0] 72,0, N..|Gloudy and Misty ao acl eal eae lene
ee ea reenmeamm Pe be Dc a
7|73,0| 70,5) 71,0|N. E./Cl a; | 510} 25) a etoue 13] 749181 ~ 2 }Gumunt™ det
3) beRIRISREUR ERPurretar [ale MaMa Sie fala rtay, elelar ata
11, 12|Calm. |Cloudy (Cirro Curauli ae al aaol eseiN. lain 30,069] 73,9] 78,2 ‘b.n,|Clear er
Ww 14,8163. 612} Calm |Cloudy (Cirro Cau) ,030] 72,2] 72,2] 66,5|N. °7|Cloudy. MoGo| 73.61 79,0| OSI. ioe
i En a3OlN. Ginostrat “iso F1'3] 45101 SIN Bee 050 i ee N._E,|Cloudy, Cirro Cumuli.
it CeElGem: [Gres Cumuliinterspd. zen. | 70221 732] 61.0] 12;elenebe' lores 136) 73:4 8.474 Lins bale Bee
i mole, pis zen. [02 7421810) 72 3|enons Ciro Cumuli and Ciro-strat, | MF 75,5)81,0| 78,0|W.. ss | Generally Clear
E ( aus hes 3 Hy . le ar. 2 , Ww. clear:
Blo 7 2}Calmn. Dons og. 9,38 75,9|s.b. w.{Generally Clear. wrie ou elee'olFasls: WG ;
u 68,0l Calm. {Cloudy (Cire Cumuli.) Fore RON, (Riou Bs] a bs ener
H 880/Calm. (Clow ; 78,5|8. _..|A few scattered Clouds. Seta FSIS. es aceraly, Clear
i eof Calm, (Clear AON, Wille lero iS. _..|A few scattered Clouds.
2 62,0|Calm. |Clear. 72,0|N. W. |Clear. 3188.5) S2IN, W.| Chan
ut 630)Calm. [Clear 69,3|N. W.|Clear. Biol FLOW. vlorean
2 65,5|Calm, |Clear. Sache ieee ha TBIN. W.lChear
i thous cl B9SIN. lear 86,2) 73,91N. W|Clear-
a 0} 69,0| Calm. |Cloudy and fe 733 72018, W [cea
2 | ¢ y and foggy gitol gerolW. cloneas
19) 78,9 W. ..|Clear
2 zal:
Fi * f A
29 ,
Cloudy and foggy.
Mean, 29,970] 71,3) 64,6 64,9 | ; Fer} =a
|4.6, 64, 7020) 74,5| 78,8) 72,9 001) 76,7| 83,0)
Maximum Temperature observed _
ulemaeretir Minimum Pressure, observed
= Be ; ne Observations made at Sun-set, fare
‘Temperature. )3 ; = ‘Temper a ae iN tae ==
; : 4 emperature. | Wind, 2 Temperature. ; Wind.| a call 7.
e (2 |e les | g *g Aoi en S
= Fels igalte | = | : : . z aE le le 3
B ise) 3 (Es |fe4| = : : é E 2 Pel [Fe] g =
£ \2°|S |2a|ss2) & £ 3 a E 2 e ge] = (23| @ :
als |5\5 & a = @ ls ls \s7] 2 eI eels 3) 5 lez] & a g| 8
al 5 \Sis |a 3 Se ismiciicmie z =| §
eu o | ¢ ja 15 | oO |S A =
ie fe 77,0) 71,2) 102,0)N, Clear, 93: Palast ; : ==
4 3,8) 83,3] 72,9) 10Z1/N. .. 3 +932) 75,5) 76,5 [=
gal 73 7 ore] 70.3) 9g aN Wiig (i) 7.3 8 729 8: er. :Jetear
952] 73,2) 85/0/72) 1080] W.bN|Clear, 960) 73,9} 80,0] 6945|N. W [Clear 5 Clear
950] 74,0] 83,1) 75,1) 100.5] W:bN|Cirro-Cumul *930| 73,3] 84,2] 71,0 wnwbw| Clear. - {Clear
0] 763} x5.9] 77.8) Losls}w. Scattered Clout, 90) 701 $29) 75 018. W,|Ciro-stati eo trai
os ai a ie riba: We [Cloudy Cum. interspa. vst Pea BS ble eee str. on the Hor. elleienegrectaer (lta iaere
{(020] 75,8) &3,9] 75,0] 104,6]N. _.:|Clear, °$15) 78.0} 846) 75,5). «Clear. clipe ee. E Col
jl sla) 13.0) HOLD). oar *845] 780) 846) 75.51N. <.\Clear. -& 8. E, Cumulo|
29/948) 169] 64.9] 75,0| OLOIN, V:|Giero Strat 230] 746] 780] 0'1|N. W. [Ceeostat IEE aes
eames 22) uy lore Cha eal Sa aa Wea [ere temp fa
7950) 76,4) 83,3] 76,2) 104,0|W. < Clear - 0/86,0/78,8)N. ..|Light Cirro-strati iat -|Cirro-str, intersped. zen.
*S30| 79.3 80,91770) 1U5,81W. --|A few Cum. detached. eA VAEANE sc a eared tous en en.
, ,0) 89,2) 77, ,2|S. W. Z ; 0] 88) aa ‘Jere
SAIS) Ma Wy (eee ail eaaeb alder eters
sly 799] e773] tals NEN: Cla “$8079, 31 863 TA7]N- W [clear ir
969] 78,0| 88,0] 74,2 : Rete , | Clea
aolooo] 778] 975733] losin: W:lolees tial 2) 705) NW Bea
pO eS az a ADS IN NY: ese 962] 7715] 86,8] 73,0|N. W.|Clear
29982] 40,4) 91;2} 80,0] 109,2| W ° “9147701 83.5] 725] NW [Chen 3
i SolW. 2 1lClear, Belgas eae tee W. |Clear. 82,8)
eee +960] 80,0] 88,2] 79\5|W. .{|Clear. 83,7)
wW. sli
ON. AN 0
es ,0}8. b,
77518.
Mean,| 941] 78,1)86,3175,6 103,8| 75,4
3,1] 86,31 \ | 1915. 77,5|89,4| 75,4] ee | 5
fees | ,929) 76,2] 80,3] 73,0)
wr
=
SSNS :
SS heer
ESET Ee
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‘“" ge. Pie aoe hat
Be eic ch
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at
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two ex,
Page.
Aerolite, presented to the Society,
Note on an .... aiiats aie
Affghanistan, Objects of research in
Affghanistan and the Neighbouring
Countries, Memoir on the Cli-
mate, Soil, Produce and Husban-
dary of .. 745, 779, 869,
Alexander the Great’s exploits on
the Western Banks of the Indus,
Arctonix Collaris, or Sand Hog,
Note on the dissection of the ....
Arsenical Poisons, On the detection
10) e@eeo e@eoee
Assam, Extracts from the Narrative
of an expedition into the Naga
terntory,of .... mhelere cose
Astronomical Instrument, presented
by Ram Sing of Khota, to the
Government of India, Description
ofan .. esee ecee coco
Azimghur, Report on the settlemen
of the ceded District of cece
Birds, Distribution of European ..
Birds, Two new species of Meruline
Bora Chung, or Ground Fish of
Bootan, Note on the .... sie sls
Burke’s, Dr., Report on the value
of Life among H. M’s. troops in
India, 2400 Craieie aieieia
Burmese Drama, translated by J.
Smith, Esq., Specimen of the ....
Camel Draught to Carriages, Docu-
ments relative to the application of
Camel Litters for the Wounded,
Note on ecee ones cece
Coal and Iron Mines of Talcheer and
Ungool, &c. &c., Report on the ..
Coal Field of Tenasserim, Papers re-
lative tothe New...
Coel, and on the discovery of Isin-_
glass, Note on the habits of the ..
Copper Mine in Kumaon, Report on
the progress made up to the Ist
May 1839, in opening the experi-
mental Jodie ate cies
Extracts from the Mohit (the ocean)
a Turkish work on Navigation in
the Indian seas, .. ee Baia
Fissirostral Tribe, A new genus of the
Fossil Shells found in the Saugor
and Nerbudda territories, Fifteen
varieties of .... aielele cece
Fossil Sites, on the Nerbudda, Note
On various .... dace sei
Gale and Hurricane in the Bay of
Bengal on the 3rd, 4th, and 5th of
June 1839, Researches on the 559,
145
1005
304
408
147
445
47)
823
30
708
950
631
Page.
Geographic distribution of the Vul- |
turide, Falconide, and Strigide, 321
Geology, &c., of the country between
Bhar and Simla, Remarks on the 1037
Gold Dust and Diamonds at Heera ‘
Khoond, Note on the process of
washing for the Selec eoee LOOT
Grammar of the Pashtoo, or Aff-
ghanee language, A ..c- eons 1
Grant engraved on Copper, found at
Kumbhi in the Saugor Territory,
Notice ofa .... eves oeee 481
Gunpowder under water, by the Gal-
vanic Battery, Memorandum on
the Explosion of S008 cose S01
Hatching, Egyptian system of Arti-
ficial .. eee cece anne Bs)
Hindoos, Statistical record of the du-
ration of diseases in 13,019 fatal
cases in Reece “@ooe ecce 316
Hindoo Females, Note by Dr. Kean
of Moorshedabad, on Dr. Stewart’s
Table of Mortality among .... 704
Hodgson, Mr., on Cuculus, ecicie, LOG
Indian Cyprinide, Extracts from the
As. Res. vol. xix. Part ii.on .... 600
Indian Hemp or Gunjah, Extract
from a Memoir on the prepara-
tions of the Bea AbSO , 838
Iron ore of the district of Burdwan,
Note on the smelting of the .... 683
Isinglass in Polynemus sele, Buch., 203
Journey to Beylah, Account ofa .. 184
Journal of the Mission which visited
Bootan, in 1837-38, .... , 2ol
Journey from Calcutta to Sumbul-
pir, and from thence to Medniptr
through the Forests of Orissa, Ac-
count of a eee 307, 474, 606, 671
Journal of a trip through Kunawur,
Hungrung, and Spiti, undertaken
in the year 1838, coos seen UL
Journal of a Mission from the Su-
preme Government of India to the ;
Court of Siam.. aiuiera gece, LOLG
Mahimnastava, or a Hymn to Shi-
va, The cease ales Ps oid)
March between Mhow and Saugor, ae
Mechis, together with a Small Voca-
bulary of the Language, Note on
the. as aisine aiteis seve Gee
Medicine in Egypt, Memoir on the
Regeneration and actual state of 393
Meteorological Table, 76, 158, 250,
346, 442, 443, 444, 621, 692, 777,
Se eases ever 1069
1072
Index.
Page.
Middleton, Mr., on the Meteors of
August 10th, 1839, .... sees
Musk (Mochus ) inhabiting the Hi-
malayan districts, On three new
species of .... coe pees
Museum of the As. Soc., Report on
e eeooeo eeeoe 2e@ecece
Museum of the As. Soc., Memoranda
on the wields aeee cose
Museum of the As. Soc.,’? Obser-
vations on the ‘“‘ Report on the..
Nizamut Palace of Moorshedabad,
Extracts from the official records,
with descriptive details regarding
the New. ase ee <idds
Notice of an Inscription on a Slab
discovered in Bundelkhund, ....
Notice of Inscriptions in Behar,
Notices, Pee scbierd éxinlip
Oils of Jasmine and Bela, Note to
the Editors on the Native mode of
preparing the perfumed “a '9ie
Otter, Summary description of four
new species of.. - sa Oe
Pillar found in the Ganges near
Pubna, and of another at Kurra
near Allahabad, Note ona ....
Plates of Hindu Architectural re-
mains, Proposed publication of ..
Prefatory Notice, eee oeios
Proceedings of the Asiatic Society,
72, 150, 245, 341, 429, 4382, 433,
926, 687, 863, 993, .... acl
495
202
241
4)5
Al9
1059
P
Rain and Drought of the last Hight
seasons in India, Remarks upon the
River Goomtee, Note on the ae
Roses and the Manufacture of Rose-
water and Uttur at Ghazeepore, On
the Cultivation of .... keine
Sanscrit Inscription on the Slab re-
moved from above the Kothoutiya
- gate of the Fort Rohtas, ee
Scapes of Xanthorhzea and _ Fossil
Stems of Lapidodendra, Note on
Sisupala Badha, or death of Sisupala
by Magha, .... Ar a He
Tamba Patra Plates dug up at Ba-
roda, in Goojrat, Account of ....
Tea, and on the extent and produce
of the Tea Plantations in Assam,
Report on the Manufacture of... .-
Telegraph Signals by induced Elec-
tricity, Memorandum relative to
experiments on the communication
0. eeeoe eeee eeoee
Tenasserim—the surrounding Na-
tions—Inhabitants, Natives and
Foriegners—Character, Morals,
and Religion, Third Report on ..
Trochilus and Crocodile of Herodo-
tus, Note on the oaths Saini
Varnish Tree, Observations on the
Burmese and Munipoor re
Wells, &c. in Foundations ; as prac-
tised by the Natives of the North-
ern Doab, On the use of
327
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